Cent. Eur. J. Biol.

• 8(12) • 2013 • 1241-1249

DOI: 10.2478/s11535-013-0246-1

Central European Journal of Biology

LED irradiance level affects growth and

nutritional quality of Brassica microgreens

Research Article

Giedrė Samuolienė1,*, Aušra Brazaitytė1, Julė Jankauskienė1, Akvilė Viršilė1, Ramūnas Sirtautas1,
Algirdas Novičkovas2, Sandra Sakalauskienė1, Jurga Sakalauskaitė1, Pavelas Duchovskis1
Institute of Horticulture, Lithuanian Research Centre
1

for Agriculture and Forestry, 54333 Babtai, Lithuania

Institute of Applied Research, Vilnius University,

2

10222 Vilnius, Lithuania

Received 13 November 2012; Accepted 07 July 2013

Abstract: This study examines the effect of irradiance level produced by solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs) on the growth, nutritional quality
and antioxidant properties of Brassicaceae family microgreens. Kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes, ‘Delicacy Purple’) mustard
(Brassica juncea L., ‘Red Lion’), red pak choi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis, ‘Rubi F1’) and tatsoi (Brassica rapa var. rosularis) were grown
using peat substrate in controlled-environment chambers until harvest time (10 days, 21/17°C, 16 h). A system of five lighting modules
with 455, 638, 665 and 731 nm LEDs at a total photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) of 545, 440, 330, 220 and 110 μmol m-2s-1
respectively were used. Insufficient levels of photosynthetically active photon flux (110 μmol m-2 s-1) suppressed normal growth and
diminished the nutritional value of the Brassica microgreens studied. In general, the most suitable conditions for growth and nutritional
quality of the microgreens was 330–440 μmol m-2 s-1 irradiation, which resulted in a larger leaf surface area, lower content of nitrates and
higher total anthocyanins, total phenols and 2,2–diphenyl–1–picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free-radical scavenging capacity. High light levels
(545 μmol m-2 s-1), which was expected to induce mild photostress, had no significant positive impact for most of investigated parameters.

Keywords: Light • Functional foods • Antioxidants • Chlorophylls • Leaf area • Nitrates • Sucrose
© Versita Sp. z o.o.

1. Introduction higher nutritional densities compared to the nutritional

Nowadays “functional foods” (food enriched with health
promoting additives) have gained in popularity due to
the known health promoting or disease preventing
properties that can be added to enhance the nutritional
quality of regular vegetables. Microgreens are very
specific types of vegetables and herbs that are harvested
with two fully developed cotyledon leaves with or without
the emergence of a rudimentary first pair of true leaves
[1]. Due to a higher levels of phytochemical compounds
found in these early shoots, these plants are considered
to belong to a group known as “functional foods”.
Microgreens are commonly grown as cabbage, beet,
kale, kohlrabi, mizuna, mustard, radish, swiss chard
and amaranth [2]. Microgreens provide a large array
of intense flavours, vivid colours and tender textures.
Moreover, microgreen cotyledon leaves possess
concentrations found in mature leaves [1].
Growing, harvesting and postharvest handling
conditions may have a considerable impact on the
synthesis and degradation of microgreen phytonutrients
[1]. Thus, it is important to ensure appropriate agronomic
practices when handling these food products. The
light environment plays a significant role in influencing
physiological changes and secondary metabolite
production in plants [3]. Variations in both the artificial
lighting spectra [4-7] and irradiance levels [8,9] can
affect growth and nutrition.
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are, to date, one
of the most promising energy – efficient and rapidly
developing plant lighting technologies. Combinations
of red, blue and far red LED light wavelengths are
reported to be efficient for sprouted seed [4], microgreen
[3], wheatgrass [10] and mature lettuce plant [5,11]

* E-mail: g.samuoliene@lsdi.lt
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cultivation. However, there is still a lack of information
regarding the optimal light spectral conditions and
irradiance levels for growth and nutitional value of
plants of different genotypes and maturity stages.
While low light can cause photoinhibition [12] or
nitrate accumulation [13], high irradiance levels may
create mild photostress and activate photoprotective
mechanisms which influence the production of primary
and secondary metabolites in plants. Plants acclimate
to high light levels by increasing photosynthesis [12,14]
and, compounds such as ascorbate, glutathione,
carotenoids, or α-tocopherol [15,16] that have
antioxidant capacities which are important for human
nutrition. Therefore, the photophysiological processes in
green vegetable plants must be ascertained in order to
select lighting strategies that are optimal for both plants
and humans. The objective of the current study was to
examine the effects of light intensity produced by LED
on the growth and antioxidant properties of microgreens
from the Brassicaceae family and to determine lighting
conditions needed to induce higher nutritional values in
plants during production.
2. Experimental Procedures
2.1 Growth and lighting conditions
Microgreens of Brassicaceae family, kohlrabi (Brassica
oleracea var. gongylodes, ‘Delicacy Purple’) mustard
(Brassica juncea L., ‘Red Lion’), red pak choi (Brassica
rapa var. chinensis, ‘Rubi F1’) and tatsoi (Brassica rapa
var. rosularis), were grown in peat substrate (Profi 1,
Durpeta, Lithuania) (pH 5-6) in 0.5 L plastic vessels
(18x11x6 cm) for 10 days from sowing to harvest. The
following amounts of nutrients were available in the
substrate N 110, P2O5 50, K2O 160 (used as mg L–1);
microelements – Fe, Mn, Cu, B, Mo, Zn (used as mg L–1).
Depending on size and weight from we used 1 and
2 g of seeds were seeded per vessel. Each light
treatment contained four replicate vessels per species.
Total PPFD Blue, 445 nm
%
100 545 41
80 440 34
60 330 25
40 220 17
20 110 8 45
Table 1. Combinations of light-emitting diodes photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD).
PPFD- photosynthetic photon flux densities
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Experiments were performed in controlled-environment
growth chambers. Day/night temperatures of
21±2/17±2°C were established with a 16 h photoperiod
and a relative air humidity of 50-60%.
LED lighting units were originally designed by
Tamulaitis et al. [17] light emitting diode (LED) based
lighting units, consisting of commercially available LED’s
with emission wavelengths of blue (LXHL–LR3C, l=455
nm), red (LXHL-LD3C, l=638 nm and LXM3-PD01-0300,
l=660 nm) (Philips Lumileds, USA) and far-red (L735-
05-AU, l=735 nm) (Epitex, Japan) were used for
microgreen lighting. The surface area under the lighting
unit was approximately 0.5 m2. Different irradiance
levels, expressed as photosynthetic photon flux densities
(PPFD) were set in each lighting unit (545, 440, 330,
220 and 110 μmol m-2 s-1, Table 1). In our study we used
220 μmol m-2 s-1 as the normal irradiance level. PPFD
was measured and regulated at the vessel level using
a photometer – radiometer (RF-100, Sonopan, Poland).
2.2 Sampling
At harvesting time (10 days after sowing), microgreen
stems with cotyledons were cut. Conjugated biological
samples of the randomly selected plants (0.5-1 g per
sample) were used for each analysis. Three replicates
were performed for each phytochemical measurement
and ten replicate biometric measurements were
performed for each treatment. All data are expressed
as fresh weight.
2.3 Phytochemical analysis
2.3.1 Determination of DPPH• radical-scavenging
activity
The antioxidant activity of microgreen green matter
(80% methanol extracts (1:10)) was evaluated using
a spectrophotometer (Genesys 6, Thermospectronic,
USA) as the 2,2–diphenyl–1–picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
(Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) free radical scavenging
ability (µmol g-1) [18]. The absorbance was measured
for 16 minutes at 515 nm.
Red, 638 nm Red, 665 nm Far-red, 735 nm
µmol m s -2 -1
225 275 4
181 221.5 3.5
136 166 3
90 111 2
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G. Samuolienė et al.
2.3.2 Determination of total phenolic compounds
The total content of phenolic compounds was determined
from microgreen 80% methanol (POCh, Poland) extracts
(1:10) using the calorimetric Folin-Ciocalteau method
[18]. The absorbance was measured at 765 nm with
a Genesys 6 spectrophotometer (Thermospectronic,
USA) against water as a blank. Total phenolics were
calibrated using gallic acid as a standard.
2.3.3 Determination of total anthocyanins
The total amount of anthocyanins was determined using
the spectrophotometric pH-differential method [19].
The absorption values were measured at 420, 520 and
700 nm wavelengths. Anthocyanins were expressed
as cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalents, mg g-1 in fresh
plant weight, using a molar extinction coefficient of
25,740 mol-1 cm-1 and a molecular weight of 485 g mol-1.
2.3.4 Determination of α-tocoperol
Alpha tocopherol (Supelco, USA) content in hexane
(Merck, Germany) extracts (1:10) were evaluated using
a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
method. Samples were centrifuged (5 min, 349xg) and
filtrated through a 0.45 µm PTFE syringe filter (VWR
International, USA). The HPLC 10A system, equipped with
a RF-10A fluorescence detector (Shimadzu, Japan) and
Pinacle II silica column, 5 µm particle size, 150x4.6 mm
(Restek, USA) were used for analysis. The mobile
phase was 0.5% isopropanol (Merck, Germany) in
hexane, with a flow rate of 1 ml min-1. The peak was
detected using an excitation wavelength of 295 nm and
an emission wavelength of 330 nm.
2.3.5 Determination of ascorbic acid
Ascorbic acid (Penta, Check rep.) content was
evaluated using a spectrophotometric method [20]
based on methyl viologen (Aldrich, Germany) reduction.
A Genesys 6 spectrophotometer was used for this
analysis (Thermospectronic, USA). The colored radical
ion was measured at 600 nm and ascorbic acid contents
were evaluated using calibration curve.
2.3.6 Determination of chlorophyll index
Non-destructive measurements of leaf chlorophyll content
were performed in the laboratory at ambient temperature
and light using flavonols and a chlorophyll-meter (Dualex®
4, Scientific, USA). The absorption index was calculated
as the difference between the optical transmission at two
different wavelengths in the near infrared region.
2.3.7 Determination of sucrose
Sucrose was measured using high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC). About 1 g of fresh plant
tissue was ground and diluted with 70ºC bi-distilled
water. The extraction was carried out for 24 h. Samples
were centrifuged (5 min, 349xg) and filtrated through a
0.45 µm PTFE syringe filter (VWR International, USA).
The analyses were performed on a Shimadzu HPLC
(Japan) chromatograph with a refractive index detector
(RID 10A). Separation of carbohydrates was performed
on a SC-1011 column (300x4.6 mm) (Shodex, USA) with
mobile phase – bi-distilled water. The oven temperature
was maintained at 80ºC.
2.3.8 Determination of nitrates
Nitrate concentration was measured by a potentiometric
method [21] using an ion meter (Oakton, USA) with a
nitrate-selective electrode (Cole-Parmer, USA). Fresh
microgreen matter was dried at 105°C for 24 h and
ground using a mortar and pestle. The ionic strength
adjustor (ISA) contained 0.02 mol L-1 Al2(SO4)3 (Poch,
Poland), 0.01 mol L-1 Ag2SO4 (DeltaChem, Czech
Republic), and 0.02 mol L-1 H3BO3 (Poch, Poland). The
0.2 g of the dry sample was diluted in a 20 ml water–ISA
solution (50/50% v/v) and extracted in an ultrasound
bath for 10 min. All measurements were performed after
the sensor signal had been stabilized for 3 min.
2.4 Biometric measurements
The hypocotyl length of 10 randomly selected plants
was measured (cm). Dry weight (%) of the microgreens
was evaluated by drying plants in drying oven (Venticell,
MBT, Czech Republik) at 105°C for 24 h. Leaf area
was measured using an automatic leaf area meter (AT
Delta-T Devices, UK).
2.5 Statistical analysis.
All data are presented as mean values ± standard
deviation. Data was analyzed using one-way analysis
of variance ANOVA, the Fisher’s LSD test to normal
irradiance level (220 µmol m-2 s-1) with an alpha level
0.05. Data were processed using MS Excel software
(version 7.0).
3. Results
Photosynthetic photon flux densities in the region of
110–545 µmol m-2 s-1 had no apparent effect on the
external quality of the different microgreen species.
However, light effects on microgreen internal quality and
biometric parameters were evident (Table 2). Inhibition
of elongation in tested microgreens was observed under
higher irradiance levels: hypocotyls of mustard (P=0.27),
tatsoi (P=0.39) and kohlrabi (P=0.26) were significantly
shorter under 545-440 μmol m-2 s-1 treatments as
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 PPFD impact on Brassica microgreens internal quality

Varieties PPFD, µmol m-2 s-1 Hypocotyl length, cm Dry weight, % Leaf area, cm2

545 2.3±0.3B 5.4±0.5 1.9±0.4

440 2.1±0.4B 5.3±0.6 3.1±0.5A

330 2.7±0.3 5.4±0.2 2.6±0.4A

Mustard
220 2.9±0.3 4.9±0.4 2.0±0.6

110 3.2±0.2 5.4±0.7 1.1±0.3B

LSD05 0.3 0.5 0.4

545 4.1±0.3 6.3±0.0 A

3.4±0.4A

440 3.9±0.4 6.3±0.2A 3.4±0.9A

330 4.0±0.4 5.9±0.6A 2.8±0.6

Red Pak Choi
220 4.1±0.3 4.7±0.5 2.6±0.4

110 4.5±0.3A 4.9±0.5 2.0±0.9

LSD05 0.3 0.5 0.6

545 4.2±0.3B 5.8±0.4A 1.8±0.4

440 4.2±0.6B 5.6±0.3A 2.0±0.6

330 4.2±0.5B 5.7±0.7A 2.0±0.5

Tatsoi
220 4.7±0.4 4.8±0.8 1.8±0.5

110 5.1±0.2 4.6±0.6 1.2±0.4B

LSD05 0.4 0.4 0.5

545 2.6±0.3 B
6.7±0.5 5.8±1.0

440 2.6±0.3B 6.6±0.6 5.3±0.8

330 2.4±0.4 B
6.5±0.9 5.6±0.9
Kohlrabi
220 3.2±0.4 6.2±0.7 5.3±1.0

110 3.6±0.5 A
4.9±0.3 B
4.5±0.7

LSD05 0.3 0.6 0.9

Table 2. Growth parameters of Brassica microgreens cultivated under different irradiation levels (means ± standard deviations).

A
values are significantly (P≤0.05) higher than normal 220 µmol m-2s-1 irradiance level;
B
values significantly (P≤0.05) lower than normal 220 µmol m-2s-1 irradiance level.
PPFD- photosynthetic photon flux densities

compared to normal 220 µmol m-2 s-1 PPFD illumination.
The lowest irradiance level investigated at 110 μmol m-2 s-1
had slightly elongated hypocotyls, however these
results were only statistically significant in red pak
choi (P=0.27) and kohlrabi (P=0.25). Irradiances also
increased plant dry weight percentage in red pak choi
(P=0.48) and tatsoi (P=0.36) at 545 and 440 μmol m-2 s-1.
Leaf area also increased with increasing irradiance
level in mustard (P=0.37) under 440-300 and in red pak
choi (P=0.27) under 545-440 μmol m-2 s-1 PPFD levels
(Table 2).
Nutrient contents also varied depending on the LED
irradiance level. Leaf chlorophyll index increased at
higher irradiance levels 545-440 μmol m-2 s-1 in red pak
choi and mustard as compared to normal 220 μmol m-2 s-1
irradiance (Table 3). Sucrose accumulation in
microgreen leaves was also related to LED irradiation
level (Table 3): the lowest PPFD levels resulted in
lower sucrose contents,. Highest sucrose production
was detected at different irradiation levels for
different microgreen species: in kohlrabi (11.4 times
– at 545 μmol m-2 s-1; in red pak choi (6 times)
– at 440 μmol m-2 s-1; and in tatsoi (9.5 times higher
as compared to normal 220 μmol m-2 s-1 irradiance)
– at 330 μmol m-2 s-1. A significant (P<0.05) negative
correlation (r=-0.93–-0.98) was determined between
nitrate content and LED irradiation PPFD level in all
microgreen species: the lowest light levels resulted in
the highest nitrate concentrations in all microgreens that
decreased with increasing light level (Table 3).
LED irradiance level had only slight effect on the
DPPH free radical activity in microgreens (Figure 1A).
However, significantly lower DPPH free-radical
scavenging activity was determined at a PPFD level of

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G. Samuolienė et al.

Varieties PPFD, µmol m-2 s-1 Chlorophyll, index Sucrose, mg g-1 Nitrates, mg kg-1

545 20.5±2.1A 0.83±0.04 1474±93B

440 19.5±2.0 0.81±0.41 1437±33B

330 19.3±1.3 0.65±0.07 2014±59B

Mustard
220 18.5±0.7 0.53±0.19 2377±150

110 19.1±2.5 0.34±0.09 2366±155

LSD05 1.7 0.41 213.8

545 39.2±4.0A 0.62±0.05 503±98B

440 37.8±4.0A 3.47±0.29A 841±34B

330 33.1±4.6 0.94±0.25A 1222±68B

Red Pak Choi
220 33.1±2.4 0.58±0.06 2297±148

110 30.2±1.5 0.61±0.26 3079±106A

LSD05 3.5 0.26 197.5

545 31.5±5.0 0.92±0.15 598±20B

440 31.1±4.0 0.91±0.30 517±27B

330 28.2±3.4 5.71±0.28A 753±51B

Tatsoi
220 28.2±2.1 0.60±0.17 1509±72

110 25.6±4.9 0.71±0.11 1818±65A

LSD05 4.7 0.44 103.3

545 21.4±3.7 2.62±0.33 A

581±45B

440 23.9±2.7 0.77±0.07A 1464±59B

330 21.8±2.1 0.35±0.07 2099±43B

Kohlrabi
220 21.6±2.2 0.23±0.10 2432±58

110 19.0±2.8 0.19±0.05 3755±211A

LSD05 2.6 0.33 162.5

Table 3. Nutrient quality of Brassica microgreens cultivated under different irradiation levels.

A
values are significantly (P≤0.05) higher than normal 220 µmol m-2s-1 irradiance level;
B
values significantly (P≤0.05) lower than normal 220 µmol m-2s-1 irradiance level.

110 μmol m-2 s-1 and the highest – at 545-400 μmol m-2 s-1.
Lower DPPH free radical activity coincidenced with
a decrease in the amount of phenolic compounds
(Figure 1B) at 110 μmol m-2 s-1. Peak production of total
phenols occurred under high, 440 and 545 μmol m-2 s-1,
irradiance for tatsoi and kohlrabi, and under
440-330 μmol m-2 s-1 for red pak choi. In mustard, contents
of phenolic compounds under highest irradiance levels
did not differ from normal 220 μmol m-2 s-1 illumination.
Peak anthocyanin production occurred only at moderate
LED irradiation levels: the irradiance of 330 μmol m-2 s-1
led to significantly higher contents of total anthocyanins
in red pak choi and tatsoi (1.3 and 1.5 times higher than
under 220 μmol m-2 s-1 treatment) and 440 μmol m-2 s-1
led to the highest anthocyanin concentration in kohlrabi.
In mustard, 220 μmol m-2 s-1 irradiance resulted in lower
anthocyanin content as compared to lower or higher
irradiance levels (Figure 1C). α-tocopherol contents
also varied under different light intensities (Figure 1D).
The lowest investigated PPFD levels led to significantly
higher α tocopherol accumulation in mustard, red
pak choi and kohlrabi, when in tatsoi both 220 and
110 μmol m-2 s-1 irradiance had significant positive effects
on α tocopherol content.
The higher investigated PPFD level had uneven
effect on α tocopherol and ascorbic acid accumulation.
Mustard grown under 545 μmol m-2 s-1 had an
α-tocopherol concentration 1.6 times higher than plants
grown at 220 μmol m-2 s-1. Red pak choi and tatsoi grown
at 545 μmol m-2 s-1 had significantly lower concentrations
of α tocopherol compared to normal light. Negligibly
low concentrations of α-tocopherol were detected in
kohlrabi. Ascorbic acid content (Figure 1E) did not
differ remarkably under different LED light intensities,
except in red pak choi and tatsoi, where the lowest
110 μmol m-2 s-1 PPFD level resulted in significantly

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 PPFD impact on Brassica microgreens internal quality

LSD0.5 =0.2 LSD0.5 =0.3 LSD0.5 =0.4 LSD0.5 =0.2 LSD0.5 =0.03 LSD0.5 =0.03 LSD0.5 =0.03 LSD0.5 =0.03
0,7 0
12
DPPH free radical scavenging activity,

A B A A A A A
A A 0,60
B B B A
10 B A A A

-1
0,50 B

Total phenols, mg g
B
8 *
0,40 B *
B
6
-1

0,30
µmol g

4 0,20
2 0,10
0 0,00
545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110

Mustard Red Pak Choi Tatsoi Kohlrabi Mustard Red Pak Choi Tatsoi Kohlrabi
A µmol m-2 s -1 B µmol m-2 s -1

LSD0.5 =0.07 LSD0.5 =0.13 LSD0.5 =0.16 LSD0.5 =0.13 LSD0.5 =0.007 LSD0.5 =0.005 LSD0.5 =0.003 LSD0.5 =0.003
0,4 A
A A
0,35

-1
2,0
A A

Alpha tocopherol, mg g
1,8
-1

0,3
Total anthocyanins, mg g

1,6 B A
A
1,4 A 0,25
A B A B A
1,2 A B B B
0,2 B B
1,0 A A B
0,8 0,15 B B
A

0,6 0,1
0,4
0,2 0,05 B
0,0 0

545
440
330
220
110
545
440
330
220
110
545
440
330
220
110
545
440
330
220
110
545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110 545 440 330 220 110

Mustard Red Pak Choi Tatsoi Kohlrabi Mustard Red Pak Choi Tatsoi Kohlrabi
C µmol m-2 s -1 D µmol m-2 s -1

LSD0.5 =0.34 LSD0.5 =0.25 LSD0.5 =0.65 LSD0.5 =0.15

6,0
A
5,0
-1

A
Ascorbic acid, mg g

4,0

3,0
A
2,0 B B

1,0

0,0
545
440
330
220
110
545
440
330
220
110
545
440
330
220
110
545
440
330
220
110

Mustard Red Pak Choi Tatsoi Kohlrabi

E µmol m-2 s -1

Figure 1. Changes in antioxidant properties of Brassica microgreens cultivated under different irradiation levels.
A- the influence of different doses of examined compounds on DPPH free radicals scavenging activity; values are significantly (P≤0.05)
higher than normal 220 µmol m-2 s-1 irradiance level; B- the influence of different doses of examined compounds on total phenols
concentration (mg g-1); values significantly (P≤0.05) lower than normal 220 µmol m-2 s-1 irradiance level; C- the influence of examined
compounds on total anthocyanins level (mg g-1); D- the influence of examined compounds on α-tocopherol concentration (mg g-1);
E- the influence of examined compounds on ascorbic acid concentration (mg g-1);

higher ascorbic acid content (3.8 and 3.5 times higher components [12,22]. In our experiments, low LED light
than under normal 220 μmol m-2 s-1 light level). levels negatively affected brassica microgreen growth
parameters: irradiance levels of 110 or 220 μmol m-2 s-1
resulted in hypocotyl elongation, and a decrease in
4. Discussion dry weight and leaf area, whereas higher PPFD levels
(up from 330 μmol m-2 s-1) resulted in proper growth
Lighting systems should provide sufficient parameters. However, lowest PPFD levels resulted in
photosynthetic photon flux for optimal efficiency of plant high accumulated nitrate contents in all investigated
photosynthetic processes and also meet the constraints microgreen species, which is consistent with other
for light power [12]. It is, therefore, necessary to select studies of different green vegetables under low irradiance
the optimal irradiance level from both an agronomic and [13,23,24]. Higher LED light intensity gradually reduced
economic perspective. A minimum level of irradiance nitrate content in microgreens, whereas sucrose
is necessary for sufficient synthesis and activity of content remarkably increased. However, peak sucrose
photosynthetic pigments, biomass, leaf area formation production matched the highest applied PPFD only in
or nitrogen investment between photosynthetic mustard and kohlrabi, whereas sucrose content in red

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G. Samuolienė et al.
pak choi and tatsoi were the highest under moderate
applied PPFD levels. Sugars are important not only
for growth, but also function as signaling molecules
which are able to modulate light signaling pathways.
Moreover, in some plants, intense sucrose accumulation
in leaves is associated with a reduction in nitrates [13] or
decreased photosynthetic rates [25].
Other authors have demonstrated that low light
results in more effective functioning of PSII [12],
higher contents of chloroplast pigments and electron
carriers [26], whereas high light causes degeneration
of pigments as they participate in photoprotection.
However, Fu and coauthors [23] suggest that at lower
light levels (200 μmol m-2 s-1), light use efficiency
is the highest, whereas at high, but tolerable light
(400-600 μmol m-2 s-1) levels, lettuce plant yield is the
highest. Our data showed that in microgreens grown
under lower irradiance levels (110–330 μmol m-2 s-1),
significantly lower chlorophyll index was determined, but
were of similar values to those found in other studies
[3]. We showed that increasing PPFD level led to an
increase in the content of chlorophylls and carotenoids
and also improved biometric parameters.
The lowest applied LED light level (110 µmol m-2 s-1)
also resulted in lower antioxidant activities of
microgreen tissues. We suggest that higher,
220-330 µmol m-2 s-1 PPFD levels should be used by
growers seeking normal growth and superior nutritional
quality of brassica microgreens. It has been previously
reported that high light (>400 μmol m-2 s-1) treatment, as
a mild environmental stress, was useful in enhancing
nutritional properties in sprouts [27] and mature plants
[15,28]. Plants typically respond to environmental
stressors by inducing antioxidant production as
a defense mechanism. High light treatments also
resulted in increased contents of phenolic compounds
and antioxidant activity with no adverse effect on
growth or yield [28]. However, the effects of higher light
levels was not consistent across all of the antioxidants
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Acknowledgements
This research was funded by a grant (No. SVE-03/2011)
from the Research Council of Lithuania.
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