Electronics 11 02297

electronics
Review
Development and Prospect of Wireless Power Transfer
Technology Used to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Maopeng Wu , Lijuan Su *, Jianxun Chen, Xiaoli Duan, Donghua Wu, Yan Cheng and Yu Jiang
Avic Shaanxi Aero Electric Co., Ltd., Xi’an 710000, China; shakpybeta@foxmail.com (M.W.);
xuecangweixiao@gmail.com (J.C.); duanxl@avic.com (X.D.); dhwu2@126.com (D.W.); chengy007@avic.com (Y.C.);
jiangy011@avic.com (Y.J.)
* Correspondence: dagongsulijuan@163.com; Tel.: +86-029-8129-8081
Abstract: Recently, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) have been widely used in the military and civil
fields. However, the battery power is a key factor that restricts the operation range of the UAV. Using
wireless power transfer (WPT) technology to power UAVs can improve the endurance of UAVs
and enhance their maneuverability and flexibility. In this paper, the WPT technology is divided
into three types: near-field WPT technology, far-field WPT technology and solar-powered UAV. The
developments, challenges and prospects of these three types of WPT technologies used to power UAVs
are summarized. For each type of WPT technology, the basic working principles are first introduced.
The development of each type of WPT technology, as well as the challenges and application prospects
in UAV charging, is introduced. The related works consist of academic and industry research, ranging
from prototypes to commercial systems. Finally, three types of WPT technology used in UAV charging
are compared and discussed, and the advantages and disadvantages of each type of WPT technology
are shown. The related research showed that using WPT technology to power the UAV is a promising
way to enhance the endurance of the UAV.
Citation: Wu, M.; Su, L.; Chen, J.;
Duan, X.; Wu, D.; Cheng, Y.; Jiang, Y. Keywords: UAV; wireless power transfer; solar-powered UAV
Development and Prospect of
Wireless Power Transfer Technology
Used to Power Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle. Electronics 2022, 11, 2297. 1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/
In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) have been widely used in both
electronics11152297
military and civilian fields, which shows a bright application prospect [1,2]. In the military
Academic Editors: Bo Luo, field, UAVs can be used for border patrol, electronic jamming, communication relay, long-
Chaoqiang Jiang and Ruikun Mai range bombing, and so on. In the civilian field, UAVs can be used for flood fighting, rescue
Received: 25 June 2022
and disaster recovery, agricultural and forestry plant protection, cargo transportation, and
Accepted: 21 July 2022
so on. UAVs can be divided into rotary-wing UAVs, fixed-wing UAVs and unmanned
Published: 23 July 2022
helicopters. Rotor-wing UAV is generally a small-type UAV that uses batteries as a power
source. Fixed-wing UAVs and unmanned helicopters are generally huge-type UAVs that
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
use aviation fuel as a power source. With the development of multi-electric and all-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
electric technologies, using batteries as an energy source is also an important development
published maps and institutional affil-
direction for huge-type UAVs. However, all types of UAVs face the problem of limited
iations.
endurance. The limited endurance greatly limits the working range of UAVs, so improving
the endurance of UAVs is an important issue to be addressed.
At present, the main method to improve the working range of the UAV is to optimize
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
the design of the aircraft body due to the limited energy density of the battery. The related
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. methods include improving the structure of the aircraft to reduce drag or choosing a more
This article is an open access article efficient motor [3–5]. However, this does not fundamentally solve the problem of the
distributed under the terms and limited working range of UAVs. Some researchers have proposed wireless energy transfer
conditions of the Creative Commons technology to power UAVs, which can greatly solve the problem of insufficient UAV range
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// once applied on a large scale.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Wireless power transfer (WPT) technology, also known as contactless power transfer
4.0/). (CPT) technology, refers to the technology that uses a kind of field or wave to achieve
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11152297 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 2 of 19

Wireless power transfer (WPT) technology, also known as contactless power transfer
(CPT) technology, refers to the technology that uses a kind of field or wave to achieve
effective electrical
electricalenergy
energytransmission
transmission over a certain
over distance
a certain without
distance using
without wireswires
using or con-
or
ductors[6–9]. WPT
conductors [6–9]. WPTtechnology
technology waswas
first proposed
first proposedbyby Nikola
NikolaTesla,
Tesla,aaSerbian–American
Serbian–American
scientist,
scientist, and
andisiscurrently
currentlyfocused
focused onon
connecting
connectingthethe
power source
power and load
source without
and load elec-
without
trical contact
electrical [10].[10].
contact It achieves electrical
It achieves energy
electrical transmission
energy transmissionby means of an of
by means indirect form
an indirect
of
formenergy, and and
of energy, the principle is shown
the principle is shownin Figure 1. 1.
in Figure OnOn the
thetransmitting
transmittingside,
side,the
the energy
energy
conversion device converts the electrical energy into another form of energy energy andand transmits
transmits
it through the medium. On the receiving side, the energy conversion device converts the
received energy backback toto electrical
electricalenergy
energyagain,
again,and
andthetheelectrical
electrical energy
energy isis processed
processed and
powers the load.
Transmission
Medium
Energy Energy Energy

Input Conversion Conversion
Energy Energy Load

Transmission Reception
Figure 1. Working principles of wireless power transfer technology.

technology.
Wireless power
Wireless power transfer technology can
transfer technology can be be divided
divided into
into electromagnetic-based
electromagnetic-based WPT WPT
technology and
technology and mechanical-based
mechanical-basedWPT WPTtechnology
technology according
according to to
thethe
form of indirect
form energy,
of indirect en-
as shown in Figure 2 [11–14]. Electromagnetic-based WPT technology
ergy, as shown in Figure 2 [11–14]. Electromagnetic-based WPT technology can be classi- can be classified into
the magnetic
fied field principle,
into the magnetic electric field-principle
field principle, WPT, microwave-principle
electric field-principle WPT and
WPT, microwave-principle
laser-principle WPT. Mechanical-based WPT technology can
WPT and laser-principle WPT. Mechanical-based WPT technology can be classified intobe classified into ultrasonic-
principle WPT and mechanical
ultrasonic-principle vibration-principle
WPT and mechanical WPT. At present,
vibration-principle WPT.theAt WPT technologies
present, the WPT
applied in the aviation field include inductively wireless power
technologies applied in the aviation field include inductively wireless power transfer transfer (IWPT), mag-
netic coupling
(IWPT), magneticresonant
couplingwireless power
resonant transferpower
wireless (MCR-WPT),
transferlaser wireless power
(MCR-WPT), transfer
laser wireless
(LWPT), and microwave wireless power transfer (MWPT).
power transfer (LWPT), and microwave wireless power transfer (MWPT). Among them,Among them, IWPT and MCR-
WPT are near-field WPT technologies, and LWPT and MWPT
IWPT and MCR-WPT are near-field WPT technologies, and LWPT and MWPT are far- are far-field WPT technologies.
In addition,
field researchersIn
WPT technologies. also investigated
addition, solar-powered
researchers UAV forsolar-powered
also investigated the specific context
UAV for of
applications, which can also be considered as one of the wireless power transfer technolo-
the specific context of applications, which can also be considered as one of the wireless
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
gies because the power of the UAV is not from oil or electricity with direct contact but3 from of 19
power transfer technologies because the power of the UAV is not from oil or electricity
indirect contact and energy conversion of solar power.
with direct contact but from indirect contact and energy conversion of solar power.
In this paper, an overview of WPT technology used to power UAVs is shown. For
IWPT
each type of WPT technology, the basic working
Magnetic field principles are first introduced. The de-
principle
velopment of each type of WPT technology, as well as theMCR-WPT challenges and application pro-
spects in UAV charging, was introduced. ElectricThe
field related worksCWPTconsist of academic and in-
dustry research, Electromagnetic-

ranging from prototypes principle
to commercialCCR-WPTsystems. Finally, three types of
based WPT
WPT technology used in UAV charging were
Microwave compared and discussed, and the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of each type of WPT technology are shown. The related re-
principle
SLWPT
search showed that using WPT technology to power the UAV is a promising way to en-
Laser principle
LLWPT
hance the endurance of the UAV. It should Ultrasonic be noted that the focus of this paper is on
research where system
Wireless Power
prototypes haveprinciple
Mechanical-based been tested. Papers or reports where only theoret-
icalTransfer
analyses, simulations WPT or experiments on parts and components of prototypes were
Mechanical
carried out are not discussed in thisvibration paper. principle
Solar-powered
Aircraft
Figure 2. Classification of wireless power transfer technologies.

technologies.
2. Near-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

2.1. Introduction to Near-Field WPT Technologies
Inductively wireless power transfer (IWPT) technology and magnetically coupled
resonant wireless power transfer (MCR-WPT) technology are near-field WPT technolo-
Transfer
Mechanical
vibration principle
Solar-powered
Aircraft
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 3 of 19
Figure 2. Classification of wireless power transfer technologies.
2. Near-Field WPT Technology

In this paper, an overviewin ofUAV
WPTCharging
technology used to power UAVs is shown. For
2.1.
eachIntroduction
type of WPT to Near-Field WPTthe
technology, Technologies
basic working principles are first introduced. The
development
Inductively of wireless
each typepower
of WPT technology,
transfer (IWPT)astechnology
well as the and
challenges and application
magnetically coupled
prospects in UAV charging, was introduced. The related
resonant wireless power transfer (MCR-WPT) technology are near-field WPT works consist of academic and
technolo-
industry
gies. research, ranging from prototypes to commercial systems. Finally, three types of
WPTIWPTtechnology used in UAV charging were compared and discussed, and
is the most widely researched wireless power transfer technology, and the the advantages
working principle isofshown
and disadvantages each type of WPT3atechnology
in Figure [15,16]. On arethe
shown. The related
transmitting side,research showed
the 50 Hz AC
that using WPT technology to power the UAV is a promising way to enhance
voltage is converted to high-frequency AC after rectification and high-frequency inver- the endurance
of the
sion, UAV.isItsent
which should be transmitting
to the noted that the focus
coil afterofimpedance
this paper compensation
is on research to where system
establish a
prototypes have been tested. Papers or reports where only theoretical analyses, simulations
high-frequency magnetic field. On the receiving side, the energy received by the receiving
or experiments on parts and components of prototypes were carried out are not discussed
coil is used for the electrical load after impedance compensation and electric energy pro-
in this paper.
cessing. In IWPT technology, the transmitting coil and receiving coil are similar to loosely
coupled transformers.
2. Near-Field The IWPTin
WPT Technology technology
UAV Chargingcan achieve high output power, even up to
tens
2.1. Introduction to Near-Field WPT Technologies of IWPT technology is small, generally
of kW. However, the transmission distance
not exceeding the diameter of the coil.
Inductively wireless power transfer (IWPT) technology and magnetically coupled
MCR-WPT is also a widely researched wireless power transfer technology, and its
resonant wireless power transfer (MCR-WPT) technology are near-field WPT technologies.
working principle is shown in Figure 3b [17–19]. On the transmitting side, the 50 Hz AC
IWPT is the most widely researched wireless power transfer technology, and the
voltage is converted into high-frequency AC voltage after rectification and high-fre-
working principle is shown in Figure 3a [15,16]. On the transmitting side, the 50 Hz AC
quency inversion and sent to the transmitter coil after impedance compensation. The
voltage is converted to high-frequency AC after rectification and high-frequency inversion,
transmitting coil and receiving coil work in a magnetic field-resonant state or a self-reso-
which is sent to the transmitting coil after impedance compensation to establish a high-
nant state, thereby realizing energy transmission. On the receiving side, the energy re-
frequency magnetic field. On the receiving side, the energy received by the receiving coil is
ceived by the receiving coil is used for the electrical load after impedance matching and
used for the electrical load after impedance compensation and electric energy processing.
electric energy processing. The resonant frequency of MCR-WPT technology is much
In IWPT technology, the transmitting coil and receiving coil are similar to loosely coupled
higher than that of IWPT technology, usually MHz, and the transmission distance is also
transformers. The IWPT technology can achieve high output power, even up to tens of kW.
farther
However,thanthe
ICPT, up to several
transmission meters.
distance In addition,
of IWPT a relay
technology is coil may
small, be usednot
generally to achieve
exceedinga
longer transmission distance
the diameter of the coil. in MCR-WPT.
50Hz AC Rectific High-frequency Impedence Impedence Energy

LOAD
Voltage
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW ation inversion compensation compensation processing 4 of 19
Transmitting side Transmitting Receiving

Coil Coil Receiving side
(a)
50Hz AC Rectific High-frequency Impedence Impedence Energy

LOAD
Voltage ation inversion compensation compensation processing
Transmitting Receiving
Transmitting side Receiving side
Coil Coil
(b)
Figure
Figure3.3.Basic composition
Basic compositionof IWPT andand
of IWPT MCR-WPT
MCR-WPT technologies: (a) Basic
technologies: principle
(a) Basic of IWPT
principle tech-
of IWPT
nology; (b) Basic principle of MCR-WPT technology.
technology; (b) Basic principle of MCR-WPT technology.
Although
MCR-WPT IWPT
is alsotechnology and MCR-WPT
a widely researched wirelesstechnology are thetechnology,
power transfer most widely andre-
its
searched technologies by scholars, the application of these two technologies
working principle is shown in Figure 3b [17–19]. On the transmitting side, the 50 Hz AC in UAV
charging,
voltage is especially
converted into in large aircraft charging,
high-frequency AC voltagehas after
rarely been reported,
rectification which is at-
and high-frequency
tributed toand
inversion the sent
limited transmission
to the transmitterdistance
coil afterof these twocompensation.
impedance technologies. Currently, most
The transmitting
coil and receiving
researchers coil work
applied these in a magnetic
two technologies to field-resonant
powering smallstate typesorof
a UAV.
self-resonant state,
thereby realizing energy transmission. On the receiving side, the energy received by the
2.2. Development
receiving coil is of Near-Field
used for the WPT Technology
electrical in UAV
load after Charging
impedance matching and electric energy
processing. The resonant frequency of MCR-WPT
In 2009, MIT researchers developed a Reviray UAV that was technology is much higher
capable than that
of staying on ofa
IWPT technology,
high-voltage power usually MHz,on
line based andthe
theDefense
transmission distance
Research is also farther
Association′s thanproject—
(DRA) ICPT, up
Power Line Urban Sentry Plus. The 2.7 kg in-weight UAV took power from the high-volt-
age line to charge the onboard battery via IWPT technology, and it could fly along the
high-voltage power line at a speed of 75 km/h [20].
In 2016, researchers from the University of L′Aquila installed a hollow plane receiv-
ing coil on the abdomen of the UAV. Under well-aligned conditions, 70 W output power
50Hz AC
50Hz AC Rectific
Rectific High-frequency
High-frequency Impedence
Impedence Impedence
Impedence Energy
Energy
LOAD
LOAD
Voltage
Voltage ation
ation inversion
inversion compensation
compensation compensation
compensation processing
processing
Transmitting
Transmitting Receiving
Receiving
Transmitting side
Transmitting side Receiving side
Receiving side
Coil
Coil Coil
Coil
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 4 of 19
(b)
(b)
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Basic
Basic composition
composition ofof IWPT
IWPT and
and MCR-WPT
MCR-WPT technologies:
technologies: (a)
(a) Basic
Basic principle
principle of
of IWPT
IWPT tech-
tech-
nology; (b)
nology; (b) Basic
Basic principle
principle of
of MCR-WPT
MCR-WPT technology.
technology.
to several meters. In addition, a relay coil may be used to achieve a longer transmission
distance in MCR-WPT.
Although IWPT
Although IWPT technology
technology andand MCR-WPT
MCR-WPT technology
technology areare the
the most
most widely
widely re-
re-
Although IWPT technology and MCR-WPT technology are the most widely researched
searched technologies by scholars, the application of these two technologies
searched technologies by scholars, the application of these two technologies in UAV in UAV
technologies by scholars, the application of these two technologies in UAV charging,
charging, especially
charging, especially in
in large
large aircraft
aircraft charging,
charging, has
has rarely
rarely been
been reported,
reported, which
which is
is at-
at-
especially in large aircraft charging, has rarely been reported, which is attributed to the
tributed to
tributed to the
the limited
limited transmission
distance of
of these
these two
two technologies.
technologies. Currently,
Currently, most
most
limited transmission distance of these two technologies. Currently, most researchers applied
researchers applied
researchers applied these
these two
two technologies
technologies toto powering
powering small
small types
types of
of UAV.
UAV.
these two technologies to powering small types of UAV.
2.2.
2.2. Development
2.2. Development
Development of of Near-Field
of Near-Field
Near-Field WPT WPT Technology
WPT Technology
Technology in in UAV
in UAV Charging
UAV Charging
Charging
In
In 2009,
In 2009, MIT
2009, MIT researchers
MIT researchers developed
developedaaaReviray
researchers developed Reviray
RevirayUAVUAV that was
UAV that
that was capable
was capable
capable of of staying
of staying
staying onon
on aaa
high-voltage
high-voltage
high-voltage powerpower
powerline line based
linebased
based on
onon the
thethe Defense
Defense
Defense Research
Research
Research Association′s
Association′s
Association 0 s (DRA) (DRA)
(DRA) project—
project—
project—Power
Power
Power Line Urban
Line
Line Urban Urban Sentry
Sentry Sentry
Plus. The Plus.
Plus. The
2.7The
kg 2.72.7 kg
kg in-weight
in-weightin-weight
UAV took UAV
UAV took power
took
power power
from the from
from the high-volt-
the high-volt-
high-voltage line
age
age line to
line
to charge tothe
charge
charge
onboard the battery
the onboard
onboard battery
viabattery via IWPT
via IWPT technology,
IWPT technology, technology, and
and it couldand itit could
fly along could fly
thefly along the
along
high-voltagethe
high-voltage
high-voltage power
power line
line at
at
power line at a speed of 75 km/h [20]. a
a speed
speed of
of 75
75 km/h
km/h [20].
[20].
In
In 2016,
In 2016, researchers from
2016, researchers fromthe
from theUniversity
the Universityofof
University 0 Aquila installed
ofLL′Aquila
L′Aquila installeda ahollow
installed a hollow
hollow plane
plane
plane receiv-
receiv-
receiving
ing
ing coil
coilcoil
on theon
on thethe abdomen
abdomen
abdomen of the
of the
of the UAV. UAV.
UAV.
Under Under
Under well-aligned
well-aligned
well-aligned conditions,
conditions,
conditions, 70
70 W70output W output
W outputpower power
power
was
was
was achieved
achieved
achieved with
withwith
89%89% 89% efficiency
efficiency
efficiency over
overover aa distance
distance
a distance ofcm,
of 10of 10 and
10 cm, and
cm, andoperating
the the operating
the operating frequency
frequency
frequency was
waskHz,
was
150 150 kHz,
150 kHz, as shown
as
as shown shown in Figure
in
in Figure Figure
4 [21].44 [21].
[21].
Figure 4.
Figure 4. UAV
UAV with coil
UAV with coil on
on the
the abdomen.
abdomen. Reproduced
Reproduced with permission
Reproducedwith permission from
from Ref.
Ref. [21];
[21]; published
published by
by
IEEE,
IEEE, 2016.
IEEE, 2016.
2016.
In 2017,
In 2017, researchers
researchers fromfrom Imperial
Imperial College
College London
London developed
developed an an MCR-WPT
MCR-WPT system
system
for hovering
for hovering UAVs,
hoveringUAVs,
UAVs,as as shown
asshown
shownin ininFigure
Figure
Figure 5. 5.
5. OnOn
On thethe
the transmitting side,side,
transmitting
transmitting side, aa class-E
class-E power
a class-E
power am-
power
am-
amplifier
plifier
plifier waswas
was used
used used
as as transmitting
as the
the the transmitting
transmitting power
power power source,
source,
source, andoperating
and the
and the the operating
operating frequency
frequency
frequency was
was 13.56
was 13.56
13.56
MHz.MHz.
MHz. On the
On theOn the receiving
receiving
receiving side, aside,
side, a class-D
a class-D
class-D rectifier
rectifier
rectifier and aand
and a DC/DC
a DC/DC
DC/DC converter
converter
converter werewere
were usedused
used as
as the
as the
the
powerpower receiver.
receiver. The The
MCR-WPTMCR-WPT systemsystem achieves
achieves wireless
wireless charging
charging
power receiver. The MCR-WPT system achieves wireless charging of hovering UAV with of of hovering
hovering UAV UAV
with
with
an an output
an output
output power
power power 21 of
of 21
of WW21 at aW
at at a distance
a distance
distance 10 of
of 10
of cm10
cm cm [22].
[22].
[22].
Figure 5.
Figure Wireless charging
5. Wireless
Wireless charging hovering
hovering drone.
drone. Reproduced
Reproduced with
with permission
permission from
from Ref.
Ref. [22];
[22]; published
published
by IEEE,
by IEEE, 2017.
2017.
Researchers from the City University of Hong Kong applied a variable-pitch transmit-
ting coil for efficient wireless power supply to UAV, achieving a power transmission of
170 W at 90% efficiency over a distance of 150 mm, and the system operates at 370 kHz, as
shown in Figure 6 [23].
Researchers from the City University of Hong Kong applied a variable-pitch trans-
mitting coil for efficient wireless power supply to UAV, achieving a power transmission
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297
of 170 W at 90% efficiency over a distance of 150 mm, and the system operates at 3705kHz,
of 19
as shown in Figure 6 [23].
Figure 6. Variable
Figure Variable pitch transmitter coil charging drone. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [23];
published by IEEE,
published by IEEE, 2017.
2017.
In
In 2019,
2019,WiBotic,
WiBotic,ananAmerican
American company,
company, launched a flat-panel
launched charging
a flat-panel platform
charging with
platform
WPT
with technology PowerPad,
WPT technology whichwhich
PowerPad, could be usedbetoused
could chargeto the UAVthe
charge byUAV
a corresponding
by a corre-
wireless
spondingcharging
wirelessmodule
chargingonmodule
the drone, on and the charging
the drone, and the efficiency
charging can reach 85%
efficiency can[24].
reach
Wuhan
85% [24]. University designed a dissymmetrical coupling mechanism using for UAV
wireless
Wuhancharging. The designed
University transmitting coil was composed
a dissymmetrical couplingof three coaxialusing
mechanism solenoid coils
for UAV
with different
wireless diameters,
charging. and the turn
The transmitting coilnumber of the receiving
was composed coil was
of three coaxial 10. Thecoils
solenoid working
with
frequency was 364.44and
different diameters, kHz,theand it realized
turn number 64.87
of theWreceiving
power transmission
coil was 10.with The an efficiency
working fre-
of 57.94% when the transmission distance was 0.5 m [25].
quency was 364.44 kHz, and it realized 64.87 W power transmission with an efficiency of
There
57.94% arethe
when alsotransmission
some other researchers
distance was who
0.5studied
m [25]. the key issues in using IWPT tech-
nology and MCR-WPT technology to charge UAVs
There are also some other researchers who studied with WPT
the key technology, such as
issues in using coupling
IWPT tech-
mechanism, anti-offset measures, transmitting power supply,
nology and MCR-WPT technology to charge UAVs with WPT technology, such as cou- high-efficiency transmis-
sion
plingmethods,
mechanism,andanti-offset
so on [26–31]. However,
measures, these research
transmitting results have
power supply, only conducted
high-efficiency trans-
theoretical research, simulation research or experiments for the research
mission methods, and so on [26–31]. However, these research results have only conducted content, but not
completed UAV wireless charging system experiment, which is not further
theoretical research, simulation research or experiments for the research content, but not discussed here.
According
completed toUAVthe research
wirelessworks
chargingabove, comparisons
system experiment,of near-field
which isWPT not technologies used
further discussed
to power UAVs are shown in Table 1. The challenges and prospects of using
here. According to the research works above, comparisons of near-field WPT technologies near-field WPT
technologies to power UAVs can be summarized in the following.
used to power UAVs are shown in Table 1. The challenges and prospects of using near-
field WPT technologies to power UAVs can be summarized in the following.
Table 1. Comparison of near-field WPT technologies used to power UAV.
Table 1. ComparisonOutput
of near-field WPT technologies used to powerTransmission
Working UAV.
WPT Type Efficiency Reference
Power Frequency Distance
Working Fre- Transmission Dis- Refer-
WPT Type Output
IWPT Power
70 W 150 kHz Efficiency
89% 10 cm [21]
quency tance ence
MCR-WPT
IWPT 21
70 W
W 13.56
150 MHz
kHz -
89% 10 cm
10 cm [22][21]
MCR-WPT
IWPT 21 W
170 13.56 MHz
370 kHz 90%- 10 cm
15 cm [23][22]
IWPT
IWPT 170 W
67.84 W 370 kHz
364.44 kHz 90%
57.94% 15
50 cm cm [25][23]
IWPT
MCR-WPT 67.84
10 W W 364.44
1 MHz kHz 57.94%
83.7% 10.550
cmcm [28][25]
MCR-WPT 10 W 1 MHz 83.7% 10.5 cm [28]
IWPT 500 W 100 kHz 90.8% 10 cm [30]
IWPT 500 W 100 kHz 90.8% 10 cm [30]
IWPT 20.46 W 12 kHz 85.36% 0 cm [31]
IWPT 20.46 W 12 kHz 85.36% 0 cm [31]
2.3. Challenges of Near-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

2.3. Challenges of Near-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging
(1) As the two most widely researched wireless power transfer technologies, both IWPT
(1) As the two most widely researched wireless power transfer technologies, both IWPT
and MCR-WPT technologies can transmit several kilowatts or even ten kilowatts of
and MCR-WPT technologies can transmit several kilowatts or even ten kilowatts of
power in consumer electronic or electric vehicle wireless charging. However, there
power in consumer electronic or electric vehicle wireless charging. However, there
are still many challenges when used for UAV charging as follows;
are still many challenges when used for UAV charging as follows;
(2) The transmission distance is limited. The transmission distance of IWPT technology is
generally no more than the diameter of the coil, and the transmission distance of MCR-
WPT technology is generally only a few meters, which restricts the application of these
two WPT technologies in the aviation field. How to improve the transmission distance
to 100 m or even kilometers is the primary problem that restricts the large-scale
application of WPT technology in UAV charging;
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 6 of 19
(3) The anti-offset problem should be of concern. The flight of an aircraft is a dynamic
process, and the landing position is random. For IWPT technology and MCR-WPT
technology, the coupling mechanism determines that the transmitting side and the
receiving side should be aligned when charging. If the offset between the transmitter
and the receiver is too large, the coupling between the transmitter coil and the receiver
coil will be weakened, which in turn causes the output voltage to drop and the
transmission power to be significantly affected. Therefore, measures should be taken
to deal with the offset problem between the transmitting coil and the receiving coil to
ensure the coupling coefficient between the transmitter coil and the receiver coil;
(4) A high-performance coupling mechanism should be designed. The coupling mecha-
nism is an important part of IWPT and MCR-WPT technology. For existing UAVs, the
load is often small, and their anti-electromagnetic interference ability is poor. In order
to achieve high-power energy transmission, the weight of the traditional coupling
mechanism is often relatively large. At the same time, there are a large number of
wireless electronic devices in the UAV, and magnetic field coupling may affect the
operation of the devices. In order to reduce the weight of the coupling mechanism
and ensure the transmission power, the coupling structure should be reasonably opti-
mized to achieve low weight, high transmission power and high anti-electromagnetic
interference capability.
2.4. Prospect of Near-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

As an emerging charging method, although MCR-WPT technology and IWPT tech-
nology are studied limited, they still have great development prospects in UAV wireless
charging. In the future, the following development directions can be considered:
(1) Unattended and fixed-point autonomous charging of UAV. Charging stations can be
set up. When the power of the UAV is low, it automatically navigates to the nearest
charging station for autonomous charging. The technology saves labor and enhances
charging flexibility as it uses coils for charging, which only need to be aligned and do
not need to plug and unplug;
(2) High-power dynamic wireless charging. Dynamic charging of aircraft can be con-
sidered because the transmitting coil and receiving coil are not in contact with WPT
technologies. For example, when the aircraft is taxing on the ground, coils can be laid
on the ground to dynamically charge the aircraft;
(3) Wireless charging of rotating devices. There are many rotating devices on the aircraft
in which the sensors should be installed to obtain more flight information, such as
propellers, rotating blades, etc. Currently, the sensors on these rotating equipment are
mainly powered by batteries or slip rings. WPT technology can be used to charge the
loads on the rotating equipment since the transmitting side and the receiving side are
not in contact;
(4) Wireless power supplying the equipment inside the aircraft. There are many loads in
the aircraft, and some need to be disassembled and installed repeatedly. The existence
of the plug makes the equipment wear and tear when plugging and unplugging.
Using WPT technology can avoid plugging and unplugging, so it can avoid wear and
tear and other hidden problems.
3. Far-Field WPT Technology in UAV Wireless Charging

3.1. Introduction of Far-Field WPT Technologies
Laser wireless power transfer technology (LWPT) and microwave wireless power
transfer technology (MWPT) are far-field WPT technologies.
LWPT technology realized energy transmission based on the photovoltaic effect, and
the working principle is shown in Figure 7 [32–34]. On the transmitting side, the laser
power supply powers the laser converter, which converts the DC obtained by mains
rectification into the laser and emits it through the optical system. On the receiving side,
Laser wireless
3.1. Introduction power transfer
of Far-Field technology (LWPT) and microwave wireless power
WPT Technologies
Laser wireless power transfer technology (LWPT) and microwave wireless power
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 power supply powers the laser converter, which converts the DC obtained by mains7 of rec-
19
tification into the laser and emits it through the optical system. On the receiving side, the
power supply powers the laser converter, which converts the DC obtained by mains rec-
photovoltaic array converts the received laser into electric energy through photovoltaic
tification into the laser and emits it through the optical system. On the receiving side, the
conversion
the and supplies
photovoltaic array it to the
converts load after the energy processing circuit.
photovoltaic array converts thethe received
received laser
laser intoelectric
into electric energy
energy through photovoltaic
through
conversion and
and supplies
supplies itit to
to the
the load
load after
after the
the energy
energy processing
processing circuit.
circuit.
Photovo
50Hz AC Rectific Laser Laser Energy
Voltage ation converter
-ltaic Proces- Load
Power Photovo
50Hz AC Rectific Laser Laser Optical convers- Energy
sing
Photovoltaic -ltaic
Voltage ation Power converter
system ion Proces- Load
Transmitting side Optical array convers-Receiving
sing side
Photovoltaic
system ion
Transmitting array
Figure 7. Basic principleside
of LWPT Technology. Receiving side
Figure 7. Basic principle of LWPT

Figure 7. LWPT Technology.
Technology.
MWPT technology is based on electromagnetic radiation for energy transmission,
and the
MWPTworking principle is shown in Figure 8 [35–37]. On thefortransmitting side, the DC-
MWPT technology
technologyisisbased
basedononelectromagnetic
electromagneticradiation
radiation energy
for transmission,
energy and
transmission,
RF
the inverter circuit converts the DC obtained by mains rectification into the microwave
andworking
the working principle is shown
principle in Figure
is shown 8 [35–37].
in Figure On On
8 [35–37]. the the
transmitting
transmitting side, thethe
side, DC-RF
DC-
and sends
inverter it to converts
circuit the transmitting
the DC antenna, by
obtained which would
mains transmitinto
rectification the the
microwave.
microwave Onand
the
RF inverter circuit converts the DC obtained by mains rectification into the microwave
receiving
sends it toside,
the the receiving
transmitting antennawhich
antenna, converts thetransmit
receivedthe
microwave intoOn
electric energy,
and sends it to the transmitting antenna, would
which would transmit microwave. the receiving
the microwave. On the
whichthe
side, is receiving
used by the load converts
antenna after the the
energy processing
received circuit.
microwave into The energy
electric transmission
energy, which is
receiving side, the receiving antenna converts the received microwave into electric energy,
distance
used by of MWPT
the load technology
after the energy is processing
long, up tocircuit.
thousands
The of meters
energy or even hundreds
transmission distance of
which is used by the load after the energy processing circuit. The energy transmission
kilometers.
MWPT
distancetechnology
of MWPT istechnology
long, up toisthousands
long, up toof meters or even
thousands hundreds
of meters of kilometers.
or even hundreds of
kilometers.
Energy
50Hz AC Rectifi DC-RF
Proces Load
Voltage cation Inverter Transmi- Receivi Energy
50Hz AC Rectifi DC-RF -sing
tting -ng Proces Load
Voltage cation Inverter Transmi- Receivi
antenna antenna -sing
Transmitting side tting -ng Receiving side
antenna antenna
Transmitting
Figure 8. Basic principle ofside
MWPT system. Receiving side
Figure
3.2. 8. Basic principle
Development of of MWPT system.
3.2. Development of Far-Field
Far-Field WPTWPT Technology
Technology inin UAV
UAV Charging
Charging
In July 1964, Raytheon
In July 1964,ofRaytheon demonstrated
demonstrated the
the MWPT experiment in in the
the aviation
aviation field,
field, as
3.2. Development Far-Field WPT Technology inMWPT experiment
UAV Charging as
shown
shown in Figure 9. In the experiment, the microwave beam was used to drive the small
in Figure 9. In the experiment, the microwave beam was used to drive the small
In July 1964,made
helicopter, Raytheonhelicopter
demonstrated the MWPT forexperiment anin the aviation field, as
helicopter,which
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW which madethe the helicopterflyflycontinuously
continuously 1010
for h at
h at altitude
an of of
altitude about
about15 15
8small
m.
of 19
shown
The in
workingFigure 9.
frequencyIn the experiment,
of the system the
is 2.45microwave
GHz, andandbeam
thethe was
output used
power to drive
of the the
receiving
m. The working frequency of the system is 2.45 GHz, output power of the receiv-
helicopter,
side is 280 which
W with made
a 77 the helicopter
W-power fly continuously
helicopter motor [38]. for 10 h at an altitude of about 15
ing side is 280 W with a 77 W-power helicopter motor [38].
m. The working frequency of the system is 2.45 GHz, and the output power of the receiv-
ing side is 280 W with a 77 W-power helicopter motor [38].
Experimentofof
9. Experiment
Figure 9. Raytheon.
Raytheon. Reproduced
Reproduced withwith permission
permission fromfrom Ref. published
Ref. [38]; [38]; published by
by IEEE,
IEEE, 1965.
1965.
In 1980,
In 1980, Canada
Canadalaunched
launchedthe
theSHARP
SHARP (Station High
(Station Altitude
High Relay
Altitude Platform)
Relay program
Platform) pro-
to build microwave transmitters on the ground to charge UAVs in the air. In 1987,
gram to build microwave transmitters on the ground to charge UAVs in the air. In 1987, the
UAV model, with a wingspan of 4.5 m and a weight of 4.1 kg, was powered
the UAV model, with a wingspan of 4.5 m and a weight of 4.1 kg, was powered by MWPTby MWPT
technology under
technology underthe
thesupport
supportofofthe
the SHARP
SHARP program.
program. TheThe working
working frequency
frequency ofsys-
of the the
tem is 2.45 GHz, the transmission distance is 150 m, and the output power is 150 W, as
Figure 9. Experiment of Raytheon. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [38]; published by IEEE,
1965.
In 1980, Canada launched the SHARP (Station High Altitude Relay Platform) pro-
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 gram to build microwave transmitters on the ground to charge UAVs in the air. In 81987, of 19
the UAV model, with a wingspan of 4.5 m and a weight of 4.1 kg, was powered by MWPT
technology under the support of the SHARP program. The working frequency of the sys-
system is 2.45
tem is 2.45 GHz,
GHz, thethe transmission
distance is is 150m,m,and
150 andthe
theoutput
outputpower
powerisis150
150 W,
W, as
10. UAV
Figure 10. UAVdesigned
designedbybySHARP
SHARPprogram. Reproduced
program. with
Reproduced permission
with fromfrom
permission Ref. [39];
Ref. published
[39]; pub-
lished
by by1988.
IEEE, IEEE, 1988.
In
In 1992,
1992, Japan
Japan developed
developed the the MILAX
MILAX (Microwave
(Microwave Lifted
Lifted Airplane
Airplane Experiment)
Experiment) pro- pro-
gram, which uses microwaves to transfer wireless power for UAVs. In
gram, which uses microwaves to transfer wireless power for UAVs. In the experiment, thethe experiment, the
working frequency of the system is 2.411 GHz, and the transmitted
working frequency of the system is 2.411 GHz, and the transmitted power is 1 kW. The power is 1 kW. The
microwave
microwave is is kept on the
kept on the aircraft
aircraft through
through thethe phased
phased array.
array. The
The aircraft
aircraft is
is aa light
light wooden
wooden
aircraft with a wingspan of 2.5 m and a weight of 4 kg, and the flight altitude
aircraft with a wingspan of 2.5 m and a weight of 4 kg, and the flight altitude is 25 m is 25 m [40].
[40].
In
In the 21st century, MWPT technology continues to be developed, but the report its
the 21st century, MWPT technology continues to be developed, but the report of of
application in the
its application aviation
in the fieldfield
aviation is limited, whilewhile
is limited, widely used used
widely in other fields.fields.
in other Among them,
Among
Japan, as an island
them, Japan, country,
as an island pays more
country, paysattention to the development
more attention of MWPT
to the development of MWPTtechnology
tech-
due to a shortage of resources [41–43]. In 2015, Mitsubishi Heavy
nology due to a shortage of resources [41–43]. In 2015, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Industries of Japan of
transmitted 10 kW of power energy and lit LED lights beyond
Japan transmitted 10 kW of power energy and lit LED lights beyond 500 m [44].500 m [44].
With the development of WPT technology, the application of LWPT technology in
With the development of WPT technology, the application of LWPT technology in
the aviation field has gradually attracted researchers’ attention. In 2003, NASA first used
the aviation field has gradually attracted researchers’ attention. In 2003, NASA first used
LWPT to charge for the model UAV in flight, as shown in Figure 11 [45]. In the experiment,
LWPT to charge for the model UAV in flight, as shown in Figure 11 [45]. In the experiment,
a laser with a wavelength of 940 nm and optical power of 500 W was used to provide 6 W
a laser with a wavelength of 940 nm and optical power of 500 W was used to provide 6 W
power for a UAV model beyond 15 m. The aircraft model flew continuously for 15 min.
power for a UAV model beyond 15 m. The aircraft model flew continuously for 15 min.
Figure 11.NASA
Figure11. NASAuses
usesLWPT
LWPTtechnology
technologytotopower
powerfor
formodel
modelUAVs.
UAVs.
In
In2006,
2006,the
theelectric
electrickite
kitewith
withaaphotovoltaic
photovoltaiccell
cellwas
wascharged
chargedby byLWPT
LWPTtechnology
technologyat at
Kinki University [46]. In the experiment, an optical fiber coupled laser transmitter
Kinki University [46]. In the experiment, an optical fiber coupled laser transmitter with a with a
wavelength
wavelengthof of808
808nmnmand
andaapower
powerofof200
200WWwas
wasusedusedtotomake
makethetheelectric
electrickite
kitehover
hoverfor
for
11hhatataaspeed
speed of 10 m/s and a height of 50 m. The electro-optical efficiency of the laserwas
of 10 m/s and a height of 50 m. The electro-optical efficiency of the laser was
34.2%,
34.2%,and andthe
thephotovoltaic
photovoltaicmodule
moduleconsisted
consistedofof3030pieces
piecesofofGaAs
GaAschip
chipwith
with44cmcm×× 77 cm.
cm.
The
The laser electric efficiency was 21%, and the total electric-to-electric conversionefficiency
laser electric efficiency was 21%, and the total electric-to-electric conversion efficiency
was
was7.2%.
7.2%.
In 2009, Laser Motive completed the flight test of laser wireless charging for the
In 2009, Laser Motive completed the flight test of laser wireless charging for the PEL-
PELICAN four-rotor helicopter, setting a record of hovering flight of 12.5 h. In 2012, Laser
ICAN four-rotor helicopter, setting a record of hovering flight of 12.5 h. In 2012, Laser
Motive cooperated with the Lockheed Martin company and placed an LWPT system on
the UAV Stalker, in service of the US military, to increase its stay time in the air from 2 h
to more than 48 h [47–48].
In 2013, the US Navy laboratory conducted a flight test of LWPT technology for ro-
wavelength of 808 nm and a power of 200 W was used to make the electric kite hover for
1 h at a speed of 10 m/s and a height of 50 m. The electro-optical efficiency of the laser was
34.2%, and the photovoltaic module consisted of 30 pieces of GaAs chip with 4 cm × 7 cm.
The laser electric efficiency was 21%, and the total electric-to-electric conversion efficiency
was 7.2%.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 In 2009, Laser Motive completed the flight test of laser wireless charging for the9PEL- of 19
ICAN four-rotor helicopter, setting a record of hovering flight of 12.5 h. In 2012, Laser
Motive cooperated with the Lockheed Martin company and placed an LWPT system on
the UAV
Motive Stalker, inwith
cooperated service
theof the US military,
Lockheed to increaseand
Martin company its placed
stay timeanin the air
LWPT from 2onh
system
to more
the UAV than 48 hin[47–48].
Stalker, service of the US military, to increase its stay time in the air from 2 h to
moreIn 2013,
than the
48 h US Navy laboratory conducted a flight test of LWPT technology for ro-
[47,48].
tary In
wing UAVs
2013, the US indoors [49]. The experiment
Navy laboratory conducted aadopted a of
flight test 2 kW
LWPTsingle-mode
technologyfiber laser,
for rotary
and the
wing UAVslaser battery
indoors adopted
[49]. an InGaAs
The experiment laser battery
adopted a 2 kWarray, which fiber
single-mode couldlaser,
provide 160
and the
laser
W~190 battery adopted
W power. an InGaAs
By using laser tracking
the optical battery array,
system,which couldbeam
the laser provide
was160 W~190 W
automatically
power. By using
positioned in thethe optical
center of tracking
the lasersystem,
battery the laser
array to beam
realizewas automatically
wireless positioned
laser charging at a
in the center
distance of m.
of 40 theInlaser battery
2021, the USarray
Navyto realize wireless
laboratory laser MWPT
adopted charging at a distance
technology to of 40 m.
achieve
In 2021, transmission
energy the US Navy laboratory adopted
with a distance of 1MWPT
km and technology
a power to of achieve
1.6 kW,energy
as showntransmission
in Figure
with a distance of 1 km and a power of 1.6 kW, as shown in Figure 12 [50].
12 [50].
Figure 12.
Figure
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
12. WPT
WPT experiment in naval laboratory. Reproduced
Reproducedwith
withpermission
permissionfrom
fromRef.
Ref.[50];
[50];pub-
10 pub-
of 19
lished by
lished by IEEE,
IEEE, 2022.
2022. (a)
(a) aa 5.4-m-diameter
5.4-m-diameter parabolicreflector;
parabolicreflector; (b)
(b)aalinearly
linearlyactuated
actuatedhorn;
horn;(c)
(c)aaview
view of the transmitter from the target site 1046
of the transmitter from the target site 1046 m away. m away.
In 2014,
In 2014, Shandong
Shandong Aerospace
Aerospace Electronics
ElectronicsTechnology
TechnologyResearch
ResearchInstitute
Instituteconducted
conducteda
dynamic test of LWPT technology between two airships, as shown in Figure
a dynamic test of LWPT technology between two airships, as shown in Figure 13. 13. The The
dis-
tance between the two airships was 50 m~100 m, the
distance between the two airships was 50 m~100 m, the speed speed was 5 m/s,
m/s, the input power
power
was 88
was 88 W,
W,the
themaximum
maximumreceiving
receiving power
power was
was 13.43
13.43 W,
W,and
andthe
themaximum
maximumtransmission
transmission
efficiencywas
efficiency was16.08%
16.08%[51].
[51].
Figure 13.
Figure 13. LWPT
LWPTexperiment
experimentofofShandong
Shandong Aerospace
AerospaceElectronic Technology
Electronic Research
Technology Institute.
Research Re-
Institute.
produced with permission from Ref. [51]; published by IEEE, 2014.
Reproduced with permission from Ref. [51]; published by IEEE, 2014.
Since 2018,
Since 2018, the
the US
US Army
Army has
has been
been studying
studying the
the use
use of
of LWPT
LWPT to to supply
supply kinetic
kinetic energy
energy
to solve the problem of the limited endurance of UAVs [52]. Some researchers
to solve the problem of the limited endurance of UAVs [52]. Some researchers have studied have stud-
ied key
the the issues
key issues of LWPT
of LWPT technology,
technology, such such
as theasmodeling
the modeling
of LWPTof LWPT technology,
technology, effi-
efficiency
ciency improvement
improvement methods, methods, aerospace
aerospace applications,
applications, etc. [53–57].
etc. [53–57]. Since
Since these these contents
contents are not
are not applications
applications for powering
for powering UAVs,
UAVs, they are they are not introduced
not introduced in this paper.
in this paper.
According to
According to the
the research
research works
works above,
above, aa comparison
comparison of of far-field
far-fieldWPT
WPT technologies
technologies
used to
used to power
power UAVs
UAVsisisshown
shownininTable
Table2.2.The
Thechallenges
challenges and
and prospects
prospects ofof using
using far-field
far-field
WPTtechnologies
WPT technologiesto topower
powerUAVs
UAVscan canbe
besummarized
summarizedininthe thefollowing.
following.
Table 2. Comparison of far-field WPT technologies used to power UAV.
Output Working Wave- Transmission

WPT Type Efficiency Reference
Power Frequency length Distance
MWPT 77 W 2.45 GHz - - 15 m [38]
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 10 of 19
Table 2. Comparison of far-field WPT technologies used to power UAV.
Output Working Transmission

WPT Type Wavelength Efficiency Reference
Power Frequency Distance
MWPT 77 W 2.45 GHz - - 15 m [38]
MWPT 150 W 2.45 GHz - - 150 m [39]
MWPT 1000 W 2.411 GHz - - 25 m [40]
MWPT - - - - 500 m [44]
LWPT 6W - 940 nm 1.2% 15 m [45]
LWPT 28.4 W - 808 nm 7.2% 50 m [46]
LWPT 190 W - 1070 nm 9.5% 40 m [49]
MWPT 1600 W 9.7 GHz - 1.8% 1600 m [50]
LWPT 13.43 W - 808 nm 16.08% 100 m [51]
3.3. Challenges of Far-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

Far-field WPT technology has made some progress, but it has not been applied sub-
stantially in powering UAVs. In practice, far-field WPT technology still faces the following
challenges:
(1) Transmission distance should be improved. From the existing research, although
the transmission distance of LWPT and MWPT technology is higher than IWPT and
MCR-WPT technology in charging for UAVs, the transmission distance is still limited,
which restricts the application of LWPT and MWPT technology in the aviation field;
(2) Transmission efficiency should be improved. For LWPT, the conversion efficiency
is limited between light and electricity, which is restricted by the photoelectric con-
version elements, the key elements of the laser generator or the photovoltaic cell.
When coupled with the loss of laser in the transmission process and the influence of
transmitting and receiving antenna, the final LWPT efficiency is low, generally less
than 15%. For MWPT technology, the transmission efficiency is also less than 10% due
to a similar reason compared with LWPT technology;
(3) Dynamic characteristics and closed-loop control methods need to be improved. In
LWPT and MWPT systems, the size of the transmitter and receiver are relatively small
compared to the transmission distance. The flight of the aircraft is a random and
dynamic process. In order to obtain higher transmission power and efficiency, the
laser or microwave should be accurately irradiated on the receiving side. A laser beam
or microwave control and tracking system are required, and the normal incidence
should be guaranteed for higher energy conversion;
(4) Safety problems should be concerned. In order to realize high-power and long-
distance energy transmission, the laser beam or microwave in transmission will carry
large energy. If obstacles are encountered during use, there will be a great loss of
energy. Additionally, it will be a threat to life if a live object is encountered with
the beam.
3.4. Prospect of Far-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

The transmission distance of far-field WPT technology is long, up to several kilometers,
so it has good application prospects. Specifically, the prospect of far-field WPT technology
can be summarized as follows:
(1) Long-distance power supply during long endurance. The transmission distance
between laser and microwave is long. Therefore, LWPT and MWPT technology
could be used to supply long-distance power for UAVs in the air so as to realize the
long-term endurance of UAVs;
(2) Charging base station of swarm UAV. Drone swarm can be used for long-range
military attacks, terrain viewing, communication support, etc. However, the size is
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 11 of 19
small, and the load is limited to UAVs in the swarm, which results in short endurance
and action radius of drones in the swarm. Therefore, one large UAV in the swarm can
be considered as a charging base station to continuously charge for other UAVs in the
air so as to improve the endurance time of the whole swarm;
(3) Energy and signal transmission at the same time. A laser or microwave could simul-
taneously transmit energy and signals. LWPT or MWPT technology can be used to
supply power for UAVs while transmitting necessary information, to realize the simul-
taneous transmission of energy and signal, which can be used to promote intelligent
networking.
4. Solar-Powered UAV
4.1. Introduction of Solar-Powered UAV
Solar-powered UAV refers to the aircraft that converts solar energy into electrical
energy to provide energy for the whole aircraft [58,59]. When a solar-powered UAV is
flying at the height of the stratosphere, it can be completely unaffected by the weather. The
solar energy is converted into electricity during the daytime, and some of the converted
energy is used for flight while the others are stored in the battery. In a solar-powered
UAV, all energy that the UAV uses is electricity from a battery or from a solar panel.
The stored energy can be used at night and in weak-radiation conditions. The whole
process is cycled when the sun rises the next day. The solar-powered UAV can be used
in groping information, surveillance, reconnaissance and Internet relay, so it was studied
by institutions and schools all over the world. A solar-powered UAV is not powered by
conventional fossil fuels but by electricity from the sun and can stay aloft for months or
even years, making it a kind of WPT technology in this special area.
4.2. Development of Solar-Powered UAV

The first recorded solar-powered UAV in the world was Sunrise I, which was devel-
oped by the American Astro Flight Company for DARPA. It was successfully tested in 1974
with an output power of 450 W but was destroyed by sandstorms during the test flight.
The improved Sunrise II UAV was developed and flown in 1975 [60].
Germany is also an early adopter of solar-powered UAVs. In 1976, Solaris Solar Drone
successfully flew [61]. In 1998, the Deutsches Zentrum für Luftund Raumfahrt (DLR) and
the Technical University of Munich completed the test flight of the Solitair solar UAV
concept model, whose solar panel angle can be adjusted to maximize the use of solar
radiation [62].
NASA started the ERAST program (Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor
Technology) in the 1990s to develop long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicles. With the
support of the program, four generations of solar-powered UAVs have been developed, as
shown in Figure 14.
The first solar-powered UAV Pathfinder was developed in 1993. It had a wingspan
of 29.5 m and weighed 252 kg. Solar cells on the wings provided 7.5 kW of power. It was
driven by six 1.5 kW propellers and flew at an altitude of 21,802 m. The second-generation
solar-powered UAV Pathfinder Plus was developed in 1997. The wingspan was 36.3 m, and
it was powered by eight electric motors. Solar cells on the wings could generate 12.6 kW of
power and fly at an altitude of 24,445 m. The third generation Centurion solar-powered
UAV was developed in 1998. The wingspan was 63 m, and it was powered by 14 electric
motors with a maximum solar output of 31 kW. The fourth generation Helios solar-powered
UAV was successfully developed in 2001. The wingspan was 75.3 m. During the flight,
fourteen propellers of 1.5 kW on the wings were used to drive the UAV, and it flew at an
altitude of 29,524 m [63].
In 2005, AC Propulsion pioneered the SoLong solar UAV with a wingspan of 4.75 m
and a weight of 12.6 kg. It managed to fly for 48 h and 16 min, which was the first
long-endurance UAV [64].
and it was powered by eight electric motors. Solar cells on the wings could generate 12.6
kW of power and fly at an altitude of 24,445 m. The third generation Centurion solar-
powered UAV was developed in 1998. The wingspan was 63 m, and it was powered by
14 electric motors with a maximum solar output of 31 kW. The fourth generation Helios
solar-powered UAV was successfully developed in 2001. The wingspan was 75.3 m. Dur-
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 ing the flight, fourteen propellers of 1.5 kW on the wings were used to drive the UAV,12and
of 19
it flew at an altitude of 29,524 m [63].
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure14. NASA0fourth-generation
14.NASA′s solar-powered
s fourth-generation solar-powereddrone:
drone:(a)(a)
Pathfinder
Pathfinderdrone;
drone;(b)
(b)Pathfinder
PathfinderPlus
Plus
drone;
drone;(c)(c)Centurion
Centurionsolar-powered
solar-powereddrone;
drone;(d)
(d)Helios
Heliosdrone.
drone.
Form 2001, the British QinetiQ company started the development of the Zephyr se-
riesInsolar-powered
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AC Propulsion
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Department altitudeTheof 21,000
Zephyr m.7,Itwith
managed to fly for
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a weight of 53 breaking
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altitude record
of 21,000 m. [65]. The latest
It managed flight
to fly fortest
336 of
h
the Zephy-series UAV, Zephyr S, was performed on 13 September 2021,
and 22 min in 2010, breaking the flight duration record [65]. The latest flight test of the landing in Ari-
zona. In the test,
Zephy-series UAV, the UAV flew
Zephyr S, wasin performed
the stratosphere
on 13 at an altitude
September of 23,000
2021, landing min forArizona.
more than In
860 h [66].
the test, the UAV flew in the stratosphere at an altitude of 23,000 m for more than 860 h [66].
In 2004,
In 2004,the
theAutomatic
AutomaticControl
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SystemsLaboratory
LaboratoryofofECOLEECOLE Poly
Poly technique
technique Feder-
Federale
aleLausanne
in in Lausanne andandETHETH Zurich,
Zurich, in in collaborationwith
collaboration withthetheEuropean
EuropeanSpaceSpace Agency
Agency (ESA),
developed Sky-Sailor solar-powered UAV with a wingspan of 3.2 m [67]. In 2010, Solar-
developed
Impulse was
Impulse wassuccessfully
successfullydeveloped
developed with
with a wingspan
a wingspan of 63.4
of 63.4 m [68].
m [68]. In 2015,
In 2015, Solar-Im-
Solar-Impulse
2pulse
was 2successfully
was successfully developed.
developed. Its overall
Its overall layoutlayout was basically
was basically the samethe as
samethatasofthat of
Solar-
Solar-Impulse,
Impulse, with awith a wingspan
wingspan of 72 ofm 72and m aand a weight
weight of 2.3oftons.
2.3 tons. Its flying
Its flying rangerange
waswas up up
to
43,000 kmkm
to 43,000 with solar
with power.
solar power.In 2015, ETHETH
In 2015, Zurich developed
Zurich developed Atlantiksolar
Atlantiksolarsolar-powered
solar-pow-
UAV, with awith
ered UAV, wingspan of 5.69ofm5.69
a wingspan andmweight of 6.93ofkg,
and weight which
6.93 achieved
kg, which a continuous
achieved flight
a continuous
of 81 hofand
flight 81 26 min,26setting
h and a record
min, setting for thefor
a record longest flight time
the longest flightoftime
fixed-wing aircraftaircraft
of fixed-wing under
50 kg, as
under 50shown in Figure
kg, as shown 15 [69,70].
in Figure 15 [69,70].
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Atlantiksolar
Atlantiksolar solar-powered
solar-powered drone
drone in
in Switzerland.
Switzerland. Reproduced
Reproduced with
with permission
permission from
from
Ref. [70];
Ref. [70]; published
published by
by IEEE,
IEEE, 2017.
2017.
In 2011, DLR made a preliminary test flight of the Electric High Altitude Solar Pow-
ered Aircraft (ELHASPA), with a wingspan of 23 m and weight of 100 kg, in which two 2
kW motors were used to provide power [71].
Many Internet companies have also conducted a series of studies on solar-powered
drones. In 2013, Titan Aerospace launched the solar-powered Solara UAV research pro-
gram [72]. In 2014, Google acquired Titan Aerospace and tested the Solara50 solar-pow-
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 13 of 19
In 2011, DLR made a preliminary test flight of the Electric High Altitude Solar Powered
Aircraft (ELHASPA), with a wingspan of 23 m and weight of 100 kg, in which two 2 kW
motors were used to provide power [71].
Many Internet companies have also conducted a series of studies on solar-powered
drones. In 2013, Titan Aerospace launched the solar-powered Solara UAV research pro-
gram [72]. In 2014, Google acquired Titan Aerospace and tested the Solara50 solar-powered
drone, which crashed during testing in 2015 [73]. In 2016, Facebook developed its Aquila
solar-powered drone, which was damaged during its first test flight. The modified version
flew successfully in 2017 [74].
In 2015, the Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) developed the solar-powered
UAV EVA-3. With a wingspan of 20 m and a weight of 53 kg, it flew continuously for 9 h
and reached a maximum altitude of 14.3 km [75].
In 2017, the Russian Advanced Research Foundation (ARF) developed Owl Solara
UAV, with a wingspan of 9.5 m and a weight of 12 kg. It successfully landed after a
continuous 50-h flight test [76].
In 2017, the Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC) developed Qi Ming Xing
solar-powered UAV with a wingspan of 10 m. In 2018, the wingspan was further expanded
to 20 m while the weight was only 18.9 kg. During the test, the flight altitude was 20,000 m,
and the flight time lasted for five hours in the air [77]. On 3 November 2021, Qi Ming Xing
flew successfully for the whole test.
According to the research works above, comparisons of solar-powered UAVs are
shown in Table 3. The challenges and prospects of solar-powered UAVs can be summarized
in the following.
Table 3. Comparison of solar-powered UAV.
Output Flying
UAV Name Wingspan Weight Flying Time Reference
Power Hight
Sunrise I 450 W 18,000 m 9.7 m 12.25 kg 9h [60]
Pathfinder 9 kW 21,802 m 29.5 m 252 kg - [63]
Pathfinder Plus 12.6 kW 24,445 m 36.3 m - - [63]
Centurion 31 kW 30,480 m 63 m 560 kg - [63]
Helios - 29,594 m 75.3 m - 40 min [63]
SoLong - - 4.75 m 12.6 kg 48 h 16 min [64]
Zephyr 7 - 21,000 m 22.5 m 53 kg 336 h [65]
Solar-Impulse 2 - <85,000 m 72 m 2.3 ton - [69]
Atlaiksolar 50 W - 5.69 m 6.93 kg 81 h 26 min [70]
ELHASPA 4 kW - 23 m 100 kg - [71]
Solara 50 - - 50 m 158.9 kg 4 min [73]
Aquila - 27,432 m 42 m 399 kg 91 min [74]
EVA-3 - 14,300 m 20 m 53 kg 9h [75]
OWL - - 9.5 m 12 kg 50 h [76]
Qimingxing 20 - >20,000 m 20 m 18.9 kg 5h [77]
4.3. Challenges of Solar-Powered UAV

As can be seen from the aforementioned development, there were many research
achievements for solar-powered UAVs, and some prototypes were successfully devel-
oped. It could realize truly wireless power transfer, but solar-powered UAVs still face the
following challenges:
(1) Energy conversion efficiency and energy storage efficiency needs to be improved. In a
solar-powered UAV, photovoltaic cells, which convert solar energy into electricity, and
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 14 of 19
batteries, which store the energy, are the core components. At present, the conversion
efficiency of photovoltaic cells is extremely limited, generally less than 20%. The
energy density of batteries is also very limited, generally less than 300 Wh/kg [78]. In
order to achieve the maximum payload and maximum endurance of solar-powered
UAVs, photovoltaic panels and batteries tend to account for most of the weight.
Therefore, how to improve the conversion efficiency of energy storage conversion is a
major challenge;
(2) Aerodynamic design with a low Reynolds coefficient should be concerned. In order to
reduce the energy consumption of solar-powered UAVs during flight, it is necessary
to reduce the wing load and improve the aerodynamic efficiency of the aircraft. At
present, solar-powered UAVs fly at a higher altitude, but at a slower speed, so solar
UAVs are flying under the condition of a low Reynolds coefficient. A low Reynolds
coefficient will reduce the lifting efficiency and increase the energy loss of the aircraft.
Therefore, it is necessary to study the aerodynamic design of solar-powered UAVs
under a low Reynolds coefficient;
(3) The optimization design of the ultra-light material structure should be improved.
For solar-powered UAVs, the plane needs to be covered with as many photovoltaic
panels as possible because of the low energy density of solar energy. In order to
maximize payload and energy storage, the wingspan is as large as possible. In order
to solve this problem, optimization can be carried out not only from the photovoltaic
panels but also from the materials and structures. In terms of structure, it is necessary
to optimize the structure design as much as possible, improving lift and reducing
resistance, and carrying out variant solar UAV designs. In terms of materials, light and
strong materials should be selected as far as possible to deal with complex conditions
such as vibration under complex conditions.
4.4. Prospect of Solar-Powered UAV

As the most mature WPT technology in UAV wireless charging, the application
prospects of solar-powered UAVs are as follows:
(1) Stay during a long voyage. Solar-powered UAVs store electric energy in sunny
conditions during the day and use the stored electric energy at night, so they can fly
nonstop for a long time and then stay at a high altitude. At this point, it can be used
for patrol detection, electronic detection interference and other occasions;
(2) High altitude operation. It is difficult for traditional powered aircraft to operate at an
altitude of 20,000 m. Earth-orbit satellite generally operates at an altitude of 100,000 m,
while general solar-powered UAVs can operate at an altitude of more than 20,000 m.
Therefore, solar-powered aircraft can be used for near-space flights. At this point,
solar-powered UAVs can be used for aerial image monitoring, upper warning and
so on;
(3) Information relay. Solar-powered UAVs can be used not only in the military field but
also in the civilian field. In some remote areas, poor signal and difficult conditions
make it difficult to set up mobile base stations. Flood and earthquake areas also
cause base station damage and network signal terminal problems. In these scenarios,
solar-powered planes could be used as relays to improve network quality.
5. Discussion
Among WPT technologies suitable for UAV charging, the developments of different
types of WPT technology are different and can be concluded as follows. IWPT and MCR-
WPT technologies, which are called near-field WPT technologies, are the most widely
researched technologies and have been used in consumer electronics, electric vehicle
charging and other practical applications. However, the limited transmission range and
the strong working electromagnetic environment of these two WPT technologies limit
their use in UAV charging. LWPT and MWPT technologies are born to be used for UAV
wireless charging, where researchers have hoped to use them to enable UAVs to operate
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 15 of 19
over long distances. However, these two WPT technologies are still under development
due to limitations in transmission distance, power and efficiency. The solar-powered UAV
is the most well-developed application in the aviation field, which has been researched by
different companies and universities in different countries, with some developments and
prototypes being created. Some of the solar-powered UAVs even have a continuous flight in
the air for up to ten days. By analyzing several WPT technologies, the current applications
of various radio energy transmission technologies in aviation can be summarized as shown
in Table 4.
Table 4. Comparison of different types of WPT technology.
IWPT/MCR- Solar-Powered
WPT Type LWPT MWPT
WPT UAV
Transmission Hundreds of Altitude of
Meter level Tens of meters
distance meters 20,000 m
Output power Hundreds of W level Tens of kW level
Fixed Fixed
UAV type Rotary wing wing/Rotary wing/Rotary Fixed wing
wing wing
Prototype for
Current status Just prototype in laboratory
flight
In terms of transmission distance, the transmission distance of IWPT and MCR-WPT

technologies is generally less than 1 m, which suggests that using these two WPT technolo-
gies to charge UAVs in flight is almost impossible. LWPT and MWPT technologies can
achieve transmission distances of hundreds of meters or even several thousand meters in
some cases or in experiments in other research areas. However, the limited efficiency of
laser and microwave generation, transmission and conversion restrict the power transmis-
sion, so large-scale applications have not been achieved yet. Solar-powered UAVs convert
solar energy into electrical energy without the additional transmitter, allowing for power
outputs of several tens of kilowatts for truly wireless charging and long flight times.
However, it does not mean that it is sufficient to research and develop only solar-
powered UAVs and abandon research into other technologies. Solar-powered UAVs are
aircraft with large wingspans, large volumes, large weights and fixed wings in terms of
UAV types. It is due to the limited conversion efficiency of current photovoltaic panels,
which generally do not exceed 20%. In order to achieve high power output, a large number
of photovoltaic panels need to be used and plastered all over the surface of the UAVs due
to this limitation. In practice, small rotary-wing UAVs are also an important branch. At
present, the endurance of rotary-wing UAVs is about several ten minutes, which greatly
limits their operating range. It is not practical to spread solar panels all over their surface
because of the small size and load of rotary-wing UAVs. Therefore, laser-based and
microwave-based wireless charging technologies are important research directions that can
greatly enhance the range of UAVs as long as they are within their reach. However, both of
these wireless power transfer technologies still require further research before they can be
truly applied in aviation, particularly to study dynamic tracking power. Although IWPT
and MCR-WPT technologies are limited by the transmission distance and cannot be used to
wireless power aircraft in flight, these two wireless charging technologies are more mature
and can be used for high-power wireless charging of UAVs at a static state or for wireless
power supply between rotating devices within the aircraft. In addition, near-field WPT
technology can be used to power UAVs to create a network and realize energy routing.
In summary, although wireless power transfer technology currently has limited appli-
cations in aviation, it needs to be further developed to enable long flight times in aircraft.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 16 of 19
6. Conclusions
Using wireless power transfer technologies to power UAVs can increase the working
range. This paper focused on a review and prospect of several different wireless power
transfer technologies for UAV charging. The development, challenges and future prospects
were discussed for near-field WPT technology, far-field WPT technology and solar-powered
UAV. Although some of the WPT technologies are currently immature in the aviation field,
various wireless power transfer technologies have clear prospects for application in the
aviation field and have greater potential for development through comparative analysis
and discussion.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, and writing—original draft preparation,

M.W. and L.S.; writing—review and editing, J.C. and D.W.; supervision, Y.C., X.D. and Y.J. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by China Postdoctoral Science Foundation, grant number
2022M711993.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Electronics 2022, 11, 2297. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11152297 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2022, 11, 2297 2 of 19

Energy Energy Energy

Energy Energy Load

Figure 1. Working principles of wireless power transfer technology.

dustry research, Electromagnetic-

Figure 2. Classification of wireless power transfer technologies.

2. Near-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

2. Near-Field WPT Technology

50Hz AC Rectific High-frequency Impedence Impedence Energy

Transmitting side Transmitting Receiving

50Hz AC Rectific High-frequency Impedence Impedence Energy

as shown in Figure 6 [23].

2.3. Challenges of Near-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

2.4. Prospect of Near-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

3. Far-Field WPT Technology in UAV Wireless Charging

Figure 7. Basic principle of LWPT

Table 2. Comparison of far-field WPT technologies used to power UAV.

Output Working Wave- Transmission

Table 2. Comparison of far-field WPT technologies used to power UAV.

Output Working Transmission

3.3. Challenges of Far-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

3.4. Prospect of Far-Field WPT Technology in UAV Charging

4.2. Development of Solar-Powered UAV

Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

Table 3. Comparison of solar-powered UAV.

4.3. Challenges of Solar-Powered UAV

4.4. Prospect of Solar-Powered UAV

Table 4. Comparison of different types of WPT technology.

In terms of transmission distance, the transmission distance of IWPT and MCR-WPT

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, and writing—original draft preparation,

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