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Water quality – A review

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2nd International Symposium on Geosciences
(ISG2021)
1st April 2021
Proceeding Book
 WATER QUALITY – A REVIEW
Osama R. Shaltami1 and Ilas Bustany2
1Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Benghazi University, Libya
2Guanabara Bay Company, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Abstract
Water quality can be thought of as a measure of the
suitability of water for a particular use based on selected
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Water
quality is measured by several factors, such as the
concentration of dissolved oxygen, bacteria levels, the amount
of salt (or salinity), or the amount of material suspended in the
water (turbidity). In some bodies of water, the concentration of
microscopic algae and quantities of pesticides, herbicides,
heavy metals, and other contaminants may also be measured
to determine water quality. Although scientific measurements
are used to define water quality, it is not a simple thing to say
that water is good or that water is bad. So, the determination is
typically made relative to the purpose of the water – is it for
drinking or for irrigation or for some other purpose? Poor
water quality can pose a health risk for people. Poor water
quality can also pose a health risk for ecosystems.
Keywords: Water Quality, Geochemistry.
1. Introduction
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its
usage. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of
standards against which compliance, generally achieved
through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most
common standards used to monitor and assess water quality
convey the health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and
condition of drinking water. Water quality has a significant
impact on water supply and oftentimes determines supply
options (Bartram and Balance, 1996; Alley, 2000; Ahuja,
2009; Boyd, 2015).
The parameters for water quality are determined by the
intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be
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focused on water that is treated for potability,
industrial/domestic use, or restoration (of an
environment/ecosystem, generally for health of human/aquatic
life) (Ahuja, 2013; Shaltami et al., 2020).
2. Human Consumption
Contaminants that may be in untreated water include
microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa and bacteria;
inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic
chemical contaminants from industrial processes and
petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive
contaminants. Water quality depends on the local geology and
ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion,
industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and
overuse (which may lower the level of the water)
(International Water Resources Association, 1982). The
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits
the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by
US public water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act
authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards: 1) Primary
standards regulate substances that potentially affect human
health, and 2) Secondary standards prescribe aesthetic
qualities, those that affect taste, odor, or appearance. The U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations establish
limits for contaminants in bottled water. Drinking water,
including bottled water, may reasonably be expected to
contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. The
presence of these contaminants does not necessarily indicate
that the water poses a health risk. In urbanized areas around
the world, water purification technology is used in municipal
water systems to remove contaminants from the source water
(surface water or groundwater) before it is distributed to
homes, businesses, schools and other recipients. Water drawn
directly from a stream, lake, or aquifer and that has no
56
treatment will be of uncertain quality in terms of potability.
The burden of polluted drinking water disproportionally
effects under-represented and vulnerable populations (Katner
et al., 2018). Communities that lack these clean drinking-
water services are at risk of contracting water-borne and
pollution-related illnesses like Cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery,
hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio (Ingram, 2006; Salzman, 2013;
Levallois and Villanueva, 2019). These communities are often
in low-income areas, where human wastewater is discharged
into a nearby drainage channel or surface water drain without
sufficient treatment, or is used in agricultural irrigation
(Lazarova and Bahri, 2004; Ali, 2010; Majumdar, 2013).
3. Industrial and Domestic Use
Dissolved ions may affect the suitability of water for a
range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar
of these is probably the presence of calcium and magnesium
that interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form
hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or
boilers. Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The
softening process often substitutes sodium cations. For certain
populations, hard water may be preferable to soft water
because health problems have been associated with calcium
deficiencies and with excess sodium. The necessity for
additional calcium and magnesium in water depends on the
population in question because people generally satisfy their
recommended amounts through food (Titchener, 2014).
4. Environmental Water Quality
Environmental water quality, also called ambient water
quality, relates to water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and
oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters vary
significantly due to different environmental conditions,
ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic substances and
high populations of certain microorganisms can present a
health hazard for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation,
swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These
conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for
drinking or as a habitat. According to the EPA, water quality
laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational
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use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality
standards. There is some desire among the public to return
water bodies to pristine, or pre-industrial conditions. Most
current environmental laws focus on the designation of
particular uses of a water body. In some countries these
designations allow for some water contamination as long as
the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the
designated uses. Given the landscape changes (e.g., land
development, urbanization, clearcutting in forested areas) in
the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to
pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these
cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for
maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the
protection of populations of endangered species and protecting
human health (e.g., Maggi et al., 2008; Zhang, 2014; Liu et
al., 2020).
5. Measurements
The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in
the many types of measurements of water quality indicators.
Some measurements of water quality are most accurately
made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its
surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-site and in
direct contact with the water source in question include
temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen
reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth (Li
and Liu, 2018).
5.1. Sampling
More complex measurements are often made in a
laboratory requiring a water sample to be collected, preserved,
transported, and analyzed at another location. The process of
water sampling introduces two significant problems:
1) The first problem is the extent to which the sample may be
representative of the water source of interest. Water sources
vary with time and with location. The measurement of interest
may vary seasonally or from day to night or in response to
some activity of man or natural populations of aquatic plants
and animals. The measurement of interest may vary with
distances from the water boundary with overlying atmosphere
57
and underlying or confining soil. The sampler must determine
if a single time and location meets the needs of the
investigation, or if the water use of interest can be
satisfactorily assessed by averaged values of sampling over
time and location, or if critical maxima and minima require
individual measurements over a range of times, locations or
events. The sample collection procedure must assure correct
weighting of individual sampling times and locations where
averaging is appropriate. Where critical maximum or
minimum values exist, statistical methods must be applied to
observed variation to determine an adequate number of
samples to assess the probability of exceeding those critical
values (e.g., Nielsen and Nielsen, 2006; Li and Migliaccio,
2010).
2) The second problem occurs as the sample is removed from
the water source and begins to establish chemical equilibrium
with its new surroundings – the sample container. Sample
containers must be made of materials with minimal reactivity
with substances to be measured; and pre-cleaning of sample
containers is important. The water sample may dissolve part of
the sample container and any residue on that container, and
chemicals dissolved in the water sample may sorb onto the
sample container and remain there when the water is poured
out for analysis. Similar physical and chemical interactions
may take place with any pumps, piping, or intermediate
devices used to transfer the water sample into the sample
container. Water collected from depths below the surface will
normally be held at the reduced pressure of the atmosphere; so
gas dissolved in the water will collect at the top of the
container. Atmospheric gas above the water may also dissolve
into the water sample. Other chemical reaction equilibria may
change if the water sample changes temperature. Finely
divided solid particles formerly suspended by water turbulence
may settle to the bottom of the sample container, or a solid
phase may form from biological growth or chemical
precipitation. Microorganisms within the water sample may
biochemically alter concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and organic compounds. Changing carbon dioxide
concentrations may alter pH and change solubility of
chemicals of interest. These problems are of special concern
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during measurement of chemicals assumed to be significant at
very low concentrations (e.g., Nielsen and Nielsen, 2006; Li
and Migliaccio, 2010).
Sample preservation may partially resolve the second
problem. A common procedure is keeping samples cold to
slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change, and
analyzing the sample as soon as possible; but this merely
minimizes the changes rather than preventing them. A useful
procedure for determining influence of sample containers
during delay between sample collection and analysis involves
preparation for two artificial samples in advance of the
sampling event. One sample container is filled with water
known from previous analysis to contain no detectable amount
of the chemical of interest. This sample, called a blank, is
opened for exposure to the atmosphere when the sample of
interest is collected, then resealed and transported to the
laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample
collection or holding procedures introduced any measurable
amount of the chemical of interest. The second artificial
sample is collected with the sample of interest, but then spiked
with a measured additional amount of the chemical of interest
at the time of collection. The blank (negative control) and
spiked sample (positive control) are carried with the sample of
interest and analyzed by the same methods at the same times
to determine any changes indicating gains or losses during the
elapsed time between collection and analysis (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 2015).
5.2. Testing
After events such as earthquakes and tsunamis, there is an
immediate response by the aid agencies as relief operations get
underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide
the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and
subsequent recovery (Illangasekare et al., 2009). The threat of
disease increases hugely due to the large numbers of people
living close together, often in squalid conditions, and without
proper sanitation (Furusawa et al., 2008). After a natural
disaster, as far as water quality testing is concerned, there are
widespread views on the best course of action to take and a
58
variety of methods can be employed. The key basic water
quality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency
are bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination, free
chlorine residual, pH, turbidity and possibly conductivity/total
dissolved solids. There are many decontamination methods.
After major natural disasters, a considerable length of time
might pass before water quality returns to pre-disaster levels.
For example, following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami the
Colombo-based International Water Management Institute
(IWMI) monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that
the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one
and a half years after the event. IWMI developed protocols for
cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were
subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health
Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines
(WHO, 2018).
5.3. Chemical Analysis
The simplest methods of chemical analysis are those
measuring chemical elements without respect to their form.
Elemental analysis for oxygen (O), as an example, would
indicate a concentration of 890 g/L (grams per liter) of water
sample because oxygen has 89% mass of the water molecule
(H2O). The method selected to measure dissolved oxygen
should differentiate between diatomic oxygen and oxygen
combined with other elements. The comparative simplicity of
elemental analysis has produced a large amount of sample data
and water quality criteria for elements sometimes identified as
heavy metals. Water analysis for heavy metals must consider
soil particles suspended in the water sample. These suspended
soil particles may contain measurable amounts of metal.
Although the particles are not dissolved in the water, they may
be consumed by people drinking the water. Adding acid to a
water sample to prevent loss of dissolved metals onto the
sample container may dissolve more metals from suspended
soil particles. Filtration of soil particles from the water sample
before acid addition, however, may cause loss of dissolved
metals onto the filter. The complexities of differentiating
similar organic molecules are even more challenging. Making
these complex measurements can be expensive. Because direct
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measurements of water quality can be expensive, ongoing
monitoring programs are typically conducted and results
released by government agencies. However, there are local
volunteer programs and resources available for some general
assessment. Tools available to the general public include on-
site test kits, commonly used for home fish tanks, and
biological assessment procedures (Hauser, 2001; Nollet and
De Gelder, 2013; Reddy, 2020).
5.4. Monitoring
Although water quality is usually sampled and analyzed at
laboratories, since the late 20th century there has been
increasing public interest in the quality of drinking water
provided by municipal systems. Many water utilities have
developed systems to collect real-time data about source water
quality. In the early 21st century, a variety of sensors and
remote monitoring systems have been deployed for measuring
water pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen and other parameters.
Some remote sensing systems have also been developed for
monitoring ambient water quality in riverine, estuarine and
coastal water bodies (Li and Liu, 2018).
5.5. Drinking Water Indicators
5.5.1. Environmental Indicators
5.5.1.1. Physical Indicators
1) Water temperature.
2) Specific conductance or electrical conductivity (EC).
3) Total suspended solids (TSS).
4) Transparency or turbidity.
5) Odor of water.
6) Color of water.
7) Taste of water
5.5.1.2. Chemical Indicators
1) Total dissolved solids (TDS).
2) pH.
3) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
4) Chemical oxygen demand (COD).
5) Dissolved oxygen (DO).
7) Total hardness (TH).
59
8) Heavy metals.
9) Nitrate.
10) Orthophosphates.
11) Pesticides.
12) Surfactants.
13) Alkalinity.
5.5.1.3. Biological Indicators
1) Ephemeroptera.
2) Plecoptera.
3) Mollusca.
4) Trichoptera.
5) Escherichia coli (E. coli)
6) Coliform bacteria.
7) Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow).
8) Americamysis bahia (Mysid shrimp).
9) Sea urchin.
5.6. Standards
In the setting of standards, agencies make political and
technical/scientific decisions based on how the water will be
used. In the case of natural water bodies, agencies also make
some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Natural water
bodies will vary in response to a region's environmental
conditions, whereby water composition is influenced by the
surrounding geological features, sediments, and rock types,
topography, hydrology, and climate. Environmental scientists
and aqueous geochemists work to interpret the parameters and
environmental conditions that impact the water quality of a
region, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of
contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policymakers work
to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained
at an appropriate quality for its identified use. Another general
perception of water quality is that of a simple property that
tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a
complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium
intrinsically tied to the ecology, geology, and anthropogenic
activities of a region. Industrial and commercial activities (e.g.
manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major
cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas,
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urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage.
The World Health Organization (WHO) published guidelines
for drinking-water quality (GDWQ) in 2018 (WHO, 2018).
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency published (EPA)
effluent guidelines (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
2021).
6. Conclusions
Water quality is the chemical, physical and biological
characteristics of water, usually in respect to its suitability for
a designated use. Water has many uses, such as for recreation,
drinking, fisheries, agriculture and industry. Each of these
designated uses has different defined chemical, physical and
biological standards necessary to support that use. For
example, we expect higher standards for water we drink and
swim in compared to that used in agriculture and industry.
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