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IronFleet Twocol PDF
IronFleet Twocol PDF
Peak throughput
1000 50
(kilo reqs/sec)
IronRSL Redis
Baseline 40
100 IronRSL (Batch) 30
Baseline (Batch) 20
Latency
(ms) 10
10
128B 1KB 8KB 128B 1KB 8KB
1 Get Set
10 20 30 40 50
Figure 14. IronKV’s performance is competitive with Redis, an
Throughput (kilo reqs/s)
unverified key-value store. Results averaged over 3 trials.
Figure 13. IronRSL’s performance is competitive with an unveri-
fied baseline. Results averaged over 3 trials.
aboard developers unfamiliar with writing verified code. Most
In exchange for this effort, IronFleet produces a provably developers would prefer to use a language like C++, so
correct implementation with desirable liveness properties. In- enabling that is an important topic of future work.
deed, except for unverified components like our C# client, §7.2 shows that while our systems achieve respectable
both IronRSL (including replication, view changes, log trun- performance, they do not yet match that of the unverified
cation, batching, etc.) as well as IronKV (including delegation baselines. Some of that gap stems directly from our use of
and reliable delivery) worked the first time we ran them. verification. Verifying mutable data structures is challenging
(§6.2), and our measurements indicate that this is a significant
7.2 Performance of Verified Distributed Systems
bottleneck for our code. The baselines we compare against
A reasonable criticism of any new toolchain focused on veri- have been highly optimized; we have also optimized our
fication is that its structure might impair runtime efficiency. code, but each optimization must be proven correct. Hence,
While we focus most of our energy on overcoming verifica- given a fixed time budget, IronFleet will likely produce fewer
tion burdens, we also try to produce viable implementations. optimizations. IronFleet also pays a penalty for compiling to
Our IronRSL experiments run three replicas on three C#, which imposes run-time overhead to enforce type safety
separate machines, each equipped with an Intel Xeon L5630 on code that provably does not need it.
2.13 GHz processor and 12 GB RAM, connected over a More fundamentally, aiming for full verification makes
1 Gbps network. Our IronKV experiments use two such it challenging to reuse existing libraries, e.g., for optimized
machines connected over a 10 Gbps network. packet serialization. Before our previous [21] and current
IronRSL. Workload is offered by 1–256 parallel client work (§5.3), Dafny had no standard libraries, necessitating
threads, each making a serial request stream and measur- significant work to build them; more such work lies ahead.
ing latency. As an unverified baseline, we use the MultiPaxos While our systems are more full-featured than previous
Go-based implementation from the EPaxos codebase [15, 45] work (§9), they still lack many standard features offered by
For both systems, we use the same application state machine: the unverified baselines. Some features, such as reconfigu-
it maintains a counter and it increments the counter for every ration in IronRSL, only require additional developer time.
client request. Figure 13 summarizes our results. We find that Other features require additional verification techniques; e.g.,
IronRSL’s peak throughput is within 2.4× of the baseline. post-crash recovery requires reasoning about the effects of
IronKV. To measure the throughput and latency of IronKV, machine crashes that wipe memory but not disk.
we preload the server with 1000 keys, then run a client with In future work, we aim to mechanically verify our reduc-
1–256 parallel threads; each thread generates a stream of Get tion argument and prove that our implementation run its main
(or Set) requests in a closed loop. As an unverified baseline, loop in bounded time [2], never exhausts memory, and never
we use Redis [57], a popular key/value store written in C reaches its overflow-prevention limit under reasonable condi-
and C++, with the client-side write buffer disabled. For both tions, e.g., if it never performs more than 264 operations.
systems, we use 64-bit unsigned integers as keys and byte
arrays of varying sizes as values. Figure 14 summarizes our 9. Related Work
results. We find that IronKV’s performance is competitive
9.1 Protocol Verification
with that of Redis.
As a final note, in all our experiments the bottleneck was Distributed system protocols are known to be difficult to
the CPU (not the memory, disk, or network). design correctly. Thus, a systems design is often accompanied
by a formal English proof of correctness, typically relegated
8. Discussion and Future Work to a technical report or thesis. Examples include Paxos [55],
§7.1 shows that in exchange for strong guarantees (which the BFT protocol for Byzantine fault tolerance [6, 7], the
depend on several assumptions, per §2.5), IronFleet requires reconfiguration algorithm in SMART [23, 41], Raft [49, 50],
considerably more developer effort. Furthermore, in our Zookeeper’s consistent broadcast protocol Zab [28, 29],
experience, there is a distinct learning curve when bringing Egalitarian Paxos [44, 45], and the Chord DHT [62, 63].
However, paper proofs, no matter how formal, can con- correctness, but not liveness, with the NuPRL prover [10].
tain errors. Zane showed that the “provably correct” Chord However, they do not verify the state machine replication
protocol, when subjected to Alloy abstract model checking, layer of this Paxos implementation, only the consensus
maintains none of its published invariants [71]. Thus, some re- algorithm, ignoring complexities such as state transfer. They
searchers have gone further and generated machine-checkable also make unclear assumptions about network behavior. In
proofs. Kellomäki created a proof of the Paxos consensus pro- contrast to our methodology, which exploits multiple levels
tocol checked in PVS [30]. Lamport’s TLAPS proof system of abstraction and refinement, the EventML approach posits
has been used to prove safety, but not liveness, properties of a language below which all code generation is automatic, and
the BFT protocol [38]. In all such cases, the protocols proven above which a human can produce a one-to-one refinement.
correct have been much smaller and simpler than ours. For It is unclear if this approach will scale up to more complex
instance, Kellomäki’s and Lamport’s proofs concerned single- and diverse distributed systems.
instance Paxos and BFT, which make only one decision total. In concurrent work, Wilcox et al. [67, 68] propose Verdi,
a compiler-inspired approach to building verified distributed
9.2 Model Checking
system implementations. With Verdi, the developer writes
Model checking exhaustively explores a system’s state space, and proves her system correct in Coq using a simplified
testing whether a safety property holds in every reachable environment (e.g., a single-machine system with a perfectly
state. This combinatorial exploration requires that the system reliable network). Verdi’s verified system transformers then
be instantiated with finite, typically tiny, parameters. As convert the developer’s implementation into an equivalent
a result, a positive result provides only confidence, not implementation that is robust in a more hostile environment;
proof of safety; furthermore, that confidence depends on the their largest system transformer is an implementation of Raft
modeler’s wisdom in parameter selection. Model checking that adds fault tolerance. Compared with IronFleet, Verdi
has been applied to myriad systems including a Python offers a cleaner approach to composition. Unlike IronRSL,
implementation of Paxos [26]; Mace implementations of a at present Verdi’s Raft implementation does not support
variety of distributed systems [31]; and, via MODIST [69], verified marshalling and parsing, state transfer, log truncation,
unmodified binaries of Berkeley DB, MPS Paxos, and the dynamic view-change timeouts, a reply cache, or batching.
PacificA primary-backup replication system. Also, Verdi does not prove any liveness properties.
Model checking scales poorly to complex distributed
specs [4]. Abstract interpretation can help with such scal- 10. Conclusion
ing but does not fundamentally eliminate model checking’s
The IronFleet methodology slices a system into specific lay-
limitations. For instance, Zave’s correction to Chord uses the
ers to make verification of practical distributed system im-
Alloy model checker but only to partially automate the proof
plementations feasible. The high-level spec gives the sim-
of a single necessary invariant [72].
plest description of the system’s behavior. The protocol
9.3 System Verification layer deals solely with distributed protocol design; we con-
The recent increase in the power of software verification has nect it to the spec using TLA+ [36] style verification. At
emboldened several research groups to use it to prove the the implementation layer, the programmer reasons about a
single-host program without worrying about concurrency.
correctness of entire systems implementations. seL4 is a mi-
Reduction and refinement tie these individually-feasible
crokernel written in C [32], with full functional correctness
proven using the Isabelle/HOL theorem prover. mCertiKOS- components into a methodology that scales to practically-
hyp [19] is a small verified hypervisor, whose verification in sized concrete implementations. This methodology admits
the Coq interactive proof assistant places a strong emphasis conventionally-structured implementations capable of pro-
on modularity and abstraction. ExpressOS [43] uses Dafny cessing up to 18,200 requests/second (IronRSL) and 28,800
requests/second (IronKV), performance competitive with un-
to sanity-check a policy manager for a microkernel. Our Iron-
verified reference implementations.
clad project [21] shows how to completely verify the security
of sensitive services all the way down to the assembly. Iron-
Fleet differs by verifying a distributed implementation rather
Acknowledgments
than code running on a single machine, and by verifying We thank Rustan Leino for not just building Dafny but also
liveness, as well as safety, properties. cheerfully providing ongoing guidance and support in improv-
Researchers have also begun to apply software verification ing it. We thank Leslie Lamport for useful discussions about
to distributed systems. Ridge [58] proves the correctness of refinement and formal proofs, particularly proofs of liveness.
a persistent message queue written in OCaml; however, his We thank Shaz Qadeer for introducing us to the power of
system is substantially smaller in scale than ours and has no reduction. We thank Andrew Baumann, Ernie Cohen, Galen
proven liveness properties. Hunt, Lidong Zhou, and the anonymous reviewers for useful
Schiper et al. [60] verify the correctness of a Paxos feedback. Finally, we thank our shepherd Jim Larus for his
implementation by building it in EventML [56] and proving interactive feedback that significantly improved the paper.
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