Special School Set

on i
·;

Mineral s and Rocks

BY
WILLIAM P. HOLT
PROFESSOR EMERITUS
BOWLING GREEN STATE UNIVERSITY

Revis ea.
Third Duplication
 FORWORD

How well Stevenson expressed a great truth in these famous

lines:
"Life is so fnJ1 of a great many things
I think WP should a.:'..l be a.s happy as kings . "
. Scores of alluring fields in the animal, plant, and minerals
kingdoms offer rich rewards to the fortunate who explore them.
To those who have engaged in the first hand study of minerals
and r.ocks it is unnecessary to stress the deep interest and de-
light in this fascinating field. Unfortunately, however~ compara-
tively few have made even an introductory study of this :important
part of our physical environment.
As one person expressed it, "It is surprising how very little
most of'us know about the earth on which and from which we live."
How many of your acquaintances know a limestone from a sandstone,
or can recognize with certainty even a few of the more common
minerals?
Why this general lack of knowledge of minerals and. rocks? It
is certainly not because such study is unimportant or uninterest-
ing.
Where in our public schools is such first-hand instruction
from actual specimens included? In very few at present.
"Nothing takes the place of the real thing" is a:·.selt-evid.ent.
truth. Reading stories about minerals and rocks is of little
value without actual specimens.
Likewise, looking at pictures of minerals-even in colors-is
of very little value in recognizing and knowing the various kinds.
It is to supply eighty or more carefully selected specimens
of the more common minerals and rocks that these school sets have
been prepared.
All specimens are numbered and named; and when individually
observed !!E. .ha_n_,d,_l-.e..-d by the pupils can be easily recognized.
To say that a man's name is Jones tells nothiES about ~~
and so the mere naming of spe~imens is of little value in itself
aside from the training in observation and recognition.
(

:·

.. '

(FOREWORD)
To greatly increase the value'of this educational collection
e. brief manual a.ccompanies it, which gives important information
about each spec1men. How to recognize it, its uses and importance
are some of the considerations included.
Aside from valuable training in observation and the acquiring
ot valuable knowledge about the specimens, the study of minerals
and rocks should strongly etress their verr great economic import-
ance, which is not likely to be over-emphasited.
"Why shp~ld one be interested in minerals and rocks..?", writes
F. B. Loomis. · "Because the whole world is· made of rocks :. ~;and
minerals. They are the foundations on which we buil~. Fr(')l!l them
we draw all our metals, and the extent to which 'we utilize our
mineralsiS e:-ieasure of the advance of our civilization."
Fr.agments of rock are ~.!!.!! from which, by way of -the
plants 1 we draw our food, and ultimately. our life," ·
The total value of the annual output of metallic and n~n­
metallic earth resources in the Unites States alone is at present- ....
!!!~!-;!!~ billions 2!, dollars.

I f you master thoroughly the few specimens in this intro-

ductQl"y set, you may want to continue· t~is interesting and practi-
cal study, and ~ your .2!!! personal collections. The field of
minerals and rocks is a very large one, and if you desire to ex-
plore it you will find it more and more interesting when continued
as a life-long hobby.
Aside from adding to your general collections of minerals and
rocks, special collection~ •f Dd.neral crystals, or of ores
(minerals which are sources of metals), and many interesting geo-
logical formations could be made; and your continued studies '.anci
collections in these fields will yield increasing delight and
satisfaction.
 3·
HARDNESS
Hardness is one of the most important characteristics of min-
erals; and is an easy means of identifying many. By hardness is
meant resistance ~ scratching. If one mineral will scratch an-
other it is harder than the one which is scratched.
In order to avoid indefinite general terms, such as rather
hard or moderately hard, a scale of hardness ranging from 1 to IO
is used. This is known as Moh•s-scale of hardness; and is used
everywhere in determining the hardness of minerals.
Moh' s Scale of Hardness
1. Talc 6. -Feldspar
2 •. Selenite 7. Quartz·
3. Calcite 8. Topaz
4. Fluorite 9. Corundum
5. Apatite 10. Diamond
Minerals 1 and 2 on the scale of hardness can be scratched
with the finger nail. No. 3 (Calcite) can be scratched with a
copper coin; and a knife blade will scratch 4 and 5, but not 6.
No. 6 can, of course, be scratched with a. quartz crystal-which
will also scratch glass.
If a. mineral will scratch calcite (#3) but can be scratched
by fluorite (#4) it is between 3 and 4 in hardness.
In determining which of two minerals is the harder be sure
that the one rubbed on the other leaves a Eermanent scratch, and
not merely a streak which can be ~ubbed off-as softer chalk leaves
a chalk line streak on the harder slate blackboard.

COLOR AND STREAK

One of the first considerations in the recog~ition of minerals
is color, although the same mineral may occur in several· ·differ:ent
colors. Fluorite may be white or colorless, blue, green, pink, red
purple' amber' light brown ' to dark brown; and calcite occurs in at
least 8 dtfferent colors.
Tte apparent or surface color, is often quite different from
the essential color or streak. The streak is obtained by rubbing
minerals (below 6· in hardness) on a rough unglazed s'lirface· know
as a stre;king dish. The same color is obtained along the line of
contact ~ the mineral with the streaking dish as results from pul-
verizing the mineral.
The streak (essential color) of all calcite, regardless of its
many surface colors, is white; and the same is true for fluorite.
'•
All hematite (Fe203) regardless of its surface color-even in-
cluding the specular or glistening silver-gray hematite-gives a red
streak or red powder.
It is evident that getting the streak, or pulverizing a bit of
the specimen, is important in the identification of certain min-
erals.
------------------------------~-----
... ~----

TRANSPARENCY
..
~·

Also known as diaphan eity 1 a term meaning, from its O:eek

derivati on, "to shine through ", refers to the extent that light
does or does not pass through objects. If the specimen does not
permit any light to pass through it is called opaque.
If light passes through more or less perfect ly, so that ob-
jects and print are clearly discern ible through certain mineral s,
they are consider ed transpa rent. ·
Clear glass, quartz crystal s, and clear specimens are trans-
parent; ground or frosted glass, and chalcedony are transluc ent.
When a mineral , like flint, is only slightly transluc ent,
and shows its transluc ent nature only in thin chips or along thin
edges, · it is rated as 2-trans lucent, or· somewhat transluc ent.

CLEAVAGE AND FRACTURE

--.---~--- ~~~-

When mineral s can be separate d along plane or flat surfaces

they possess cleavag e. This may be in one directio n only as in
mica, or to a lesser extent in plates of selenite .
Feldspa r has two cleavage planes intersec ting at nearly
right ·&.ngles·. ·Halite (salt crystal s), galena (lead), and calcite
each has three definite cleavage planes. ·
The term fracture applies to the manner of breaking of a
mineral not possess ing cleavag e. No variety of--qua rtz could be
broken with a flat surface . Instead, most quartz breaks with a
concave surface suggesti ng the inside of a. shell - hence the ter,m
conchoidal is appropr iate, from the Latin "concha" for shell.
Obsidian likewise has conchoi dal fracture . ·
Other term~ .occasio nally applied to the manner of fracture
are - uneven, hackley , splinter y, and earthy.
 5
ABRASIVES
To be used as an abrasive (grinding or polishing material)
rocks and minerals must possess a superior hardness of at least 7
(the hardness of quartz) •
. Natural abrasives include sandstone for grinding wheels and
sharpening stones, corund;um (9 in hardness); emery (7 to 9); gar-
net, quartz sand. Hardest of all natural abrasives is bort and
carbonado (black) diamond particles; but the very high . ve.lue of
even these inferior grades of diamonds limits this material to a
very few special uses.
Finely ground material for rubbing and polishing, scouring
soaps and powders, et al, would include pumice, pumicite, tripoli
(nearly pure silica), and diatomaceous earth.
Artificial abrasives have quite largely replaced the natural
grinding. abrasives.
Carborundum- made by fusing silica, coke, and sawdust in e-
lectric furnaces, making a harder product (SiC) than any natural
substance except diamond. ·
Aloxite ·an artificial A1203 product of the electric furnace,
and other similar substances .are among the very hard artificial
abrasives. ·
Various trade names are assigned to several artificial abra-
sives, i~ addition to carborundum and aloxite.

APATITE

Apatite is a phosphate of calcium, which is greenish, crcwn-

·ish, or occasionally bluish in color. It is #5 on the scale of
hardness.
When crystallized it occurs in hexagonal prisms. It is
mined as a phosphate rock.

ASBES't'OS

Asbestos is a comtnercial term applied to the fibrous varie-

ties of serpentine and hornblende. · These fibrous forms result
from natural changes (metamorphism) in the rocks; and some speci-
mens actuall7 show transition stages between the ser~entine rock
and asbestos.
Most of the commercial asbestos is fibrous serpentine (or
chrysotile); and it varies from a quarte~ of an inch in length to
two inches or more, in the rock layers where it occurs.
 -------- ij

6
Uses - for non-inflammable articles, protective covering for
steam-pipes, shingles, theater.cUl'tains, et al.

Production - The province of Quebec supplies more than 95~

of our asbestos.

ASPBALT

Asphalts are tormed chiefly by the action of the atmosphere

on crude petroleum seeping from the earth. In time the sticky,
exposed tar-like mass becomes solid, and. can be removed in pieces
of varying size from the surface where it occurs.
Its principal use is ·for road paving. Other important uses
are for roofing (including asphalt shingles), and water-prOofing.
There are also many minor uses. ·
The spec~n in this collection is from the famous Trinidad
asphalt "lake" or pool.·
. In addition to natural asphalt deposits far greater quanti-
ties of it are obtained from the refining of petroleum. Over 8~
of the asphalt used in the United States is so obtained. ·

BARITE
.jo

Barite (BaSOlJ.) or "heavy spar" is the sulphate of bB.rium,

similar in crystal form to celestite. It can easily be distin-
g!lished from other minerals of ~;~imilar appearance by its greater
sp. gr. (heavier weight), which is easily recognized when lifted
by the finger tips.

In finely pulverized f~rm it may be used in paints, and in

sugar refining.

BASALT

Basalts are heavy, dense black to dark brown volcanic rocks.

Although of a stony nature, the individual particles are too mi-
nnte to be recognized by eye or lens. ·
They are one of the most common forms of volcanic rocks, and
may cover large areas. The C.olumbia - Snake River plateau, em-
bracing over 200,000 square miles of lava fields in the north-
western U. S. 1 is largely basalt. ·

The contraction of basalt lavas in cooling ~ result in the

well known "palisade" or column&t' structure 1 illustrated 1n the
Giants Causeway, Palisades of the Hudson, ·and scores of . other
similar formations.
_j 7
Basalt is also called ~ ~~ and owing to its density and
toughness may be used as crushed stone in road bUilding, practi-
cally its only use.

Bauxite is the principal ore of aluminum the world over. Its

compositi on is 5~- 65%
Al203-ril umina), with 25~ - 32% chemical-
.
ly combined water 1 and low percentag es of certain impm-itie s.
In color it may be red (colored by iron impm-ities) 1 buff 1 to
mear].y white. ·· . ·

It is a non-meta llic earthy looking material which may be

hard as rock or as soft as clay. Rock bauxite often has· a piso-
litic (like small peas) structure . · · ·

Uses Probably 65~ of the worlds's productio n of bauxite i$ ·

used Iii'the manufactu re of aluminum; but there are other important
uses including artificia l abrasives (such as aloxite) 1 chemicals ,
refractor ies 1 cement (superior to Portland cement) ~ · and in the
refining of petroleum .
The bauxit~ used in the U. S. for the manufactu re of aluminum
comes from Suriname (northern S. A.), and from Arkansas. Arkansas
is the leading u. S. producing state; and Bauxite, Arkansas is the
principa l locality.
Up to 1886 Al. was a rare metal selling for $8.00 a pound;
. but t}le discovery of Chas. M. Hall (U. S. ) , . and of Heroult
(France) made possible tlte malti~ag of a.lumitlUI!l cheaply, and by - the
same identical process which each had worked out.at the same time
wholly independe nt of the other. ·

The present price of aluminum is 15 - 18 cents a pound. The

U. S. productio n· of aluminum rose from 35,000 pounds in 1886 to
1,84o,ooo ,ooo pounds in 1943.
Among the propertie s that make aluminum such an tmporta.nt
metal are lightness - only about 1/4 to 1/3 . as heavy as other
common metals, resistanc e to corrosion , hisb thermal and electri-
cal. conducti vities, non-spark ing, high tensile strength, :non-t.oxic
to people (hence safe in cooking utencils) , and its general
workabil ity. · ·

No other metal is made into so many differen t forms or arti-

cles, or used in such widely different ways.
From bridges, house construct ion, ships, airplanes , R.R. ·
CarS 1 automobil eS and b.USSeS 1 to the aluminum foil USed fOr wrap-
ping scores of articles suggests a very sreat r~e ~ ~·
8
Add to these uses all kinds of · cooking utensils and various
:food container s 1 bottle caps 1 cODipressible tubes for pastes and
creams 1 wire 1 important aluminum allOf8 1 light reflector s, paint~t~,
aluminum :t'urniture 1 and :many' other articles made of aluminum, and
its range of uses becomes increasin gly great.
In addition to 1ts hundreds of uAee consider also its present
--
low cost 1 and one can style alumin"Um the Modern Miracle Metal.

BERYL

Beryl is a silicate of the metals beryllium and aluminum, and

is one of the harder minerals, (7 .5 - 8} 1 being harder than quartz
(7}.
When Cl'J'stalli zed it occurs· as 6-:f'aced right prisms.' C910r-
bluish-gr een to white. The clear pale bluish-gr een variety is
aquamarine 1 the name suggestin g the color. it may be cut as a gem
stone. · · ·
Emerald is a clear darker green variety of beryl, and is one
of the "precious stones" of high value.
Beryl is the principal source of beryllium , one of the light-
est metals, being ·ligbter than aluminum ·but slightly heavier than
magnesium. Beryllium metal at present (1950)' is $47 a poundj but
even a . small per cent of· it is of great importanc e when alloyed
with copper, and with. certain other metals.
Beryllium copper is very hard, tough, and resistant to cor-
rosion and suMen changes in temperatu re. It had good conductiv i-
ty 1 and is non-spark ing. Its resistanc e to fatigue and wear show
it to be better and longer lasting for springs than high grade
steel. Also chiseis and t.ools ·made of it can be used in cutting
steel. ·

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BOG IRON ORE
.---

Bog ore is an impure variety of limonite, ,n.d occurs in low

meadow-like places, underlaid with a hard pan which prevents the
down seepage of the ground water containin g. iron in solution.
It is similar to the iron rust that accumulat es on stones and
other objects in stream beds. Local deposits of it are limited in
quantity, yet were used in pioneer days tor making stoves and
other articles before the Lake SUperior iron ore (hematite ) was
available .
It is generally rough and irregular in form; and brown to
yellow-brown in color.
 9
BUHRSTONE

Buhrstone is a very hard and tough quartz rock containing

small irregular cavities, possibly due to the weather~ng out of
organic matter which was originally present.
Owing to its superior hardness it was formerly used as a
mill-stone for grinding grains "between the upper andthe lower
S't'Oiies". By the modern roller process the ·grinding is done be-
tween steel or porcelain rollers 1 and buhrstones are no longer
used.
They are seldom seen today, yet are interesting in :ecalling
how gr~ins were formerly ground.

CALCAREOUS TUFA-
--...--.-;..;...;...-

Is a highly porous to spongy ealcium carbonate rock formed by

the deposit of lime on r7ater plants or on var!l.ous objects in the
water, where the lime is present in solution.
Color - light to darker grayish, sometimes colored red by the
iron in the water.
This specimen is from the Castalia (Ohio) region, famous for
its many large and beautiful springs.

CALCITE

Calcite or calcium carbonate {caC03) is the crystal form of

lime, and one of the most common of all crystals. When -aeid is
applied it effervesces freely. The "dog tooth spar" form occurs
locally.
The common rhombic crystals have 6 definite cleavage planes,
and each face is a rhomQic parallelogra m.
Color - colorless, white, blue, salmon eolored, and sometimes
purplish.
Hardness - is #3 on Mob's scale of hardness; and can be scra-
tched with a copper coin.
Iceland spar - is the very clear transparent variety ·which
shows double refraction (see objects double) well.
10

-
CANNEL COAL

Is a dense,·compac~, dark luster ~oal very different in ap~

pearance and structure from either the bituminous or the anthra-
cite varieties.
It is associated, 1ri limited deposites, with certain varie-
ties .of bitUminous coal, but lacks any suggestions of lamination
(thin layers) as in most "soft" coals.
It breaks with a conchoidal {shell-like) fractures, like
obsidian.
In thin pieces it burns with a light candle-like flame; and
its name is said to be a corruption of the term candle.
As a fuel it is a rapid burning high heat coal, and is not
suitabie-f~se in furnaces.
Owing to its jet black color, and the fact that it can be
easily carved, the best quality of it was formerly used in the
making of "jet jewelry" and ornaments.

CARBORUNDUM

Carborundum-is an artificial (manufactUred) mineral, impor-

tant as an abrasive (i.e. for cutting or grinding purposes) .•
because it is nearly·as hard as the diamond, the hardest natural
mineral known. ·
It is manufactured in electric furnaces at Niagara Falls by
~using together sand, sawdust, and coke (carbon), thus forming a
carbon-silicide the trade name of which is carborundum.
The crystal masses of carborundum are sometimes multi-colored
and show a beautiful variety of colors; sometimes bluish, or even
an unattractive brownish-black . When the crystal masses are cru-
shed the particles are assorted according to size and made into
various forms of grinding wheels, sharpening stones et al.
Aloxite is another ~mportant artificial abrasive.

CELESTITE

Celestite (SrS04) is. a white to bluish-white mineral occur-

ring in crystal form in the. cavities of dolomite in a few lime•
stone quarries of north~western Ohio. The largest known crystals
of celestite may be seen in Crystal Cave, Put-in-Bay, Lake Erie.
It is a strontium mineral, and its powder is used in fire-
wor~s, and in producing colored lights.
 11
CHALK

Natural chalk rock should not be confused with manufactured

·crayon. When pure it _is white; and to the touch is slightly rough
or gritty. It is composed of the microscopic shells of toramini~
fera (min'J.te sea animals), many species of which may be recognized
under the high power microscope.
All chalks are porous, and absorb water up to 2~ of their
weight.

In the chalk cliffs of Dover, England many scattered nodules

and irregular masses of nearly pure (dark) flint occur.
·The Cretaceous (Creta, Latin for chalk) period of geological
time derives its name from the abundance of chalk found in many
localities in the rocks of that period.

CHERT

Chert includes impure varieties ~ flint, due to the presence

of lime, clay, or other impurity. It varies in color from a light
gray to a dark brown. It is very common,. and of wide distribu-
tion.

CHROMITE

Chromite or "chrome iron" (FeCr204) is of great importance as

the principal ~ .£! chromium., so extensively used in stainless
steels, and in giving great strength. to special steels for high·
speed tools, armor plate, sates, and projectiles.
Many chromium salts for pigments 1 dyes, and many other uses,
are ~de from chromite.
The world's greatest source of supply at present is Rhodesia
in South Africa, from which area this specimen came, in your
school set.
Little chrcmite is known to occur in the U. S.

CHRYSOCOLLA
Is a very showy silicate of copper that is sky-blue, or
bluish-green in color. It does not crystallize, but occurs only
... in massive form .•
It is an important ore of copper, and is associated with
other copper minerals in several far western states, and in the
Lake Superior region.
12

CONGLOMERATE

If', in place of sana cemented together as in sandstone, the

rock is composed 2!:. q'USI'tz pebbles it is called conglomerat e. The
size of' conglomerat e pebbles varies from small peas to hens eggs.
Conglomerate rock with large pebbles is sometimes called pudding-
stone.
The conglomerat e bedrock of' north-easte rn Ohio is similar to
the Olean conglomerat e of New York State 1 and the Rock Castle con-
glomerate of Kentucky.
In the glacial deposits of Ohio, and some other northern
states 1 the conglomerat e bowlders may contain red or black jasper
pebbles 1 in &ddition to the regular quartz pebbles. Such rock is
called jasper conglomerat e.
If the fragments conposing the rock are angular or sub-
angular - instead of rounded pebbles - the rock is called a
breccia.
The crushing strength (resistanc:e to crushing) of conglom-
erate, as in sandstone, depends largely on the cementing material.
Conglomerate rock has little value tor constructio n purposes,
although it is sometimes used locally for bridges and for barn
foundations .

COPPER

Metallic copper may come from the native copper of northern

Michigan, or from one of the ma.ny ores of copper.· The specimen in
the School Set is native copper from northern Michigan.

The great importance . ot copper as a metal is shown by the

fact that it has more than 6oo uses. Copper enters into a great
ma.ny :!m.Portant alloys (metals melted together in definite pro-
portions), as bronze, brass, bell-metal, beryllium-co :pper et al.
For beryllium-c opper look under beryl.

CONSUINA

Is the famous "shell rock" of' the northern coast of eastern

Florida. It consists of' masses of' very small shells and their
fragments cemented together.
Ooquina has long been used locally as a building stone; . and
was formerly used in the making of "shell. roads" •
 13
DOLOMITE

A pure limestone is a calcium carbonate (caco3) ; but a

dolomite is a combined magnesium carbonate (MgC03) and calcium
carbonate, and is a (Ca 1Mg)C03 product.
Dolomite will scratch caeo3, for it is somewhat harder.
Pure limestone will effervesce vigorously even when cold
dilute acid is applied; dolomite will effervesce faintly i f pul-
verized by scrapping or grinding, or when heated with fairly
strong acid.

The dolomite be~ock of north-western Ohio ~s ·!!! important

source of the metal magnesium during the Second World War. It is
also used as a refractory for high temperature furnace · linings;
and a very important use is for crushed stone, in road building.

EMERY

Emery is a dark to black impure variety of corundum (A1203).

The dark color is due to the presence of magnetite. ·.

Hardness, 7 - 9, depending upon the amount and kind of the

mineral impurities present.
!!!!.!.· to :its. superior hardness it is a valuable
OWing
abrasive, and is made into wheels, emery paper, and powder of
emery.
Resistance to crushing. It is a very hard mineral to crush -
with a hammer. ·

FEIJ>SPARS

The feldspars are a large and very important group of

minerals, estimated to make up 6rl{o of the earth's crust. They
occur in various crystalline rocks; ~s in granites, syenite, and
diorite. Also in gneisses and in . various volcanic rocks. The
potash feldspars, orthoclase and microc~ine, are the most common,
albite, a soda feldspar, is also fairly common. ·

In hardness feldspars are 6- 6'.5. Sp. gr. 2.5 to 2.7. All

feldspars ·may occur in crystal form.
Uses. Porcelain and ch.inaware, some enamel ware and other:-
articles. Over 100,000 tons are used annually in the U. S. alone.
14
FLINT

True flint is a sub-translucen t variety of quartz - translu-

cent on thin edges, or in thin pieces. Generally..~k~_r_-:.-colored,
but lighter shades may also occur.
...
· · ··
Like other torfns of quartz it has no cleavage faces, but
breaks with a conchoidal (shell-like) or concave fracture. Indian
flint pieces (arrows, spear points) were accordingly chipped or
flaked.
Flint Ridge 1 Ohio, was one of the greatest sources of flint
supply in the U. S. for the ear.ly Indians. Material from here was
very widely distributed for the making of arrows and other chipped
pieces.
Some fine pure flint (dark) occurs in nodular masses in the
chalk. cliffs of Dover 1 England.
The term "flints" is loosely applied to many different mate-
rials used by the Indians in malting arrow points.· In some cases
the mineral was chert 1 jasper 1 or some other variety of quart.z ..
but always .some form of quartz. '

FLUORITE

Fluorite 1 .or fluor spar 1 is a ,fluoride of calcium ( CaF2) • In

color it may be colorless, white, blue, green, purple or brown.

It crystallizes as cubes and octahedrons.. Hardness is 4. It

is rather widely distributed. ·
The Clay Center (Ohio) fluorite is widely known on account of
its fluorescent properites. · Under an argon light this brown flu-
orite appears a light ~een.

Y!!!· The principal use (in quantity consumed) is in the re-

duction ~d making of basic open hearth steel. Minor uses are for
opal and for white glass, and for certain enamels. Some is also
used in making HF, and ·other chemicals.

GAliENA

Galena (PbS) is the principal ore of lead. It crystallizes

in cubes and octahedrons. Its lead color, bright luster, and high
sp. gr. (7 .5) make it easy to recognize, together with its charac-
teriBtic crystals and easy cleavage.
 15
Colorado galena is often argentiferous (contains silver); and
in certain western localities such galena is an important source
of. s11V'er.

Uses. Lead is used extensively in the manufacture of water

pipes, shot 1 paint 1 alloys, and many chemical products.

GARNETS

A group of 6 or more kinds 1 all. h8.td (7 - 7. 5) but varying

considerably in color - red, brown, pink, yellow to green, and
some nearly black.
Transparent or translucent in lighter varieties 1 and trans-
lucent to Opaque in darker ones. They are often. beautifully cry-
stallized.

Uses, The better, clear~ grade~ ·~·ar.e·'attraetive: gelli stones~:

The imperfect and less valuable" ones, together. With massive
garnet, are crushed and used as abrasive material.
Almandite is the commonest variety, and the kind most gene-
rally known.

GN.!l1ISS

Gneisses are banded metamorphic rocks changed by pressure and

heat from either igneous or sedimentary rocks. Since the mine~als
present are th! same as in granites, gneisses may be thought of as
banded or foliated cnites. Feldspars are . the outstanding _.IIlin-
erals present, toget r With quartz, micas, or hornblende.. ..

Gneisses differ from schists in being more coarsely banded or

foliated, and in containing feldspar.
OWing to the hard 1 compact nature of gneisses 1 and thEd.r·. at-
tractive appearance, they have a limited use as building stones.
Occurrence. In addition to several geologically old rock
areas where gneisses occur as bedrock, a variety of these banded
ro~ks occur in the glacial till of the northern U. S. and southern
Canada.

GRANITES

~.

Granites are igneous (heat formed) rocks that cooled slowly

within the earth's crust, . instead of reaching the surface like
volcanic rock. As a result of this slower cooling a :crystal,~
structure has occurred. · · ·..... :'··
 16
The .essen tial aiDera ls in a sra.uite are feldspaz: and quartz .
Additic mal miDerals that may be presen t are hOrnblende aDd micas
(one or tvo). These additio nal miDerals pve the specia l D&11le to
the granite -for exaapl e, a hornblende granite is one hav~ns
hornblende 1D aMitio n to the feldspa r and quartz . In a biotite ....
granlte it is the biotite (black mica) that is presen t in ac14i~ion
to the two essent ials.
Quartz in granite is senera lly colorle ss; but the color of
the feldsp ar varies Eeatlz ;, and sirs !!!!.· color !!!!!. to. the rock.
In the gray granite of BaTre.,. vt. t e feldspa r is grq; i.ncl in the
red Misscnn"i, or .in the Scotch· granite , it is the red feldsp ar
that gives the color D&DJe. Other colors of gra.uite are pink,
brown, blu1sh -grq1 and some very dar~ colors . Ver;r coarse grani-
tes, where the 1Dcl1v1dual mineral. masses are large;, are called
P!mti tes.
· Very- tine grained gr$Dit es are aplites .
A granit e-like rock contaiD:J.ns feldspa r and ).ornbl ende but
lacking quartz is .a Sl!nite or quartz less . Eanite .

~. Granit es ..are extensi vely' used for bu1ldil l8 stones ,

and
tor monuments; and Dl&l'l7 granite s are amoq the most durable roclts
_in resisti DS weathe rins and erosion .
Occurrence. The 111811¥ attract ive granite and other crysta l-
line bowlde rs, which are wholly d:J.tferent from the bec1rock 1n Obio ·
and adjace nt states , were broush t here duriug the Glacia l Epoch - ..
from the bedroc k in south-- eastern C&liada. I 'i

' / 'l
1

· The compos ition is the same- as in di.Oru l, or in coal. Dia-

mond is the hardes t substan ce known (harclness 10), and graphi te is
one on the same scale of· harclness. It is easily recogn ized by its
grqish-b~k color, greasy feel, and softnes s (for it can be
sc-
ratched with the fiDger nail), or will :mark on paper.
'It is 1Dtusi ble 1 and nOt acted \l]>on by acids. . .
~aphite (meaniug to write) is an approp riate ll8llle tor .one
im,portant .use of it - in writin s pencil s which are 1ncorr ectl1'
called "lead" pencil s, tor there is~ actual !!,!! 1n! pencil .
~e desree of hardne s' in w.ritiq ·pencil s depen4s on tiii amouut ot
exceed~ fine clq that is combined with the graphi te
in mak:IDS
the core.
Since graphi te will not melt below 30000C (54320J') .it can be
used tor crucib les (melt1Dg dishes) for ~ hishlY refrac tory
metals .
 17
· other uses are tor lubricants, stove polish, foundry facings,
and special paints. ·

... The present U. s. production is less than one-fourth of our

consumption. Graphite is also produced artificially at Niagara
Falls. · · ·

The world's best graphite comes from Ceylon, and a specimen

ot it is included in the School Set. ·

GYPSUM

GNPsum, or the hydrous sulphate of lime (CaS04:2~0}, is used

in the manufacture of crayons, plaster ot Paris, pl.S.ster board,
Celotex produsts, and many other articles,
· Color is white, pink, or grayish. The clear, semi~trans­
lucent variety of white massive gypsum is alabaster.
It is low 1n hardness (2), and is easily carved into various
torms.
See also selenite and satin spar.

HALITE (SALT)

Halite {N&Cl) or crystal salt is colorless to gray, rarely

assuming a brown or blue coloring, due to slight impurities.
It crystallizes in cubes 1 and each face is a distinct clea-
vage plane.
The principal sources ot salt are {1) sea water (3.5~ salts),
(2) wells, (3) mines and beds, and {4) interior .saline lakes. ·
Vast quantities of rock salt occur in New York State, Michi·
gan, and in the "salt domes" of Louisiana and Texas. There is
enough salt 1n the u. S. alone to supply the entire vorld tor all
tuture time, at the present rate ot consumption.
......
-•

The estimated world. prpductio~· at present is 25·,ooo,ooc 1i~ris,

ot which the U. s. produces approx:lmS.tel;r one-tb~~. · · ..
Uses. Salt is one of the most important of all minerals. It
j.
is extensivel;r used in seasoning and preserving food; and is crav-
ed by various grazi~ animals, as is ·evidenced 1n the ".salt
licks," or in the salt blocks placed in the fields •
...
 The largest use is probably in manufactu ring numerous sodium
compounds such as sodium carbonate , caustic soda, soda ash, and
many others .
..,,· ....
It is also an important source of chlorine and BCf.. ·· M&Ily:. ·
other important uses of salt could be mentioned: can yoU.· suggest
some'I

HEMATITE

Hematite (Fe2o3 ) !! ~principal 2!:! ~ !:!:.2!! received from

the Upper Lakes at our Lake Erie ports. It · i.s easily recognize d
by its red streak (on an unglazed dish) or by its red powder, when
pulverize d. OVer 9~ of the iron produced in the u. S. comes from
hematite. ·
An oolitic or granular form is know as Clinton ore, or is
sometimes called "flax seed" ore. -
A 'Powdery or earthy form of hematite is red ochre, or reel
rouge. It is used ·in the manufactu re· of certain red pailits ... The· .
Indians also used it as a pipent. · · ·· · · ·

SPECULAR HEMATITE

~~ silvery gray form is a metamorphic or chaQged form of

the regular hematite, and gives a red powder ~en .. :.pulve;r:t.zed.
OWing to its glistenin g, scale-lik e nature it is· called. specular
or micaceous hematite.
The apparent color is a s~lver gray; the real color of the
powder or the streak is red.

HORNBLENDE

A common black to greenish black massive mineral occurring in

granites, syenite, diorite. Hornblende is included 1n the amphi-
bole group. Hardness is 5 - 6.
Hornblende sometimes closely resembles black tour.malin e; but
the latter can be recognize d by its higher luster, superior hard-
ness (7 .. 7.5), and the lack of cleavage which is shown in horn-
blende.
 19
JASPER

... Jaspers are opaque varieties of quart1 . (Si02 ) • Red and brown
(light or darker) are cODDD.on colors. The red jasper pebbles 1 and
occasionally the brown, occur in jasper conglomerate rock.

Well colored jasper may be used in ring sets, or in polished

ornamental stones. When thin bands of different colors came to-
gether cameos may be. cut from such pieces.

Black. jasper is called basanite; dark green jasper is plasma.

If the plasma contains minute red dots of hematite it is called
bloodstone.

KAOLIN

Kaolin, or china clay, occurs in earthy 1 powdery1 compact

masses; and is always amorphous.
Colors. White, when pure; gray, red, or purplish due to im-
purities.

Characteristics. Has a soapy, greasy feel. Adheres slightly

to the moist tongue; and becomes plastic with water. Hardness
1 - 2.
Uses. Kaolin is used in the manufacture. of porcelain or
chinaware, art tiling, and for giving weight and body .to paper.

Kaolin may result from the decomposition of feldspars.

LEPIDOLITE

Lepidolite, or lithia mica, is one of the three U. S. mine-

rals from which lithia is obtained. Although placed in the mica
group it rarely has distinct cleavage plates like common mica. It
consists of masses of scales - hence its name, which means "scale
stone". The scales may be coarse or very fine.
Color. Lavender, grayish white 1 or yellow.
. It is easily fusible. California and South Dakota are im-
portant producing states. . .·~ .
Uses. In- addition to several preparations from lithium
salts, and its use in-fireworks and in colored lights (deep red),
-. it plays an important role in the making of white, opal, and other
special kinds of glass.
20
BEDFORD (INDIANA) "LIMESTONE

This limestone is one of the most generally used in the

United States tor building purposes. It is a nearly pure calcium
carbonate (ca.co3) rock, has no. cavities 1 alid has a pseudo-oolitic
structure due to the presence of one-called organisms that cause
this rock.to somewhat resemble the rounded grains of a true
oolite. Color. Buff to. gray.. ·
It effervesces freely when acid is added to it.

FOSSILIFEROUS LIMESTO:NE

Limestones vary greatly in fossil. content. Some have no fos-

sils, or very few; others are exceedingly rich in fossils. · Some.
limestones have only one or two species of fossils; others·· :t~ve
many species. ·
This specimen shows nl,1Dlerous small brachiopods (2 shelled sea
anilaals). Query: HoW did the brachiopods get into the limestone?

. LIMONITE

Limonite is a hydrated oxide of iron and is brown or yel-

lowish brown in color. Its streak or powder (;yellowish )>~own)
should easil,y. distinguish itfrom the red or gray hematite.
The ·p~ or earthy variety-is zellow ochl"e·,. and. h8.s .~~e
as a.pigment. . ·
.No form of limonite ever crystallizes; and when limonite is
found in crystal form it is a case Of' replacing another mineral,
as pyrite I which does crystallize. Such interestirut replacement
forms, known as pseudomorPll~ .:(~~~~~ ·f'aJ.~.e forms), . ~o~~ ~~ re-
ferred to as "limonite after· pyrite". · · · · ·" ' · ··. ·

MAGNESITE

Magnesite is a earbonate of magnesium (MgC03); and is white

in color when ;pure. Hardnes.s - 3.5 - 4.5. It occurs in hard,
compact masses sometimes resembling unglazed prcelain or hard
crayon.
Uses. Furnace bricks, crucibles, boUer · and pipe coverings
(mixed with asbestos), also used in .medicine (white magnesia). .

LITHOGRAPHIC LIMESTO~ (SEE PAGE 33)

 21

MAGNETITE

Magnetite (Fe304) is the black oxide of iron; and is natural-

ly magnetic. It gives a black streak on the streaking dish, and a
black powder when pulverized. In small particles it is readily
attracted by a strong magnet; and a piece of magnetite moved ove~
a compass should disturb the needle. Black magnetite ~ occa-
sionally occurs in thin layers along the beaches of Lake Erie and
L4ke Michigan. To distinguish black magnetite sand from other
kinds of black sand, use a strong magnet up~n t.~e .$.2 sand.
Lodestone is a strongly magnetic variety of magnetite that
acts as a natural magnet, and will pick up iron filings 1 pins 1 and
even small nails.

MARBLES

True marbles are metamorphosed {changed), crystalline 1~-.

stones. However 1 in the building trade the term marble is rather
loosely used, and applied to certain hard non-crystalline lime-
stones, and even to some serpentine rock which, like true marble,
will take a high polish.
Marbles vary greatly in texture. They may be coarse grained,
very finely crystalline, and 'even non-crystalline in some of the
socalled marbles.
The color range is great- from a pure white to a jet black,·
including pink, gray, yellow, brown, green, and dark. colors.·
There are also many beautiful mottled and variegated varieties.
Five or six states of the U. S. produce most of our marble.
Most of the marble in the U. S. is used for interior building or
ornamental work. ·Lesser ·amounts are used for mon~ents and spe-
cial uses.
The Italian and the Colorado Yule marbles are beautifUl fine-
grained, pure white, and take a high polish. . -
Tennessee marble is medium coarse grained, and var~ from a
pale pink to a chocolate brown in color.
Georgia marble is coarse grained, and is white, pink, gray,
or mottled. ·
The black marble in this set is probably from Isle la Motte,
Vt. , and is similar to the black Belgian marble.
The green "marble'·' is mostly polished serpentine, and not a
true marble; but it takes a good polish and is used in interior
decorative work. ·
It is commonly. known as Verde Antique (meaning the "old
green").
22
MEXICAN "MAl:lBLE"

. This formation, also known as Mexican onyx. or onyx "marble".

is a banded travertine (11-.stone) deposit formed layer· ·.$.~ve
layer around springs and flowing clear water contafnin& caco3 in
solution.
It is not a true marble, nor is it an ODYX.- A true onyx is· a
straight banded variety of agate (quartz) where different colored
layers come together, making suitable material tor the cutting of
cameos.
The term "onyx" has probably been applied (incorrectly) to
this banded CaC03 deposit on account of its finely banded struc-
ture. It is cut and polished transverse to the layers of deposit,
.
and thus its banded nature is evident •
Uses. This beautiful 'banded travertine is used for small
table tops, clock cases 1 paper weights 1 ink stands 1 and for
various orn~ntal objects.

MICAS

Micas are all natural Jl)fnerals occurring in the earth's . crust

~-
and should never be contused with isinglass, which is a manu:fac-
trued, celluloid-like substance. The true micas are characterized
by the most perfect basal cleavage ~own &m.Ol'lS minerals. No !!!!!,-
ral can ~ separated ~ thinner sheets: in some instances these
she-ets may be 1/2000 of an inch in thickness.
Toughness, elasticity, resistance to intense heat and to the
e:f:fect of acids, and transparency are some of the properties that
give value to micas. ·
. Varieties. Besides the common white mica or muscovite, and
the fairly common black mica or b:t,.otite, there is the brown or
bronZy- mica known as phlogopite. Descriptions of other less com-
mon micas can be found in the- text -books on mineralQQ".
!!!!!..· It is used for insulators on · switch•board.s,. and in
electrical machines. Scrap mica ·ancl trimmings are ground and used
as lubricants; and are also used in the manufacture of "frosted''
wall paper, artificial snow, and for pip_e coverings ..

The United ·sta\es cons~s·· ab911t· 75%· ot· the vor~d.'."s.· output of
mica.

. .
 23
NOVACULITE

It is also known as hornstone or honestone; and is a sili-

cious rock so tine in. texture that the finest separate particles
cannot be recognized.

Color. Th~ better quality is white to pal~ gray.

Occurrence. The only locality where it occurs extensively in
the United States is in Arkansas.

Uses. For the manufacture of honestones and tine whetstones.

OBSIDIAN

Is a natural volcanic glass, with no suggestions of granul~s

or separate particles. Its glassy nature suggests rapid cooling
with no opportunity for the formation of crystals in the heated
mass.

Color. Generally black, but occasionally red or brown.

Uses. Since it is easily chipped with long, s~ooth, (!C:>nchoi-

dal (concave) fracture, it was a favorite material with . the
Indians for making arrow points, or for sharp-edged cutting
knives.

Occurrence. Many localities in the Rockies 8.nd in other

western ~ountain ranges. Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone is a
well-known locality. Excellent obsidian is . also obtained in
Oregon and other states west of.the Rockies.

- -
SEMI-OPAL

Opals are hydrous varieties of quartz - that combine water

with the silica (Si02). They ~e about 6.5 in hardness, hence
slightly inferior in hardness to quartz proper.

Varieties. There ·are many varieties of opal varying in color

trom a beautiful milky white to coal black. The "fire" opals, and
precious opals have a beautif'ul. "p.lay" (or . combination) of colors.

Semi-~ are opals in composition, but are not ot the

highest gemmy quality.

~opal, or opalized wood, .is wood replaced by opal. Even

the wood grain is sometimes distinctly shown.
~ opals are so named on account of their - waxy or greasy
lustre.
 -
~

Peat consists of plant remains that have accumUlated under

water in bogs~ Sphapum mosses often contribute ~gely in such
format~ons. At the surface peat is more or less spozuor,. and plant
parts may often be recognized. At increasing 'depths the peat ta
brown to brownish black, ~the mass is more compact and consoli-
dated.•
Considerable water is present wh~n the. peat is dug, and dry-
ing is necessary before the excavated ~terial is reQ(ly tor· tuel.
S~e. peat, ·however 1 is now .utilized .tor soil improvement ..,. and
in the making of' pressed board and certain grades of' paper.

-- -
PETRIFIED WOOD (SEE Sn.ICIFlED WOOD)

PIPESTONE (C~)

Pipestone is a compact clay rock, commonly red in color - and

easily carved.
A well known locality where it occurs is Pipestone County,
MiDI)..

Attractive Indian pipe bowls and orname~ts are made trom it;
. and it is easily polished by rubbing.

PORPHXRY

A volcanic porphyry is a rock consisting ot very fine grained

ground mass or matrix, in which a single mineral has crystallized
out of the magma (molten mass) 1 and develoPed to a larger size
than the other materials. These larger mineral formations are
calle~ phenocrysts {visible crystals) 1 and ire commonly a feld·
spar.

PUMICE

. Pumice is one of the Jll&DY volcanic rocks ot the igneous or

heat formed division. It is a porous, sponsy, light weight rock
that is U$ht gray (or nearly white) to dark gray in color -
rarel,-reddish.
..
.
 25
Its structure (suggested by light, porous bread) is due to
the escape of steam ana gases when the rock material was still in
a molten or viscous .condition'. . The luster is silky, glassy, or
dull~

Pumice is mostly silica, and· is used for abrasive or scouring

purposes. In blocks and larger pieces it is used for rubbing and
polishing - also for filtering. In powdered form it is used for
scouring soaps and compounds.

One source of supply is from the island of Lipari in the

Mediterrane an. Much of our pumice. also comes from Arizona, New
Mexico, California, and other far western states.

PYRITE

Pyrite, or Fool's Gold, (FeS2) is one of the sulphides of

iron. While the term :fool's gold suggests a resemblance to gold,
no careful observer could possibly contuse the two for they differ
in color, hardness, weight, crystalliza tion ":' in every way.
Pyrite commonly crystallize s in cubes or their modificatio ns.

Hardness. 6 ~ 6.5.
Layers ot impure pyrite sometimes occur in soft coal; and one
can detect the odor of sulphur when such coal is burned.
Marcasite is a silvery form of pyrite. It has·· the same ·
chemical composition as common pyrite, but differs in crystal-
lization. One form of marcasite crystals is known as "cock's
comb" pyrite. · In some localities it occurs as nodules in the bed
rock.

·PYROLUSITE

Pyrolusite, or black manganese dioxide (Mn02), is an impo~­

tant ore of manganese. It is a massive black mineral, and gives a
black streak.

Hard.neas. ~nerally 2 or less, e.nd may soil fingers.

~~~\~e f.~~~ £! Mn0 2 on the surface of limestone and cer-
tain other x·ocks a.nd minerals are known as· dendrites, or dendritic
structure .
•..
Pyrolusite ie used in the manufacture of dry batteries, in
dyeing, gla.ss maJr.ing, pottery, and in certain alloys (as ·tn m&n-
·. ganese steel et al) .
 Quartz (Si02), or silica, occurs in! greater nuaber ~ !!!:!-
eties than &J17 other known minerai.. It' is one of the most abun-
dant of all minerals, ant the hardes.t (7) ot the more common
minerals, and will easUy scratch slass. All common varieties of
quartz can easUy be identified by the conchoidal (concave) frac- ....'
ture ('JD&Diler of break1Dg), and the superior hardness (7).

QUARTZ CRYSTAL

Quartz xls are six-faced right prisms, capped with pyramidsj

and each of the six faces is likelJ to show striations, or closely
parallel lines. Like other forma of quartz they ~U scratch
glass easilJ.
Quartz xls are occasionally opaque, but are generally trans-
parent, sometimes so beautUully- clear as to be reterred to as
quartz "diamonds" •
Near Hot Sprinss, ·Arkansas, is t~ most outstpding locality
in the u. s. for the abunclance of quartz xls. They vary greatl.¥
in size. ·

MILKI QUARTZ

When pure it is a beautiful milky' white, but is often stained

by- :lmpurities. It is nearl)" or quite opaque, but merses into
glassy or "greasy'' quartz. It is fairly cOJIIDlOn, and rather widely
distributed. · ·

~QUARTZ

Rose quartz varies 1n color from a pale pink to· a deep ri~h
rose . color. It occurs in massiv~ form onl)", and. does not usually
crystallize. · One ot the best known localities tor it is in the
Black Hills of South Dakota. . It may be a highly ornamental stone 1
. or even cut into jewelry- sets.

SMOKY QUARTZ

V:aries in color trom pale smoky to .&rly black. Usually has

a high luster when broken, and is more or less transparent. It
.l

JDa7 occ~ in crystal tom.

 27
QUARTZITE

Quartzite is a metamorphic rock (silica), changed froin sand-

stone. In color it may be white, red, brovn, rarely purple or
sreen.
It ditters from sandstone in being non-porous and more com-
.pact; and becomes crystalline and slightly harder than sandstone.
Its fracture is conchoidal.
Quartzite bowlders are fairly common in the Glacial till
deposits.

As the term susgests, sandstone is composed of san(\ held to-

gether by some natural cementing substance.
The srains of sand, which are more or less rounded 1 are prin-
cipally quartz; but several minor m~nerals may also be present as
feldspar, magnetite, scales of mica, tourmaline, and garnet.
In color, sandstone may be sr&'Y', nearly white (if pure
silica) 1 red, brown, rarely purple or greenish. The color is ··due
to the cementing material or to foreign matter t~t may be pre-
sent. ·
The coarseness varies from very coarse grit to a very fine
grain. Very coarse sandstones, used in grinding wood for paper
pulp, are called pulp stones.
The cementing material which holds· the grains together ·may be
silica, an iron compound, or lime (CaC03).
The strensth of the cementing material determines to a l$rg&
extent the crushing resistance of the sandstone for building pur-
poses. The crushing strength of sandstones varies from 1500 to
15,000 po~ds per square inch.
When the cementing material becomes greatly weakened the .
sandstone becomes highly friable (breakable) , and one can, in some
cases, break off good sized pieces by hand. Even in different
parts of the same quarPy the sandstone bedrock may vary consider~
ably in crushing strength.
All sandstones are more or less porous 1 as can be shown by
immersing in Water and noting the increase in weight due to the
water absorbed in the pores. This porosity, or total space be-
tween the sand particles, may range from 5~ to 25~ of the total
.. bulk of the stone. Where sandstone is practically 1'ree frOD,l ..bed-
diq planes 1 and can be ·carved well in all directions, it may · be
called freestone. ·
28
A sandstone con~1niDC considerable clay ia called arsilla-
ceous; o:ne where considerable iron _is present - J•errusinous; and
one rich in lime, calcareous. ··.
Uses. For building purposes, ·sidewalks, and curbina. Since
composed principally of quartz it makes a valuable p:indi~ stone
because of its. superior hardness (7). Ohio ranks high in Ce pro-
duction of grindstones. ~
•

The ~Ohio sandstone is a buil<l.ing stone of high quality.

Geological!Yi t is referred to as Berea grit. The Medina (H. Y.) ·
sandstone is ~ to brown in color. ~-

Glass sand rocks. When the sandstone is nearly pure silica,

and tree trOiiiill foreisn· matter that might cause discoloration,
1t can be used far glass making. The St. Peters sandstone (Ill.
and Mo.) and the Oriskan7 (W. Va. and Penn.) are the two most im- ·
portant glass sand bedrocks in the u. S.
Purple-b&aded sandstone. Purple is not a common color in
sandstones; but trom Bu:f'f'alo Gap 1 South Dakota comes the very at-
tractive purple-banded sandstone in this collection.

-
SATIN SPAR

Satin spar is the fibrous variety of 81.PBUmi and when pure it

is a very showy mineral, be_ing made into beads and Jewel.ry'. The
play of light, or chatoyancy, in sueh beads makes them highly at•
tractive.

SCHISTS

Schists are metamorphic rocks coaposed ot very thin layers;

and .are easily cleavable, with somewhat trresular surfaces, in one
direction only.
Quartz is generally present, if' the schist consists of more
than one mineral; and feldspar is generally lackins. ·
The word schist means cleavable, and suggests that such a
rock can be easily split. Schist is often associated with sneiss,
into which it sometimes iiltergrades.
From grieisses schists differ, however, .in th~ thinner sheets
or laminae of which they are coiaposed; and the -general absence of
feldspar. Also their schistose uature enables them to be split
more -.sily than the gneis~s.
Mica schist consists of one or more micas, in addition to a
'VViable amount of quartz.
.
l
 • • 29
Scythe stone, from Pike Co. , N. H. , is a schist with minute
particles of mica and an abundance of quartz, the latter giving it
hardness for a sharpening stone.
Talc schist, which is principally talc, is white to groeenish
in color; and chlorite schist is dark green, and lacks quartz.

Hornblende schist is a. hard, black hornblende rock with

schistose structure.
Crystals of garnet, pyrite, magnetite, and a few others, may.
be present as accessory minerals in some of the schists.

SELENITE

'Selenite is the crystal form of gypsum, or the clear trans·

parent plates of it.

The clear plates of selenite - like the specimen in the

School Set - can be split into parallel sheets, which ~e slightly
flexible but not tough and elastic like mica.

. fil .SERPENTINE

Serpentine is a massive, greenish mineral that never occurs

in crystal form except as pseudomorphs, where it has replaced
garnet xls.

Hardness. 2.5 - 31 hence easily scratched with a knife

point.
Varieties. The fibrous serpentine is asbestos.. Verde .An-
tique is a polished . form of socalled "marble" i but . is not a true
marble. ·
It is sometimes used in blocks for building purposes •. The
specimen 1n this set is common massive serpentine.

SHALE

Shale is a compact clay rock having a more or less laminated

structure (in sheets); and is also ·:rtssile (capable of being
•
-~ split). It is composed of particles too minute .to be recognized
individuall y by the eye, or ev~p with a lens •
••

,,
~-------------------:,--------~·~-~~~-~-- -- ~

30
Clay shale varies in color trom a ltsht g;ra., to a darlt crq,
or even black 1f much carbon is present. As the carbon · content
increases a·bituminoua or coal shale results. AD tDcreaalD& con-
tent of lime (CaC03) produces a c~ca.reoua ( l1.11G') shale. A sanclJ'
shale contains considerable silica. The presence ot .iron oxide
may sive a yellowish or a reddish color to the shale •.

When subjected to considWable pressure and foldiq shales

become hai-der and a slaty structure results. In short, alate is a
harder metamorphic form of shale. ·

SIDERITE

This carbonate· of iron {FeC03) varies in .color trom a light

brown to a brownish black,. Ieins a carbonate it can be recopized
'by the acid test ( ettervescenee) • It has a shiey luster, an4
gives a white streak~ ·
Siderite was once· worked as .a source ot. iron in vestera
Penn. , and in south-eastern Ohio, but is ot little 1mportance in
the U. s. at present as. an ore of iron.

-
SILICD'IED WOOD

. Silicified or petrified wood is ~ !'!J!laced ·!!l sUica in

such a wq -.. to preserve the ori81Dal fOl'll au4 atructure. Even
the g;rain of the wood is often beaut1f'ul.11 shown. Petrified woocl
is c()JD)nl.7 gl"qish to brownish - or even black - 1D color· but
much ot that in the Petrified Forests of Arizona is ~lor•
f'ul, aDd makes beautiful specimens U,n polished.

. Petritaction can only take p~under water contan min·

eral matter 1D so1Utto~Tiii8ever R!triltied tOJ'ests
DOD&
are a atrik"GS example of how sreatl7 ciS'Eic coii3.1t1ons. can
cha.Dge duriDg lOD& periocls Of time. 'l'he trees there seen '(Mttri•
fied could not have arown .in a desert - like much ot Ar 1Z9D& at
present ~ nor could they have been petrified except ~UDder water.

SLATES

Slates at"e dense rocks possessiDS a remarkable cleavye,

which makes it possible to split theil in one Cfil.Oection iilto broi4
thin sheets.
They are so fiDe grained that the iDclividual particles C&DilOt
be disti.Dguished by e;re or lens.
 31
Color. May be light to dark gray, or even black (as in
blackboards), red, green, purple.

Slates are metaJilOrphosed or cha.Dged shales, but are harder

and more compact than the latter, and are highly cleavable.

·~ The cleavage or splitt1ng planes are wholly apart from the

horizontal beddiD& planes.
Uses. The principal use (5~) ot slates is tor rooting·.
Slate blackboards, electrical switchboards, stationary tubs 1 labo-
ratory table tops are but a few ot the many uses. The waste from
quarrying slate is. crushed or sround and used in the manufacture
ot shingles and other products.
Pennsylvania, Vermont, and New York are important prod.lic1Dg
states.

SPHALERITE

Sphalerite (ZnS), or zinc blende, is .!!!! principal ~ ot

~ in the U. S. It can generally be recognized !!l _lli resinoj.i
luster and reddish brown color, although the color at times may be
parly black in which case it is knO!tl, a~ "black Jack11 ore.
Uses of zinc. About 6(1/, ot the commercial zinc is used in
gaJ.vanizin8' (coating with zinc) sheet iron, and wtre; 2f:1l, · in
making brass; 1~ is made into sheet zinc. It is also v.sed h
other alloys, and in electric batteries •.

In composition it is a sulphide of antimo137; and 1s the prin-

cipal ore of this metal.
It is a silvery gray in color, and a lishter color than ga•
lena. Stibnite is also lighter in weight than galena; aud further
differs from galena in having a bladed structure 1 while galena has
a cubical crystallization . The blades or plates in stibnite may
·be more.or less interesc~ing.
. '
It fuses easily 1 even in a candle flame 1 when 1n fine splin-
ters.
Uses of antimony. For various alloys such as type•metal,
pewter, babbitt metal et al. Stibnite is also used in safety
Dtches, in vuncanizi~g .and ~~ ... col~ring:;r-Ubp.e.r:, a~· in' ~he makins
..• of'·.-~ertain compounds of antim6cy. · · ··
32

Native sulphur ia easU7 recopize4 1 even when quite impure,'

by the strong oclor and. bluish flame res~tiDS :troa appl.J'iDS a
lightl!d match.
· Uses. It is used in pn:powc1er, in a sul.Pbur-l!De spray tor
truit--:tz:"ees, for vulcanizing (hardeniDS) rubber, 111 bleaching,· in
the manufacture of sulphuric acid, &DC1 tor a great~ other pur-
poses.
· Sources. Sicily was once an important proclucer, but 'l'exai
and Louisiana are now tiii'"'world •8 chief source of suppl.J', anc1 have
ma.ny times more 111 quantity than all the rest of the world com-
bined.

-
TALC

Talc is· a compact or a foliated mineral "Which is 1 ~n ·the

scale of' hardness. It has a greasy feel; and when pure 1a easiq
scratched ·with the fiDpr D&U.
Colors. White to gray1 and sreeDish white.
Steatite. Is a solid compact variety ot better quality. ·~.

Also known as "tailor's chalk".

Soal»stone. Is a more or less impure variety, grqish in
color' used for laundry tubs' laboratory table-tops, griddles 1
f'oct we.:'""~s (f'cirmerl.7), stove lininss et al. ·.
Y!!!
of'~· Ground talc of good quality is used as a 1Ub-
r1ce.n:i:.,for dressiug skins and leather, soap adulterant, .as a
filler ~.n muk:!.ug paper, tor boiler and steam pipe cover1Dgs, and.
in pe.:lnt. More than 2500 tons annual.l7 are said to be made into
tale t•,lle~ poy.Yders.

TOUBMALDE

To1lrDI&line is a black, sh!&. mineral, vith a hardness Of 7

- 7. 5. DJ.~k is the more co.on color but there are also piDk and
Sl"ee~l to~m.."\Jines. The larser si!iiie crystals are (curved) trian-
gular in .::.~cas section. Groups of' slender radiating xls also
OC(',flr ..

.,'
 33
Black tourmaline is eaaUy distinguish ed from black horn-
blende b7 the superior hardness and hisher luster of the former -
also b7 the lack of cleavage, and the shape of its cr7stals.

TRAVERTINE

Is a nearl7 solid, but slightly' porous, caco3 rock that is

light colored gr&.y'ish buff. in color. It is formed by the deposit
of lime from solution.
Used tor floors and interiors in fine buildings.

LlTBOGBAPBIC LIMESTONE

It is an exceedinglY' tine and compact C&C01 limestone. It de-

rives its name from ita former use in lithograpHi c printing.
The Solenhofen, Bavaria, lithographi c limestone in the School
Set is remarkabl7 pure, and is unsurpassed for lithosraphi ng pur-
poses.

"
p

\.
 MINERAL S AtlD ROcrcs

IN THE SPECIAL SCHOOL COLLECTION

1. Graphit e
2. Copper
3. Native sulphur
4. Rose quartz
5. Milky quartz
6. Flint; Dover, Eng . or U. s.
7. Chert (impure flint)
8. Jasper
9. Smoky quartz
10. Petrifi ed wood
11. Q,uart 'f~rystal
12. W&ed s~pa-r -
13. Fluorit e
14. Rock s a lt
15. Aloxite (a powerfu l abrasiv e)
16. Beryl
17. Calcite crystal (rhombi c)
18. Ba uxite (aluminu m ore)
19. Gypsum; Gypsum, Ohio
20. Sa tin spar (fibrou s gypsum)
21. Selenit e (clear gypsum
22 . Celest ite; N. W. Ohio
23. Barite (''heavy spar")
24. Apatite (calcium phosph ate)
25. Hemati te (iron ore)
26. Specula r hematit e
27. Bog iron ore (impure limonit e)
28. Magnet ite (magnet ic iron ore)
29. Iron py rite ("f c ols gold")
30. Copper silicat e (chryso colla)
31. Siderit e (ca rbonate of iron)
32. Emery; N. Y. State
33 . Pyrolu site (ore of manga nese)
34. Sp halerit e (ore of zinc)
35 . Muscovit e (wh ite mica)
36. Biotite (bla ck mica)
37. Red feldspa r {as in red granite )
38. Kaolin (pure "china clay")
39. Talc
40. Asbesto s (fibrou s serpent ine)
41. Magnes ite (magnes ium carbona te)
~42 . Serpen tine