DINÁMICA DE VEHÍCULOS

Cornering
Ricardo Prado Gámez
Enero 2019
Objective:
“To understand the forces and moment generation at the Tyres
during car motion and handling.”

• Motivation
• Materials, Propiedades y Types of Tyres
• Rolling Resistance
• Force Generation (Braking/Acceleration)
• Force Generation (Cornering)
• Relaxation Length
• Combined Cases.
• Modelling (Pacejka)
The cornering Forces depends mainly on the following parameters

•Slipe angle (a)

•Vertical Payload (Fz)

•Road Conditions (m)

•Longitudinal Loads (Fx)

•Inflation Pressure
Fy( a , m , Fz , Fx , p ,T )
•Temperature
Fy( a , m , Fz , Fx , p ,T ) Auto Aligning Moment

Lateral force

Deformation shape

Tyre deformation sliding

Slip angle a
Wheel Plane

Forward Velocity V

Lateral (slip) = tan (a)

SAE 2006-01-1479
 2000 Limit of adhesion

1800

Fy 1600

1400 Adhesion Coefficient

1200 The curve depends on tyre adhesion properties and the

road in the lateral direction
1000

800

600
Fy( a , m , Fz , Fx , p ,T )
400

200

0 a(deg)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Linear Fy
K=
a a =0
y
Fy
Cornering Stiffness Cornering Coefficient Lateral Stiffness
Fy( a , m , Fz , Fx , p ,T )
Fy( a , m , Fz , Fx , p ,T )

Fz
Fy( a , m , Fz , Fx , p ,T )
Fy( a , m , Fz , Fx , p ,T )

800/820-15 Tyre (Fy vs Fz)

3000

2500

2000
1 deg
2 deg
Lbs

1500
3 deg
4 deg
1000 5 deg
6 deg
500

0
0 5 10 15 20
Lbs

*Obtained from Pacejka parameters

Fy( a , m , Fz , Fx , p ,T )
P275/40 ZR17 Eagle ZR (Street Corvette)*
3000

Fy
2500

2000

1 deg
2 deg
Lbs

1500
3 deg
4 deg
5 deg
1000
6 deg

500

0 Fz
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 *Obtained
4500from Pacejka parameters
Lbs
 Auto Aligning Moment

• The first tyre-contact to surface

M z = Fy d p is initially undeformed

• The tyre roads but the point

remains in contact with respect
to the floor.

T. Gillespie, Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics

SAE Press, 1992, p 348. • The point is deformed along the
road with the tyre keeps rolling.
The line of action of Fy lies behing the contact
point, causing a Moment Mz which tends to
provide stability towards the stable trim
(Direction of travel).
The force distribution is
integrated along the length of
The relative distance between the line of action the footprint to obtain a
of Fy with respect to the contact point is called resultant force Fy
“Pneumatic Trail”
 Fyx = Fy  sin a

Fy

Fyx
Curve resistant
(Drag Component)

Reference
Harty M & Blundel M.
“The Multibody Systems Approach to Vehicle
Dynamics”
Hand Calculation Excersise: 2 (Part 1)

Characterize qualitatively the differences between

GoodYear Tyre P275/40 ZR17 and Eagle and P215/60
R15 Eagle GT-S; considering:

•Which one has higher cornering stiffness?

•Which one has higher adherence?

•Which one has higher auto aligning torque stiffness?

•Obtain their pneumatic Trails at 2 degrees.

 P275/40 ZR17 Eagle ZR (Street Corvette) P215/60 R15 Eagle GT-S
9000
9000

8000
8000

7000 7000

6000 6000

5000 5000
N

N
4000 4000

3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
deg deg

1804 N 4097 N 6258 N 8712 N Fz: 4008 N Fz: 6013 N Fz: 8017 N
 P275/40 ZR17 Eagle ZR (Street Corvette) P215/60 R15 Eagle GT-S
300 300

250 250

200 200

Nm
Nm

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
deg deg

1804 4097 6258 8712 4008 6013 8017

 Cornering Stiffness (N/deg) Auto aligning stiffness (Nm/deg)
4000 450

3500 400

350
3000

300
2500

250
2000
200

1500
150

1000
100

500 50

0 0
P275/40 Champ 800/820 F1 Eagle GT P275/40 Champ 800/820 F1 Eagle GT

Fz1 Fz2 Fz3 Fz4 Fz1 Fz2 Fz3 Fz4

 Adherence
Champ (N/N)
P275/40 ZR17 (N/N)
2
1.2 1.8
1.6
1 1.4
1.2
0.8
1
0.6 0.8
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2 0
0 2 4 6 8
0
0 2 4 6 8 4454 6235 8017

1804 4097 6258 8712

Formula 1 Eagle GT
2 1.2
1.8
1
1.6
1.4 0.8
1.2
1 0.6
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.4 0.2
0.2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1781 2672 3563 4454 4008 6013 8017

 Obtain pneumatic trail @ 2 deg
Champ
P275/40 ZR17 140
45
120
40
35 100

30 80
25
60
20
15 40

10 20
5
0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 2 4 6 8
4454 6235 8017
1804 4097 6258 8712

Eagle GT
F1 90
60 80
50 70
60
40
50
30
40
20 30
10 20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1781 2672 3563 4454
4008 6013 8017
Hand Calculation Excersise: 3
The Eagle ZR tire shown in the figure, is used on a Corvette with a test weight of 3500 lbs,
and having a 52/48 (front/rear) weight distribution. Use the cornering stiffness (i.e. a
linearized tyre) and the actual curves themselves (a nonlinear tyre) to calculate the
cornering force at a slip angle of 1.5 deg on the front and rear tires. What is the percent of
error between linearized and nonlinear models? Repeat the calculation at 4.0 deg.
Interpolation between load curves will be necessary. For simplicity, ignore the weight
transfer.
9000
Fy (N) 8000
1804 4097 6258 8712
0 0 0 0 0 7000
0.5 311.7618 565.625 1113.435 1336.122 6000
1 601.2549 1180.241 2093.258 2516.363
1.5 890.748 1781.496 2894.931 3607.529 5000 1804 N
N

2 1157.972 2449.557 3585.261 4542.815 4000 4097 N

2.5 1380.659 2939.468 4275.59 5344.488 6258 N
3000
3 1558.809 3273.499 4899.114 6057.086
8712 N
3.5 1670.153 3607.529 5344.488 6680.61 2000
4 1723.597 3785.679 5656.25 7259.596
1000
4.5 1745.866 3963.829 5923.474 7749.508
5 1759.227 4052.903 6088.263 8105.807 0
5.5 1768.135 4097.441 6190.699 8283.956 0 2 4 6 8
6 1781.496 4119.71 6235.236 8328.494 deg
 alfa(deg C(N/deg alfa Fy Fy(linea alfa(4de Fy Fy(linea
Fz Fy (N) ) ) (deg) (Table) l) error g) (Table) l) error
1804 312 0.5 624 1.5 890.7 935 0.050 4 1724 2494 0.447
4097 566 0.5 1131 1.5 1781.5 1697 -0.047 4 3786 4525 0.195
4052 561 0.5 1121 1.5 1763.8 1682 -0.047 4 3745 4485 0.198
3741 526 0.5 1052 1.5 1643.0 1578 -0.039 4 3465 4209 0.215

slope 0.111 0.388 0.899

Interpolated
Values

m=
(Fy 2 − Fy1 ) Table Interpolated Lineal
(Fz 2 − Fz1 ) 1804 4097 3741 4052 3741 4052
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 312 566 526 561 526 561
1 601 1180 1090 1169 1052 1121
1.5 891 1781 1643 1764 1579 1682
2 1158 2450 2249 2424 2105 2242
2.5 1381 2939 2697 2909 2631 2803
3 1559 3273 3007 3240 3157 3364
3.5 1670 3608 3306 3569 3683 3924
4 1724 3786 3465 3745 4209 4485
4.5 1746 3964 3619 3920 4736 5045
5 1759 4053 3696 4007 5262 5606
5.5 1768 4097 3735 4051 5788 6167
6 1781 4120 3756 4073 6314 6727
 Fy vs alpha Fy vs alpha
7000 7000

6000 6000
??

5000 5000

4000 4000 ok
3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 2 4 6 8

1804 4097 3741 4052 3741 4052 3741_L 4052_L

Hand Calculation Excersise: 4

Consider a Corvette car with tyres P275/40ZR17 (Fig). Obtain the total
resistance force of the car if the kerb weight is 3000 lbs and all the tyres are
operating with an slip angle a = 3o and with a rolling resistance factor of fr =
0.022.
Obtain the required power (hp) to drive this vehicle at 30 mph. Assume for
simplicity that the weight is evenly distributed along all the roads and ignore any
aerodynamic effect.
Fy (N) 9000
1804 4097 6258 8712 8000
0 0 0 0 0
0.5 311.7618 565.625 1113.435 1336.122 7000
1 601.2549 1180.241 2093.258 2516.363
6000
1.5 890.748 1781.496 2894.931 3607.529
2 1157.972 2449.557 3585.261 4542.815 5000 1804 N
N

2.5 1380.659 2939.468 4275.59 5344.488

4000 4097 N
3 1558.809 3273.499 4899.114 6057.086
3.5 1670.153 3607.529 5344.488 6680.61 6258 N
3000
4 1723.597 3785.679 5656.25 7259.596 8712 N
4.5 1745.866 3963.829 5923.474 7749.508 2000
5 1759.227 4052.903 6088.263 8105.807 1000
5.5 1768.135 4097.441 6190.699 8283.956
6 1781.496 4119.71 6235.236 8328.494 0
0 2 4 6 8
deg
 • Mechanical trail depends on
configuration of suspension.
Tyre centerline + Caster Angle
▫ Positive caster angle
Steering axis ▫ Wheel center offset
(kingping axis)
▫ Mechanical Trail varies with
suspension kinematics and
compliance
• Pneumatic trail depends on tyre
properties and varies with slip
Forward angle.
• The total aligning moment
around the steering axis depends
on the total trail (mechanical +
Mechanical Pneumatic
Trail Trail

pneumatic)
Hand Calculation Excercise: 5

Consider a car with tyres P215/60-R15 Goodyear Eagle GT-S (see fig.), which in make a
turns. Each front tyre is operating with a slip angle of a=3 deg. Due to the load transfer,
the inside tyre has a normal force Fz of 900 lbs and the front outside of 1350 lbs. The
mechanical trail is of 1.125 inches as a result of the caster angle inclination of the
kingping axis. Obtain the total torque around the kingping axis considering also the effect
of the pneumatic trail.

Race car and Vehicle Dynamics

Milliken & Milliken
m = 1.125”
Hand Calculation Excersise: 5 (cont)
9000

8000

7000

6000

5000
N

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
deg

Fz: 4008 N Fz: 6013 N Fz: 8017 N

 300

250

200
Nm

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
deg

Fz: 4008 N Fz: 6013 N Fz: 8017 N

 Outside Inside
W 900 1350 lbs
W 408.6 612.9 Kg
W 4008.4 6012.5 N

Total torque
Torque due to around
Mechanical Trail
FY(N) Mz (Nm) pt (mm) pt (mm) (Nm) Steer axis (Nm)
4008 6013 8017 4008 6013 8017 4008 6012.5 4008 6012.5 4008 6012.5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 789 789 789 27 54 64 34.39 68.78
1 1457 1579 1700 44 90 117 30.33 57.26
1.5 2065 2429 2583 54 117 163 26.30 47.97
2 2672 3219 3429 58 136 199 21.81 42.18
2.5 3158 4008 4365 58 141 229 18.45 35.09
3 3522 4615 5040 54 140 245 15.42 30.25 111.8 146.5 166.1 286.2
3.5 3887 5223 5769 48 136 255 12.41 25.99
4 4129 5708 6437 40 123 254 9.73 21.47
4.5 4312 6073 6984 29 109 246 6.76 17.88
5 4433 6376 7447 21 92 229 4.75 14.49
5.5 4555 6528 7894 14 74 201 3.09 11.39
6 4555 6558 7894 10 62 169 2.21 9.50

The total torque around steer axis is of 166.1+286.2 = 452.3 Nm

BENCHMARKED: Steering Wheel Torque

Steering Wheel Torque • A typical vehicle has a

25 maximum steering wheel
20
torque around 3 Nm with
assisted steer.
15
• Without assisted steer the
10 torque can reach up to 20 Nm
2.6 Nm
5
depending on the steer ratio.
• Note the level of hysteresis
Nm

Ps_Off
0 Ps_On
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 around on-center steering.
-5

-10

-15

-20
Steering Wheel Angle (deg)
BENCHMARKED: Mechanical Trail
• Honda Ridgeline 2017
• A small variation between left
and right tyres.
• Normal operational range
changes between 30-60 mm

Mechanical Trail Honda Ridgeline

2017
70
60
50
40
mm

30 Right
20 Left
10
0
2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Applied Lateral Force (N)
BENCHMARKED: Mechanical Trail
• MAZDA CX5
• A small variation between left
and right tyres.
• The mechanical trail in each
tyre is almost constant
▫ [15-17 mm] Left tyre
Mechanical Trail Mazda CX5 ▫ [24-26 mm] Right Tyre
35
30
25
20
mm

15
10
5
0
2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Applied Lateral Force

Right Left
BENCHMARKED: Mechanical Trail
• Chrysler Ram 1500 Pick Up
Truck 2014
• The highest value of
mechanical trail ever seen.
• Plenty of mask during ride
assessments.

Mechanical Trail Dodge Ram 1500

100
90
80
70
60
mm

50
40 Right
30 Left
20
10
0
2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Lateral Applied Force
BENCHMARKED: Mechanical Trail at design position
• A typical mechanical trail
above 15 mm.
Mechanical Trail (All trucks and SUV)
45 • Tundra and Titan are the
40
35
exceptions.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0