DINÁMICA DE VEHÍCULOS

Modulo 2: Maniobrabilidad en estado estable

Ricardo Prado Gamez

ENE-MAY 2018
 • Fx Longitudinal

• Fy Lateral

• Fz Vertical

• Mx overturning moment.

• My rolling resistance
moment.

• Mz Self aligning moment.

Fig 1: Forces & Moments

Vehicle Control is nothing but the energy balance
between sprung and unsprung masses which can be
represented by forces and moment vectors over the
four corners.

Fc =mAy
Forces & Moments
control…!!

4
Vehicle Control is nothing but the
energy balance between sprung and
unsprung masses which can be
represented by forces and moment
vectors over the four corners.

Forces & Moments

control…!!

5
EERO o i
Low acceleration
Xr
situation with
100%
Yr
Ackerman…!!
l1 Xs

CG Ys
l2 Rc
i
o Instantaneous Center
O of Rotation

Rc
t
Situation at low Speed
 ack V 0
Fc  0
d f d r
 0
dAy dAy

L V = R
L
 ack =
R
Fr
R

z SAE
x y
• 100% Ackerman means that
turning center points is along
the rear axle.
• For low acceleration (low
speed) the Ackerman angle is
estimated as

L
 Ack =
R

L: Wheelbase
R:Distance from center point to mid vehicle axis.
High acceleration..!!
EERO
•For high acceleration:
f Figura 3.4
Modelo bicicleta
f
 t =  ack + (−  f +  r )

Rc

r f: Tyre front slip angle

r: Tyre rear slip angle
Under Steer
Neutral Steer
Over Steer
Three states:
•Turn in
•Curve Balance
•Turn out
of Forces
only

3 1
2
Balance of
Forces &
Moments
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Reference

“Race Car and Vehicle Dynamics”

Doug Milliken & Willian Milliken
Chapter 5
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Case 1: Neutral Steer Hipothetic Case

Fc
F f = Fr 50% weight distribution

Front and Rear Tyre Balance

C f = Cr i.e. Same cornering

Fc Fc
Fr = Ff =
2 2  f = r Same slip angles

F f = Fr
F f + Fr = Fc 2cn n = Fc
C f = Cr = Cn
c f  f + cr r = Fc But:
 f = r = n
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Case 2: Understeer
Ff + Fr = Fc L

But: b=2 L
Fca = 13 L
Ff = 2 Fr 3

r
2 Fr + Fr = Fc F f + 1 F f = Fc
2 f
3Fr = Fc 3 F =F
2 f c a b
Fr =   Fc F f =   Fc
L L
Cr = Cn C f = Cn
Similar tyre
calibration

3Fr = Fc 3 F =F
2 f c

3 r cr = 2 n cn 3 f c f = 2(2 n cn ) 2cn n = Fc
3 r cn = 2 n cn 3 f cn = 4 n cn With respect to neutral

2 4
r = n  f = n
3 3
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Case 3: Oversteering
Ff + Fr = Fc L

But: b= 1 L
Fc a=2 L
Ff = 1 Fr 3 3
2
r
1 F +F =F
2 r r c F f + 2 F f = Fc f
3 F =F 3F f = Fc
2 r c a b
Fr =   Fc F f =   Fc
L L
Cr = Cn C f = Cn
Same Tyre
Calibration

3 F =F 3F f = Fc
2 r c

3 r cr = 2(2 n cn ) 3 f c f = 2 n cn 2cn n = Fc
3 r cn = 4 n cn 3 f cn = 2 n cn
With respect to neutral

4 2
r = n  f = n
3 3
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Slip angle Gains

( )
F f = b mAy
L
( )
c f  f = b mAy

b f ( )
b m
L
Df
(b )mg
= L rad
Ff =  mAy
 L Ay
= L
cf
rad
m ( s)2
cf g

Fc
a f (b )mg
= L rad
Front slip angle gain

G cf g

b ( L)mA
Fr = a y

c  = (a )mA
r L
r y (a )mg
 (a )m D = Lr
rad
g
a = L rad
(m s ) cr
r
Fr =  mAy Ay cr
 L 2

x
r (a )mg
= L rad
Rear slip angle gain
z SAE
x y G cr g
Understeer gradient

 t =  ack + (−  f +  r )
 t =  ack + (− D f + Dr )G
 t =  ack + KG
L
t = + KG
R
t
= L + RKG
1
R
1 1
R=
t L + RKG
 1
=  donde:
t A  =
1
L + RK  y   t L +  K V 2
 g

g  K : rad
 1 g
=
( )
r V
 t L + RK V 2 = Ay
g R t L +  K V 2 G=
 g g
Exercise
Obtain the gains of curvature radius and angular velocity (yaw) considering an
Audi A4 of 1320 Kg with the following data:

Wheelbase 2.625 mts

Cf, Cr 80,000 N/rad
Weight Distribuiton 60/40 (Front / Rear)
Solution
b a
Step 1: Center of Gravity location

a = 0.4  2.625 b = 0.6  2.625

ma
a = 1.05 m b = 1.575 m

Paso 2: Slip Angle Gains

(a ) mg
D =− L
(b ) mg
r
cr Df =− L
cr
0.4  1320  9.81 0.6  1320  9.81
Dr = − Df = −
2  80000 2  80000
Dr = −0.032373 rad D f = −0.048559 rad
g g
Paso 3: Understeer Gradient

K = − D f + Dr
K = 0.048559 − 0.032373

K = 0.0161865 rad
g
 Step 4: Curvature and Yaw gains

 V
 1 =
=  t L +  K V 2
 t L +  K V 2
 g 
 g 
  V
=
( )
1
=
(
 t 2.625 + 0.0161865
9.81
)
V 2
 t 2.625 + 0.0161865
9.81
V 2

 1 m −1

=
V (rad seg )
= Velocity in m/s
 t 2.625 + 0.00165V 2 rad  t 2.625 + 0.00165  V 2 rad

=
1 m −1 
=
0.2777  V (rad seg )
 t 2.625 + 1.2731  10 V
−4 2 rad Velocity in km/h  t 2.625 + 1.2731  10−4V 2 rad
Step 5: Graphs

(rad s ) m −1
rad rad
8 0.4

7 0.35

6 0.3

5 0.25

4 0.2

3 0.15

2 0.1

1 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
km/h

YawVel/Delta Curvatura/delta
Make a prediction of the motion considering an Audi A4 traveling
at 100 km/h along a roundabout of 75 mts radius. The driver does
not make any correction over the steering wheel.

=
1 m −1 
=
V (rad seg )
 t 2.625 + 0.00165V 2 rad  t 2.625 + 0.00165  V 2 rad

 = t 
1 
=
 tV (rad seg )
2 
 2.625 + 0.00165V  2.625 + 0.00165  V rad
2

Ackerman:

L 2.625
= = = 0.035 rad
R 75

=
V (rad seg )
 t 2.625 + 0.00165  V 2 rad
 1 
 = 0.035   
2  0.035  27.777
 2.625 + 0.00165(27.77 )  = rad
2.625 + 0.00165  27.7772
seg

 = 0.00898 m −1
 = 0.2494 rad seg
R = 111 m
 = 14.29 deg
seg
Indicate the necessary steer wheel correction if the driver needs to keep the
vehicle under the desired path.

 t =  ack + (− D f + Dr )   g 
 ay 
We know that:  ack = 0.035 rad
 

At 100 km/h along a 75 mts radius ay =

V2
=
(
100 )
3.6
2

= 10.28 m
roundabout, the lateral acceleration R 75 s2

would be of:
 t = 0.035 + (0.048559 − 0.032373) 
10.28
9.81
The total angle of the wheels
would be of:  t = 0.035 rad + 0.0169 rad = 0.05196 rad

 t = 2.0055 deg + 0.96837 deg = 2.977 deg

Assuming a 15:1 steering-wheel
reduction from rack & pinion and
suspension.  t = 30.0825 deg + 14.52 deg = 44.659 deg
Kinematic Diagram
,  small: V f

u V
ref XYZ: Global reference
u xyz: Inertial reference.

v +a
b
V
a u
n 
:
V Vehicle speed with respect to global reference XYZ
u: Longitudinal component of V along inertia axis reference (xyz)
b V r
n: Proyection of V along “y” over inertial reference system xyz
: Angular speed of inertia axis with respect to global axis reference (XYZ).
u : Ackerman Angle (Intended steer)
ref: Total wheel angle
 b f: Front slip angle between longitudinal tyre axis and V..
n r: Rear slip angle between longitudinal tyre axis and V
b: Vehicle slip angle (between V and u).

v − b
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Kinetic Diagram
Ff

Mz Fy 
Fc
a

 : Curvature = 1 R
b Model v : Lateral _ Velocity
V2 : Lateral _ Accelerati on
Fr R
V2 
b : Vehicle _ Slip _ Angle
b R v

x Kinamtic relationship
z SAE
x y
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Kinematic Diagram
,  small: f
 V  v +a 
 +  f = tg  
 v − b 
 r = tg  
u V  u   u 

u Small Angle Small Angle

v +a
b n + a  +f =
u
a V v − b
v +a r =
u n  f =
u
− u
v  b
v a r = −
f = + − u u
u u
b V r
u
a  b
b n f = b +
u
− r = b −
u

v - b
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Kinetic Diagram

Ff 1) F f + Fr = mV ( + b ) Equilibrium equations
a 2) aF f − bFr = I z
Fc
3) Ff = C f  f
Constitutive equations
4) Fr = Cr ar (Tyres)
b a
5) f = b + −
Fr
u
 b
Kinematic equations
6) r = b −
u
x

z SAE
x y
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

3,4→1 c f  f + cr r = mV ( + b )

 a    b
c f b + −   + cr  b − = mV ( + b )
u 
5,6→1
 u  
1) F f + Fr = mV ( + b )
2) aF f − bFr = I z  ac f − bcr 
( f r )  u   − c f  = mV ( + b )
c + c b +
3) Ff = C f  f  

4) Fr = Cr ar Yb b + Y + Y  = mV ( + b )

a ac f  f − bcr r = I z
5) f = b + − 3,4→2
u
 b  a    b
6) r = b − ac f  b + −   − bcr  b −
u 
= I z
u 5,6→2  u  

 a 2 c f + b 2 cr 
( ac f − bcr ) b +  u   − ac f  = I z
 

N b b + N  + N   = I z
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Yb = c f + cr
Yb b + Y + Y  = mV ( + b ) Fy Fy Fy ac f − bcr
b+ +  = mV ( + b ) Y =
b   V
N b b + N  + N   = I z Y = −c f
M z M z M z N b = ac f − bcr
b+ +  = I z
b  
a 2 c f + b 2 cr
N =
V
Directional Stability N  = −ac f
Moment
N b = ac f − bcr
N  Nb b
N  I z

Opposite
= 0 Steady State
Yaw Damping a 2 c f + b 2 cr
N =
Moment u
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

For Steady State:

0 0
Yb b + Y + Y  = mV ( + b )
N b b + N  r + N   = I z

(
Yb b + Y + Y  = mV  + b ) N b b + N r + N  = 0
Yb b + Y + Y  = mV  2 N b b + N r = − N 

1 Yb b + (Y − mV )  = −Y 

Equations 1, 2 n matrix form:

 Yb Y − mV   b   −Y 
N = 
 b N      − N  

b
 Yb Y − mV      −Y 
N  =
 b N       − N  
  
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Slip angle gains

( L ) ma
Ff = b y

c  = ( b ) ma
f L f y

b
F f =  may  ( b )m
Df =
( L)
m b rad
L = L
f
cf m 2
ay cf s FRONT

Fc
a f
=
mg b ( L) Df =
mg b ( L) rad
 ay  cf cf g
 g
 

b
( L ) ma
Fr = a y

c  = ( a ) ma
r L r y
( L)
m a rad
 ( L) m
Dr =
a a
cr m 2
Fr =  may = r
s
L ay cr REAR

x
r
=
( L)
mg a
Dr =
( L)
mg a
rad
z SAE  ay  cr cr g
x y  g
 
Exercise 2
• An Audi A4 weights 1320 Kg and has the following data:
Wheelbase: 2.625 mts
Steering wheel ratio: 17:1
Cf = C r= 80,000 N/rad
(Per tyre)
Weight distribution: 60/40 (Front/rear)
• The car travels at 100 along a round about of 75 mts
radius, obtain:
a) Ackerman angle
b) Slip angle gains (f/ac,r/ac)
c) Derivative terms of Force and Moment.
d) Understeer gradient
e) Curvature Gain ( )
f) Yaw velocity Gain ( )
V 2 
g) Aceleración Gain   R 
 
h) Slip angle Gain (b/)   
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

a) Ackerman
L 2.625
ack = = = 0.035rad = 2o
R 75

b) Slip angle gains

( L ) = −0.00495  rad 
( )
f m b
Df = =  = −0.04856 rad
Ay cf 
 ( )
m 2 
s 
g

( L ) = −0.0033  rad 
( )
r m a
Dr = =  = −0.03237 rad
Ay cr 
 ( )
m 2 
s 
g
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

c) Derivative terms

Yb = c f + cr = −160,000 − 160,000 = −320,000 N

rad

Y =
ac f − bcr
=
(1.05)( −160,000 ) − (1.575)( −160,000 ) = 3,024 N
V 27.77 ( rad sec )
Y = −c f = 160,000 N
rad

N b = ac f − bcr = (1.05)( −160,000 ) − (1.575)( −160,000 ) = +84,000 Nm + means understeer

rad
a 2 c f + b 2 cr (1.05) ( −160,000 ) + (1.575) ( −160,000 ) = −20,638.8
2 2

N = = Nm
V 27.77 ( rad sec )
N  = −ac f = −1.05 ( −160,000 ) = 168,000 Nm
rad
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

d) Understseer gradient
 =  + (−  +  )
t ack f r
K = − D f + Dr
 =  + (− D + D )G
t ack f r K = +0.016187 rad
g
 t =  ack + KG
+ means understeer

e) Slip angle and Yaw gains:

b
 Yb Y − mV      −Y 
N =
 b N       − N  
   b 
   =  −0.24917 
b 
 −320000 −33642.7      −160000     7.125891 
 84000  =    
 −20638.8 
     −168000
 
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

e) Curvature gain
 1 
=  
 v 
 1
= ( 7.125891)
 27.77

= 0.2566


f) Acceleration gain
alat  
= v 
  
alat
= 27.77  ( 7.125891)

alat
= 197.88

Vehicle Dynamics Handling

All is ready to
1 1
predict vehicle R = 0.2566 m  = 1R
path  rad

 ( rad s ) 

= 7.126
 rad

( R) = 197.88 (
V2 m
s2 ) V2
 rad R

b
= −0.249 rad b
 rad
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

• What would be the car path assuming that the driver

does not make any correction to the steer wheel.
i) Curvature ()
j) Yaw rate ()
k) Acceleration (V2/R)
l) Slip angle(b)
m) Verify equilibrium of forces and moments.
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

i) Curvature 
1 = 0.2565( )
R
1 = 0.2565(0.035)
R R = 111.38 m
1 = 0.009 1
R m

Actual path
(R = 111 m)

Intended path
(R = 75 m)
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

i) Yaw rate
 = 7.126 ( )
 = 7.126 ( 0.035)  = 14.29 deg s

 = 0.2494 rad s

Actual speed
(w=14.29 deg/s)

Intended speed
(w=21.21 deg/s)
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

b
i) Vehicle Slip Angle
b = −0.249( )
b = −0.249(0.035) b = −0.499 deg
b = −0.0087 rad

Actual speed Vector

V
b
Angle of attack of the vehicle

j) Moment Balance
N   = 5880 Nm
N  = −5147.44 Nm
N   + N  + N b b = 0
N b b = −732.55 Nm
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

j) Moment Balance
Moment Balance
Beta (deg)
8000
1.5
6000
4000 1

2000 0.5
0 Ndd

Deg
0
N

0 50 100 150 Nww

-2000 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Nbb -0.5
-4000
-6000 -1

-8000 -1.5
Km/h
-10000
Km/h

N b = ac f − bcr
Nr r Nb b
N 
N   + N  + N b b = 0
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

• What would be the necessary wheel steer correction if

the driver needs the vehicle follow the intended circular
path of 75 mts radius at 100 km/h?
 t = 0.035 + (0.048559 − 0.032373) 
 ack = 0.035 rad 10.28
9.81
 t = 0.035 rad + 0.0169 rad = 0.05196 rad
 t =  ack + (− D f + Dr )  
 ay 

 g
 t = 2.0055 deg + 0.96837 deg = 2.977 deg
ay =
V2
=
(
100 )
3.6
2

= 10.28 m
s2
R 75
 t = 30.0825 deg + 14.52 deg = 44.659 deg

See page 24 for comparisson

Vehicle Dynamics Handling

j) Moment Balance
Moment Balance
Beta (deg)
15000
1.5

10000 1
0.5

5000 0
Ndd
-0.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Deg
N

Nww
0 -1
Nbb
0 50 100 150 -1.5
-5000 -2
-2.5
-10000 -3
Km/h Km/h

N b = ac f − bcr
Nr r Nb b
N 
N   + N  + N b b = 0
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

EXERCISE 2
• Repeat the whole exercise assuming 40/60 (front/rear)
weight distribution

Results
L 2.625
a) Ackerman ack = = = 0.035rad = 2 o

R 75

( L ) = −0.03237 rad
( )
f m b
Df = =
b) Slip angle gains Ay cf g

( L ) = −0.04856 rad
( )
r m a
Dr = =
Ay cr g

Yb = −320,000 N N b = −84,000 Nm - means oversteer

c) Derivative terms rad rad

Y = −3,024 N  = −20,638.8 Nm
( rad sec )
N
( rad
sec )
Y = 160,000 N N  = 252000 Nm
rad rad
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Results
d) Understseer gradient K = −0.016187 rad - means oversteer
g

e) Slip angle and Yaw gains:

b  b 
 − 320000 − 39690.7      −160000
=    =  −2.04863
 −84000 −20638.8 
  
     −252000     20.54795
    


f) Curvature gain = 0.739726

alat
g) Acceleration gain = 570.77

Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Results
• What would be the car path assuming that the driver
does not make any correction to the steer wheel.
i) Curvature ()  = 0.02589 m −1
R = 38.62 m

j) Yaw rate ()  = 0.719178 rad s

k) Acceleration (V2/R) a = 19.977 m s

lat 2

l) Slip angle(b) b = −0.0717 rad = −4.10853 deg

m) Verify equilibrium of forces and moments.

N   = 8820 Nm
N  = −14848.97 Nm
N b b = 6022.97 Nm
N   + N  + N b b = 0
Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Results
• What would be the necessary wheel steer correction if
the driver needs the vehicle follow the intended circular
path of 75 mts radius at 100 km/h?

 t =  ack + (− D f + Dr )  
 ay 

 g

10.28
 t = 0.035 + ( −0.048559 + 0.032373) 
9.81
 t = 0.035 rad − 0.0169 rad = 0.018025 rad = 1.0328 deg
 V=100 km/hr
Steering Steering
0.0400 0.0400

0.0350 0.0350

0.0300 0.0300

0.0250 0.0250

rad
rad

0.0200 0.0200

0.0150 0.0150

0.0100 0.0100

0.0050 0.0050

0.0000 0.0000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

g's g's

delta Ack - (alpha f - alpha r) delta tot delta Ack - (alpha f - alpha r) delta tot
Objective: Understanding the basics of handling and directional
control in steady state along with its basic parameters.

• Directional Control (Ackerman)

• Stability and Control.
• Critical Speed
• Characteristic Speed
• Tangent Speed.
• Friction limits
Critical Velocity (Over steer only)
Definición oficial SAE:
“The longitudinal velocity for an oversteer vehicle at which the lateral
acceleration gain at steady state and zero lateral acceleration, is infinite

Yaw rate gain

a 2
25
mVt Infinity trend
R 20
(rad(s)/rad

r V
b 15
=
Sub-Viraje t L +  K V 2
10 Neutro-Viraje  g
Sobre-Viraje

0 − gL
x
0 50
Km/hr
100 150
Vc =
z SAE K
x y
Characteristic Velocity (=2ack) Understeer only
Official definition by SAE:
“The longitudinal velocity for an understeer vehicle at which the lateral acceleration
gain at steady state, is one-half of the lateral acceleration gain of a neutral steer
vehicle”
Notes:
1.- At this velocity the yaw velocity gain is máximum.
a 2.- At this velocity, the corrected steer is twice with respect to neutral in a skid pad test.
2
mVt
R Yaw rate gain r V
30 =
t L +  K V 2
b 25  g

20
donde:
K : rad
/

15 g
Subvirado
alat
10 Neutro G=
g

x 5
Maximum yaw rate gain..
z SAE
0
x y
0 50 100 150 200 250
Km/h
Characteristic Velocity (=2ack) Understeer only

where:
r V K : rad
= g
t L +  K V 2

 g Ay
G=
2 g
mVt a
R Max & min

 
 V 
b  
 
 L +  g V 
K 2

   
=0
V
L +  K Vch − 2Vch  K  = 0
2 2

 g  g

gL
Vch =
x
Isolating:
z SAE
x y K
Characteristic Velocity (=2ack) Understeer only

r V where: K : rad
= g
t L +  K V 2

 g Ay
G=
g
 t =  ack + (−  f +  r )
2
mVt a
R
 t =  ack + (− D f + Dr )G
 t =  ack + KG
b L K
t = +   Ay
R  g 
L  K  V 
2
 t = +   ch 

R  g  R 

x
L  K  Vch 
2
gL
z
x
SAE =   
R  g  R  Vch =
y
K
Tangent Velocity (b = 0)
Official definition by SAE:
“The longitudinal velocity at which the vehicle sideslip angle is zero, under
steady state operating conditions.
Ff
Note: Because the vehicle sideslip angle is defined at the vehicle reference point,
tangent speed will be affected by the choice of the vehicle reference point.
Fc
a
b b =0
 Yb Y − mV      −Y 
N = −Y Y − mV
 b N       − N  
   − N N
b =0
Yb Y − mV
Nb N

Fr −Y Y − mV
b − N N
=
 Yb Y − mV V = − gb
x
Dr
z SAE Nb N
x y
Exercise 1d
• Consider an Audi A4 used, obtain:
n) Ackerman angle
o) Critical velocity (Oversteer case of 60/40 rear/front weight distribution)
p) Characteristic velocity (Understeer case of 40/60 rear/front weight distribution)
q) Velocity of inminent friction loss considering a friction factor (m) of
=0.9 (Understeer and oversteer)
s) Use an spreadsheet to obtain the graph of r vs V considering friction
and assuming that the driver keeps the vehicle along the intended
path of 75 mts radius round about (both cases)
n) Ackerman
L 2.625
ack = = = 0.035rad = 2o
R 75

o) Critical Velocity (60/40 rear/front)

Yb = −320,000 N N b = −84,000 Nm
rad rad

Y = −3,024 N ( rad s ) (
N  = −20,638 Nm rad
s )
Y = 160,000 N N  = 252,000 Nm
rad rad

K = −0.01619

− gL
Vc = = 38.94 m
K s
p) Characteristic velocity (40/60 rear/front)
Yb = −320,000 N N b = 84,000 Nm
rad rad
Y = 3,024 N ( rad s ) N  = −20,638 Nm rad( s )
Y = 160,000 N
rad N  = 168,000 Nm
rad

K = +0.01619

+ gL
Vc = = 39.88 m
K s
q) Tangent Velocity (Understeer case)
a = 1.05 m
b = 1.575 m

( L ) = −0.03237 rad
( )
f mg a
Dr = =
alat cf g
g

Vt = − gb
Dr
−9.81  1.575
Vt =
−0.03237
Vt = 21.84 m s
Vt = 78.64 Km
h
q) Tangent Velocity (oversteer case)
b = 1.05 m
a = 1.575 m

( L ) = −0.04856 rad
( )
f mg a
Dr = =
alat cf g
g

Vt = − gb
Dr
−9.81  1.575
Vt =
−0.03237
Vt = 14.56 m s
Vt = 52.43 Km
h
Axle Saturation
Maximum Velocity
Two degree of freedom model
Exercise 1e
• Consider an Audi with tyres P275/40 ZR17 Eagle
ZR (Street Corvette), determine:
▫ Which axle (front or rear) gets saturation limit
first.
▫ Determine the saturation velocity.
▫ Determine the yaw rate curve considering such
saturation condition.
• Hint: Get the factors a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 for the tyre considering the weight
distribution. Use two operational sections (one linear and one saturated)
and work with those operational ranges.
Solution (1/6)
Los Tyre data:
P275/40 ZR17 Eagle ZR (Street Corvette)
Fy Mz
1804 4097 6258 8712 1804 4097 6258 8712
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 311.7618 565.625 1113.435 1336.122 2.715 17.6475 36.6525 51.585
1 601.2549 1180.241 2093.258 2516.363 5.43 29.865 63.8025 95.025
1.5 890.748 1781.496 2894.931 3607.529 6.10875 36.6525 82.8075 122.175
2 1157.972 2449.557 3585.261 4542.815 6.7875 40.725 95.025 143.895
2.5 1380.659 2939.468 4275.59 5344.488 6.7875 42.0825 99.0975 156.1125
3 1558.809 3273.499 4899.114 6057.086 6.10875 40.725 100.455 160.185
3.5 1670.153 3607.529 5344.488 6680.61 5.29425 37.33125 97.74 161.5425
4 1723.597 3785.679 5656.25 7259.596 5.1585 35.295 90.9525 158.8275
4.5 1745.866 3963.829 5923.474 7749.508 5.02275 32.58 81.45 149.325
5 1759.227 4052.903 6088.263 8105.807 4.887 29.865 69.2325 133.035
5.5 1768.135 4097.441 6190.699 8283.956 4.819125 27.15 57.015 116.745
6 1781.496 4119.71 6235.236 8328.494 4.75125 24.435 46.155 99.0975

Mass distribution of 792 front /528 rear (Kg) de acuerdo a la

distribución 60/40 consideradada (7769/5180 N), por lo que se
tomarán los datos de 6258 y 8712 de la tabla como referencia
para obtener las curvas de Pacejka precisas.
Solution (2/6)
As a first step, the Pacejka parameters for both curves are found.
Parameters a1, a2,..a8 should comply with both curves.
C D BCD B E C D BCD B E
1.35 6409.3322 1864.5684 0.2154923 -1.508332 1.35 8407.4354 2200.4035 0.19386751 -2.377048 FZ
6.258
a1 -24.1
a2 1175
a3 2400
a4 1.82
a5 0.085
a6 0.00E+00
a7 -0.354
a8 0.707
Solution (3/6)
Afterwards, use these parameters for other Fz values (i.e. 7769 N front
and 5180 N rear).
Solution(4/6)
Determine two ranges of operation: One linear (low acceleration) and
the second on the saturation. Do it for front and rear tyres.
Front Rear

Cf Cr

N/deg 2087.5 1644.44

N/rad 119613.75 94226.412
Fy Max 7618 5440
alfa sat 3.64934132 3.30811705
FZ 7769 5180
miu 0.98056378 1.05019305

2087 *  f  f  3.64 1644 *  r  r  3.3081

Fy =  Fy = 
 7769  f  3.64  5440  r  3.3081
Solución (5/6)
Then express the limit conditions for front and rear tyres.
2087 *  f  f  3.64 1644 *  r  r  3.3081
a * Fy = b * Ry Fy = 
Fy =   r  3.3081
 7769  f  3.64 Fy + Ry = ma  5440

Case 1f =3.64 (Front tyre saturation.) Case r=3.3081 (Rear tyre saturation

a * Fy 1.05 * 7769 b * Ry 1.575 * 5540

Ry = = Fy = =
b 1.575 a 1.05
Ry = 5179 _ N Fy + Ry = ma Fy = 8310 _ N
Possible Not possible

b * Ry 1.575 * 5179
Fy = =
a 1.05
Fy = 7768 _ N
Fy + Ry = ma
7768 + 5179 = 1320 * a
a = 9.8087 m
Para 75 m radio
s2
V max = 27.12 m
s
V max = 97.64 kmh
Maximum Velocity (Friction Limits)
2
V Once determined the maximum velocity,
mN = m max
R the yaw curve can be estimated…
2 mmg = mV f
Vmax
Ff mmg = m mg
R f =
mgL V
Fc
a Vmax = mgR =
 ack

b
V
r L
Fr =
 1 + KV 2

or
r Yb N − N b Y
x
=
z
x
SAE
y
 Q v
Solución (6/6)
Above results show that friction is limited by the front tyres at 97.64 km/h with a friction factor of
0.98. Therefore the yaw rate envelope is:

mg
f =
Vmax = 97.64 Km V
h
0.98056(9.81)
f =
27.12
 f = 0.3546 rad s
 f = 20.32 deg s
Maximum Velocity.
Balance velocity in steady state:
V2 A more simplified approach can also
F = m be used…although it ignores which
Ff R
axle reaches saturation.
Fc
a
V is limited by available friciton
2
b V
mN = m max
R
2
Vmax
Fr mmg = m
R
Vmax = mgR
x

z SAE
x y
 Vehicle Dynamics Handling

Skid Pad (Kiosko Valle Oriente)

Three operations ranges
1 0 a 20 Km hr (0 to 0.3 g aceleración)
Predictable behaviour like a parking lot

20 Km/hr
20 a 35 Km hr (0.3 to 0.6 g)
Questionable behiavour if the vehicle is
2 not well balanced is noticeable. The
vehicle can be controlled with a skill of
a regular driver.

35 Km/hr
50 Km hr ó mas (higher than 0.6 g)
3 Limit handling, either the vehicle loss
grip or tilt over.

50 Km/hr