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JOINING PROCESSES

Mechanical Fasteners

Riveted Joints
Synthetic Adhesives

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Welded Structures

Offshore oil platform Shipyard

Welded joints
Refineries

Basics of Welding
• Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence.
• This is done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material (with or without
of a similar composition and melting point as the base metal) to form a pool of
molten material (the weld puddle) that cools to become a strong joint.
• Pressure may sometimes be applied in conjunction with the heat, or by itself to
produce the weld.
• Welding can be done using different energy sources, from a gas flame or electric
arc to a laser or ultrasound.
• Welding cannot be done with all types of metals, as some materials, such as
stainless steel, are prone to cracking and distortion when overheated.

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Basics of Welding
Autogenous: Same Base metal without Filler
Homogenous: Same Base Metal with Base Filler metal
Heterogeneous: Dissimilar Materials with filler material which has
melting point temperature less than parant material
Weldability :
It is the property of the metal which indicates the ease with which it
can be welded by any welding method.
Factors affecting weldability
Composition
Brittleness and strength at elevated temp.
Thermal properties
Weldling Techniques
Heat treatment before and after the welding
Weldability of metals in decreasing order:-
Iron, Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Low Alloy Steel,Stainless Steel

Joint Types

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Joint Design

BUTT JOINT

FILLET JOINT

STRAP JOINT

CORNER JOINT
LAP JOINT

Welding Positions

INCREASING DIFFICULTY

FLAT

HORIZONTAL
OVERHEAD

VERTICAL

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TYPES
• Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a
plastic state and forced together by external
pressure
(Ex) Resistance welding
• Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure
Welding
The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed
to solidify
(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding

Classification of welding processes:

(i). Arc welding
• Carbon arc (iv)Thermit Welding
• Metal arc (v)Solid State Welding
• Metal inert gas Friction
• Tungsten inert gas Ultrasonic
• Plasma arc Diffusion
• Submerged arc Explosive
• Electro-slag (vi)Newer Welding
(ii). Gas Welding Electron-beam
• Oxy-acetylene Laser
• Air-acetylene (vii)Related Process
• Oxy-hydrogen Oxy-acetylene cutting
(iii). Resistance Welding Arc cutting
• Butt Hard facing
Brazing
• Spot
Soldering
• Seam
• Projection
• Percussion

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Arc Welding
Electrons liberated from the cathode move towards the anode and are accelerated
in their movement. When they strike the anode at high velocity, large amount of
heat is generated. The electrons are moving through the air gap between the
electrodes, also called the arc column, they collide with the ions in the ionized gas
column between the electrodes. The positively charged ions, moving from the
anode and would be impinging on the cathode, thus liberating heat. A temperature
of the order of 6000 °C is generated at the anode.

ELECTRODE COATING
CORE WIRE

WELDING ATMOSPHERE
ARC STREAM
ARC POOL
SOLIDIFIED SLAG
PENETRATION
DEPTH

WELD

BASE METAL

Arc welding
Equipment for arc welding includes the power source, cables (leads), electrode
holder, electrodes, cleaning accessories, tools to handle hot metals, and protective
clothing.
Power Sources
• Arc welding equipment are available in a large range of sizes and power ratings
(rated according to their current output).
• Welding machines in the school shop/lab range from 100 to 250 amperes.
• Power supply is either direct current (dc) or alternating current (ac).
• Direct current is electric current that flows only in one direction. Alternating
current is electricity that reverses its direction of flow in regular intervals.
.

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Types of Arc Welding

Depending On the Types of Electrode
A. Un-Shielded Arc Welding:- Use of Bare Electrodes
B. Shielded Arc Welding:- Use of Coated Electrodes
Depending on the Power Source
A. AC Arc Welding:
Receives supply at 220 to 440 Volts and transforms it to less than 100
Volts with Step Down transformer in order to strike arc and to maintain it.
B. DC Arc Welding:
The voltage required is 60-80 Volts for striking the arc and
15-25 to maintain the arc.
1. Straight Polarity:-Job to Positive Terminal and Electrode to Negative Terminal. 60-
75% heat is produced at the positive terminal.
2. Reversed Polarity: Job to Negative terminal and Electrode to Positive terminal.

Welding Electrodes

Types of electrodes
1. Bare or non coated electrodes
2. Coated electrodes
a. Lightly coated
b. Medium Coated
c. Heavy Coated
Light and medium coated may have thickness from 10 to 50
percent of total diameter and heavily coated may have above 50
percent.
The standard diameter of the electrode varies from 1.6 mm to 9
mm and length from 250 to 450 mm
Contents and Functions.
• Gives off an inert or protective gas eg. Wood floor
• Form the slag , which helps to remove oxides and other
impurities eg Silicate, manganese oxide etc.
• Stabilizes the arc eg titanium oxide, sodium oxide etc
• Add alloying element to improve the strenth of welded joint
e.g. vanadium, cobalt, molybdenum etc
• Form the deoxidising constituents eg. Graphite, alluminium,
etc.
• Binding materials eg. Sodium silicate, asbestos etc.

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Cables (Leads)
• Arc welding cables are heavy-duty, flexible,
rubber-coated copper or aluminum cables
designed to take the rough handling they receive
in a welding shop.
• Two cables or leads carry the current through a
complete circuit.
• An electrode holder is attached to one cable.
The second cable is fitted to the ground clamp.
• The clamp is mounted to the work or to the
welding table
Electrode Holder
The electrode holder provides a
means of gripping the electrode firmly
and good electrical contact.
Ground Clamp
A ground clamp provides the means to
make a solid, electrically-sound
ground connection with the work or
welding table.

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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

GMAW, is similar to GTAW in that the weld area is also protected from
atmospheric contamination by a stream of inert gas.
In GMAW the electrode melts and contributes filler metal to the joint.
GMAW is also called metal inert gas or MIG welding
.

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Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FGAW)

• FGAW is a gas shielded welding process similar to GMAW.

• FGAW melts and joins metals by heating them with an arc between a
continuous, consumable electrode wire and the work.
• The main difference is that the FGAW electrode is hollow, rather than solid.
• Shielding is obtained from a flux contained within the electrode core. A
shielding gas may or may not also be used.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

• SAW is an arc welding technique that

does not produce smoke arc rays,
radiant heat, or spatter.
• The consumable, bare metal
electrode is shielded by a blanket of flux
covering the weld area.
• To weld, the operator fills the flux
hopper and points the gun into the joint
and then allows a pile of flux to
accumulate before striking an arc under
the flux.
• Once the arc is struck, the electrode
automatically feeds into the arc as the
gun is moved over the joint.

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Resistance Welding

• Resistance welding refers to a group of welding techniques using pressure, an

electric current, electrical resistance of the work, and the resulting heat to join
metal sections.
• An electric circuit is produced by the welding device and the work.
• Resistance spot welding (RSW) is the best known of the resistance welding
techniques.

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Resistance Welding

Resistance Spot welding

Essentially consists of two electrodes, out of which one is fixed. The other
electrode is fixed to a rocker arm (to provide mechanical advantage) for
transmitting the mechanical force from a pneumatic cylinder. This is the
simplest type of arrangement. The other possibility is that of a pneumatic or
hydraulic cylinder being directly connected to the electrode without any rocker
arm

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PROJECTION WELDING
• Projection welding is very similar to spot
welding except that in it, embossments or
projections of the parts themselves localize the
current flow from one piece to the other.
• The projected metal is heated sufficiently to
soften and fuse it to the mating part.
• No fluxes or filler material is required.
• Projection welds are not limited to sheet
material. Forgings, castings, machined parts,
etc. can be welded this way; the only requirement
is a pre-formed projection or embossment on one
of the workpieces.
• Projection welding is considerably faster than
spot welding because multiple welds can be made
simultaneously.
Typical uses
Office furniture (file cabinets, desks,
bookcases, etc.), appliance housings
(refrigerator cabinets, stoves, toasters,
freezers, etc.), automobile components (chassis,

BUTT WELDING

•In flash welding, the parts are brought together

with only a slight pressure against one another or
are kept slightly apart.
•Electrodes are clamped to each part and heavy
current is made to pass through them.
•Arcing takes place where the parts come together
and the whole area of the ends is raised to a high
temperature.
•Heavy pressure is then applied to the two parts
forcing them together where they fuse when the
current is stopped.
•A thin fin around the joint is formed and this
normally contains any metal oxides, leaving only
sound metal in the weld.
•No fluxes or filler material is required.
Typical uses
Widely used throughout the industry for joining
sections and bars and for attaching fittings to
rods and sections. Used for automobile
transmission gear and wheel rims, aircraft engine
rings, window frames and steel rails.
Upset Butt Welding

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SEAM WELDING
• In seam welding, circular wheel-like
electrodes press the overlapping sheets
to be welded together and while rolling
conduct a series of high current-low
voltage pulses to the work.
• These produce overlapping spot welds
which become a continuous seam.
• No fluxes or filler material is required.
• The electrodes are made of low resistance Seam welding
copper alloy and are watercooled.
• Typical uses
• Applications where fluid-carrying ability
and pressure tightness is required; for
example, fuel
• tanks for vehicles, refrigerator
evaporator coils, ductwork, drums, cans,
aircraft and aero engine
• parts, automobile components and domestic
equipment.

Gas Welding

• Gas welding is a welding processes that make use of burning gases to produce
the heat required to melt and fuse the metal.
• Acetylene or hydrogen mixed with oxygen are the most commonly used gases.
• Filler material in the form of a welding rod (made of a similar composition and
melting temperature as the metal being welded) may or may not be used.
• Oxyacetylene welding (mixture of acetylene and oxygen) is the welding technique
most commonly used. The gases burn with an extremely hot flame (6300°F or
3482°C);
• The acetylene and oxygen must be mixed in correct proportions to safely and
properly weld.
• Gas Welding is widely used for repair work, especially in anything involving pipes
and tubes.
• Gas welding is common in the jewelry industry, as well as for the welding of
plastics and other materials that cannot stand higher temperatures

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The basic equipment needed for oxyacetylene welding consists of two gas
cylinders, welding hoses, oxygen and acetylene regulators, and a welding torch.

Gas cylinders( must be tested at frequent intervals) serve as the supply source for
the two gases –oxygen (right) and acetylene (left).

Welding torch is a mechanical device the welder holds during gas

welding and cutting.Torch serves to mix and control the gases in proper
proportion when welding

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Types of Flames

Neutral Flame

Carburizing Flame

Oxidizing Flame

•Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long

white inner area (Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue
envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c)
•Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone
surrounded by the transparent blue envelope is called
Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen)
(32000c)
•Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron
•If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and
more pointed, while the envelope becomes shorter and more
fierce is called Oxidizing flame
•Has the highest temperature about 34000c
•Used for welding brass and brazing operation

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SPECIAL WELDING
TECHNIQUES

Thermit welding

Thermit welding is basically a process in which a mixture containing Aluminium

powder, Iron Oxide and suitable alloying elements, is ignited in a crucible to form
molten steel and slag. This molten steel is then directed into the pre-fabricated
moulds where it fuses with the preheated ends of parent metal to form a Thermit
welded joint.

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Thermit mixture contains the

following items :
1. Roasted mill scale
2. Aluminum powder
3. Steel chips
4. Various ferro alloys
•These items are mixed in
certain ratios to form the
"Thermit Powder".
•The Thermit powder ignites at
a temperature of about 300
degrees centigrade. On
ignition, the reaction starts
and the mixture melts.
•The temperature of the molten
metal rises to about 2700
degrees centigrade but lowers
down due to the presence of
steel chips and heat losses.

Thermit welding

THERMITE REACTION: FE2O3 + 2 AL –> AL2O3 + 2 FE

A thermite reaction (a type of aluminothermic reaction) is one in which

aluminium metal is oxidized by an oxide of another metal, most commonly
iron oxide.

Although the reactants are stable at room temperature, when they are
exposed to sufficient heat to ignite, they burn with an extremely intense
exothermic reaction.

Thermite contains its own supply of oxygen, and does not require any
external source (such as air). Consequently, it cannot be smothered and may
ignite in any environment (it will burn perfectly well underwater, for example),
given sufficient initial heat.

Thermite reaction can be used for quickly cutting or welding metal such as
rail tracks, without requiring complex or heavy equipment. This type of
reaction can also be adapted to purify the ores of some metals.

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SOLID STATE WELDING

ULTRASONIC WELDING

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Friction welding

Friction welding is a solid-state joining

process that produces coalescence of
two parts of essentially circular section
by rotating them relative to each other
while under a compressive load. This
relative motion causes heating and
plastic deformation of the material
adjacent to the weld interface and
ultimately results in a high integrity
welded assembly.

Advantages of Friction Welding

Friction welding has been used by the
automotive industry for decades in the
manufacture of a range of components. The
process is attractive for several reasons:
• The friction heating is generated locally, so
there is no widespread softening of the
assembly
• The weld is formed across the entire cross-
sectional area of the interface in a single shot
process
• The technique is capable of joining
dissimilar materials
• The process is completed in a few seconds
with very high reproducibility - an essential
requirement for a mass production industry.

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EXPLOSIVE WELDING

DIFFUSION BONDING
Diffusion bonding
• High pressure and temperature for extended periods of time can
lead to bonding.
• Heat permits deformation of asperities.
• If oxide layer is soluble in base material, it can diffuse into
bulk, leading to inter- ,
atomic bonding.
• Complex inaccessible joints can be bonded.
• Removes cold working.
• Dissimilar materials can be bonded.
Diffusion bonding - examples
• Silver oxide is not stable at high temperatures, easy to
diffusion bond.
• Iron, titanium and copper also can be diffusion bonded, because
the oxide, which is stable, diffuses into the base metal.
• Aluminum and magnesium are hard to diffusion bond, as their
oxides are stable
and insoluble.
Processing contact - conditions
• 500 to 5,000 psi
• T > 0 6 T melting (absolute)
Minutes to hours to 10s of hours

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DIFFUSION BONDING

Initial asperity Second grain stage – boundary

contact migration and pore elimination

First stage deformation - Third volume stage - diffusion pore

deformation, interfacial elimination
boundary formation

MODERN WELDING
METHODS

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Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion joining

process that produces a weld by impinging a
beam of high energy electrons to heat the weld
joint.
Electrons are elementary atomic particles
characterized by a negative charge and an
extremely small mass.
Raising electrons to a high energy state by
accelerating them to roughly 30 to 70 percent of
the speed of light provides the energy to heat the
weld.
The electron beam is always generated in a high
vacuum. The use of specially designed orifices
separating a series of chambers at various levels
of vacuum permits welding in medium and no
vacuum conditions.
Although, high vacuum welding will provide
maximum purity and high depth to width ratio
welds.

•EBW Benefits
• Single pass welding of thick joints
• Hermetic seals of components retaining a vacuum
• Low distortion
• Low contamination in vacuum
• Weld zone is narrow
• Heat affected zone is narrow
• Dissimilar metal welds of some metals
• Uses no filler metal
•EBW Limitations
• High equipment cost
• Work chamber size constraints
• Time delay when welding in vacuum
• High weld preparation costs
• X-rays produced during welding
• Rapid solidification rates can cause cracking in some
materials

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Laser beam welding

In laser beam welding, materials melt

under the heat obtained from a narrow
beam of coherent, monochromatic light
(a laser beam).
Typically, no filler metal is used.

•Is used for thin-gage workpieces

•Is used for welding areas that are not readily
accessible
•Provides excellent welding precision
•Permits joining of dissimilar alloys
•Uses no electrodes
•Causes little or no thermal damage to the
workpiece
•It is easily automated

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Defects in Welding

1. Undercut
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Porosity
4. Slag Inclusion
5. Hot Cracking
6. Cold cracking
7. Lamellar tearing

WELDING RELATED
PROCESSES

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Adhesives

1. Natural Adhesives
2. Synthetic Resins
3. Elastomeric Adhesives

Properties of Adhesives
•Strength
•Toughness
•Resistance to chemicals and Fluids
•Resistance against environmental degradation
•Ability to wet the surface to be bonded

Classification of Adhesives
1. Non structural adhesives (Natural Adhesives
Glues, shellac, rosin, casein and asphalt
2. Structural adhesives (Synthetic Organic Adhesives)
Chemically reactive: Epoxis, silicones, Polyurethanes, phenolics, polymides
Reactive hot melt: ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers
Film or Tape: Nylon epoxies, elastomer epoxies, nitrile phenolics, vinyl
phenolics
Electrically and Thermally conductive: Epoxies, polyurethane, silicones,

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Some Important adhesives used by industry

1. Epoxies
Ceramics rigid plastic parts
2. Modified Epoxies
glass, metal, cement joints, construction etc.
3. Phenolics
acoustic lining, brake lining, clutch pads
4. Polyurethane
Fiberglass body parts, rubber and fabrics
5. Cynoacrylates
Used as a fixture to fix the parts at its position
6. Anaerobic adhesives
Close fitting of Machine parts, nuts, bolts and Bushing
7. Acrylic adhesives
Metal parts, tennis rackets, Plastics
8. Silicone adhesives
Gaskets and sealants
9. Formaldehyde adhesives
Waterproof joints, plywoods and wood joints

Brazing and Soldering

• Brazing
It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at
temperatures above 840º F (425º C) and it generally affords
strengths comparable to those of the metal which it joins. It is low
temperature in that it is done below the melting point of the base
metal. It is achieved by diffusion without fusion (melting) of the base

Brazing can be classified as

• Torch brazing
• Dip brazing
• Furnace brazing
• Induction brazing

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Brazing

Advantages
& Disadvantages
Advantages

• Dissimilar metals which can not be welded can be joined by brazing

• Very thin metals can be joined
• Metals with different thickness can be joined easily
• In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece.
Hence there is no distortion
• Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool holders

Disadvantages

• Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding

• Joint preparation cost is more
• Can be used for thin sheet metal sections

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Soldering

• It is a low temperature joining

process. It is performed at
temperatures below 840ºF (425 º C)
for joining.
• Soldering is used for,
• Sealing, as in automotive
radiators or tin cans
• Electrical Connections
• Joining thermally sensitive
components
• Joining dissimilar metals

END OF UNIT-5

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