ABE – Advance Irrigation and Drainage Engineering [Page | 1]

Unit 1
Introduction to Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

I. Time allotment: 5 hours

II. Learning Objectives

At the end of this topic, the student should be able to:

1. Define Irrigation and Drainage
2. Describe the purposes of Irrigation and Drainage Systems
3. Distinguish various types of Irrigation and Drainage Systems and its
application
4. Identify impact of Irrigation and Drainage to Economic Development

III. Materials/Resources Needed

1. References/Textbooks
2. Laptop or Cellular phone
3. Internet Connectivity
4. Facebook Messenger
5. Google Classroom Application
6. Google Meet Application

IV. Pre-test

1. What is Irrigation and how it is accomplished?

2. What are the sources of water for plant use?
3. Define Drainage
4. What are the factors to consider in establishing drainage system
5. What are the types of drainage?

V. Learning Content/Discussion

1.1. Introduction

Irrigation and Drainage Engineering is an applied subject dealing with planning,

investigation, design, construction, operation and maintenance of different
irrigation and drainage allied works. It is an interdisciplinary subject that requires
knowledge in agriculture, agronomy, soil science, hydrology, meteorology,
hydraulics, structures, geology, soil mechanics and foundations of engineering.

Irrigation is generally defined as the application of water to soil for the purpose of
supplying the moisture essential for plant growth. Irrigation is basically an attempt
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by man to promote increased agricultural productivity. Irrigated agriculture has

been showed a significant increase in production and stability of food and fiber
resources.

The impact of irrigation on the modern civilization has been profound and
remains tremendously important. A significant part of a country’s balance
payment in buying and selling commodities in the world market may be made up
of agricultural production. Due to the decrease in risk brought about by irrigation,
countries with large proportion of land in irrigation tend to have increased
production and enhanced food security. In other cases, the development of
irrigation systems may be thought as a means of achieving national goals of a
more stable food supplies and less dependence on foreign agricultural resources.

Increase productivity in agriculture brought by irrigation also increases the

opportunities in business which supplies the agriculture sector. These factors are
directly in sales of irrigation equipment and indirectly sales of seed, fertilizer,
agricultural machinery and other farm inputs.

Aside from promoting increased productivity, irrigation also attempts to locally

alter hydrologic cycle. Designing irrigation systems modifies the amount of water
normally applied to the land, local evaporation rates, runoff into stream and rivers,
and the amount of water held in the groundwater aquifers. Different types of
irrigation have an impact on the different components of the hydrologic cycle. For
instance, a sprinkler irrigation system extracts water from deep wells in excess of
the amount normally recharged by precipitation or deep percolation of irrigation
to groundwater on an annual basis, will overtime, deplete the groundwater
resources, eventually making pumping for irrigation uneconomical. In addition to
shifts in the local water balance caused by irrigation systems, there are often times
changes in the distribution of salts and sediments within the irrigated area, which
could affect downstream.

The ultimate goal of irrigation projects is in some way to improve the standard of
living of the society. For this long-term goal to be achieved, correct appraisal
should be made to the expected changes in the hydrologic cycle to avoid or
minimized the adverse effects in the environment.

1.2. Purposes of Irrigation

In a broader and a more inclusive definition of irrigation, the application of water

to soil many purposes enumerated as follows:

1. To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth and
development.
2. To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts.
3. To cool the soil and the atmosphere, thereby making more favorable
environment for plant growth.
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4. To wash out or dilute salt in the soil.

5. To reduce the hazard of soil piping
6. To soften tillage pans and clods
7. To delay bud formation by evaporative cooling

1.3. Sources of water for plant use

The water to supply the essential soil moisture for plant use may come
from different sources as follows:

1. Precipitation. Precipitation include all the water that falls from the atmosphere
to the earth’s surface. It may occur in the form of liquid like rain and drizzles,
and in solid forms such as snow, hail, sleet, and freezing rain. To be of greatest
benefits, precipitation should have the following characteristics:

a. The amount should be sufficient to replace the moisture depleted from the
root zone;
b. The frequency should be often enough to replenish the soil moisture before
plants suffer from lack of moisture.
c. The intensity should be low enough so that the applied water can be
absorbed by the soil.
In the real situation, only few locations that precipitation fulfill the above
requirements at all times to produce maximum yields. The inadequacy of
precipitation to supply plant water requirement will result in applying
irrigation water.

2. Atmospheric water other than precipitation. There are areas where the
contribution of atmospheric water other than precipitation is significant in
supplying essential moisture to soil for plant growth. The atmospheric
conditions which generally prevail to make this source of water significant are:
a. Considerable dew formations
b. Fog and clouds
c. High humidity.

These conditions reduce the plant’s water need by reducing the forces causing
water to transpire from the plant. Dew is especially effective in reducing the
amount of water moving through the plant, and in some casae, dew is absorbed
by the plant. Water which evaporates from the ground and foliage normally
reuces by a like amount of water which would have been withdrawn from the
soil by the plant.

3. Flood water. Flood water is similar in some respect to irrigation water, but
supplied by man. As the flood pass over the surface of the land, water is
absorbed by the soil and stored for subsequent use by plant. There were many
regions where agricultural production is wholly dependent on flood water.
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4. Surface waters. Surface water may come in the form of rivers, lakes, pond,
reservoirs.

5. Groundwater. Ground water is the water beneath the soil surface where voids
in the soil are subsequently filled with water. The upward movement of water
by capillary action from the water table into the rootzone can be a major source
of water for plant growth. To be most effective, without seriously restricting
the growth, groundwater should be near but below the depth form which the
major portion of the plant water needs is extracted.

⮚ If the groundwater is within the normal rootzone , plant is definitely

suppressed
⮚ If the ground water is too near the surface, the lands ability to economically
produce most crops become almost nil.
⮚ If the water table is within the lower portion of the rootzone may supply the
considerable amount of water and thereby reduce the cost of irrigation more
than it offsets the loss of production. The optimum depth of water table is
that depth which gives the maximum economic return.

6. Irrigation water. is that water artificially apllied to soil to supply the necessary
moisture for the plant growth. Depending on the availability, the source of
irrigation water may come from the rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and the
groundwater or in an aquifer.

In any given conditions, failure to consider all of the above sources of water in
supplying the total plant needs may result to faulty design of an irrigation
system. In some areas, one of the sources may supply the major portion of
plant needs, while in other areas a combination of two or more sources can
contribute an appreciable quantity of water for plant growth.

1.4. Irrigation Methods

Irrigation water is supplied to land by four general methods namely:

1. Surface
a. Uncontolled or “wild” flooding
b. Flooding controlled with corrugations, borders, checks or basins
c. Furrows

2. Subsurface, in which the surface is wetted if any)

a. Controlled by lateral supply ditches
b. Uncontrolled, from excess application of water to adjacent or higher lands.
3. Sprinkling, in which the soil surface is wetted much as it is by rainfall
4. Trickle, where water is applied near the plant through emitters or dripper.
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1.5. Irrigation in Arid and Humid Areas

Arid regions are regions having insufficient rainfall to support agriculture and
other water needs

Humid regions are areas characterized by perceptible moisture and appreciable

during the time of oppressive –appreciably wet.

Where irrigation is essential in arid regions, justification of humid-climate

irrigation depends on the amount and occurrence of precipitation. Rainfall is generally
sufficient. But seldom coincides completely with crop needs, rainfall excess and
drought are common occurrence.

Several factors must be carefully considered in humid regions:

1. Application of irrigation water makes drainages more critical and sometimes

essential
2. Irrigation may be followed shortly by a heavy storm resulting in excess water on
the land and in the soil
3. Irrigation will generally extend the harvest season increasing the hazard of wet
weather during harvest
4. Good farm management becomes more critical
5. Farm machinery requirements are increased because of a shorter time when fields
are dry
6. The irrigation system is a supplemental system increasing the cost per unit of
benefit
7. Increase erosion and greater runoff will occur
8. Water source and quality and amount of labor available are important and must be
carefully evaluated

1.6. Irrigation Development in the Philippines

Irrigation development in the Philippines was estimated to be low

(47%). The major problems and issues of irrigation development cited were: (i)
machine performance of irrigation system; (ii) their high cost of construction,
operation and maintenance; (iii) low cost recovery; (iv) lack of inter-agency
cooperation; and (v) inappropriate design of irrigation projects.
https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19921802102. Retrieved
02/14/2019.

1.7. Economics of Irrigation

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Economics is important in the evaluation of irrigation practices. The purpose of

irrigation in relation to economy is to increase profit. Higher profits resulting
from more efficient production contributed by irrigation, will result in lower
prices for consumers, and lower prices results in more consumption of food and
fiber, greater availability of food and fibers, thus results “more efficient prion
higher standards of living for the community. “Irrigation projects makes the world
a better place to live.

1.8. Drainage in Agricultural Land

Irrigation and drainage constitutes a subset of water resources system and are
crucial for human survival. Land drainage, or the combination of irrigation and land
drainage, is one of the most important input factors to maintain or improve
agricultural productivity. To enlarge the present cultivated area, more land must be
reclaimed than the land that is lost due to urban/industrial development, roads and
land degradation. However, in some areas, land is a limiting resource, whereas in
other areas, agriculture cannot expand at the cost of nature.

Drainage is a reverse process of irrigation. It is broadly defined as the removal

(disposal) of excess water from a land (usually agricultural land). The terms
„drainage‟, „land drainage‟, „agricultural drainage‟ and „field drainage‟ are
used as synonyms in practice. Since drainage (land drainage) is necessary not only for
the removal of excess surface water or groundwater but also for removing salts from
the soil, a precise definition of drainage has been given by the constitution of the
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage as follows:

“Land drainage is the removal of excess surface and subsurface water from the
land to enhance crop growth, including the removal of soluble salts from the soil”.

Objectives of Drainage

Plant roots require a favorable environment to extract water and nutrient solutions
to meet the plant’s requirement. For most crops, soil moisture ranging from field
capacity to 50% of the field capacity in the root zone is considered ideal. Only a few
crops such as rice and jute need standing water on the field at certain stages of their
growth. Chemically, a neutral and non-saline soil is ideal for proper growth and yield
of most food crops.

Excess water and/or high salt concentration in the root zone or at the land surface
do not allow the plant roots to function normally. As a result, the plant growth and
yield are adversely affected. In the extreme cases of water logging and salinity, the
seeds may not germinate and the plants may wilt permanently. The result is a loss of
agricultural production.
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Land drainage, as a tool to manage excess surface water and groundwater levels,
plays an important role in maintaining and improving crop yields:

∙ Drainage prevents a decrease in the productivity of arable land due to rising water
tables and the accumulation of salts in the root zone.
∙ Drainage is the only way to reclaim the land which is not cultivated due to water
logging and salinity problems.

Agricultural land drainage in essence is both a preventive and a curative measure

for the prevention of physical and chemical degradation of soils and for the
reclamation of already degraded lands. Thus, drainage of agricultural lands is an
effective technique to maintain a sustainable agricultural system as well as to avoid
environmental damage

Sources of Excess Water

Direct rainfall constitutes the major and most common source of excess water in
an area. However, another major source of excess water in many cold and moderate
climates is snowmelt water during spring seasons. Other sources of excess water are
irrigation, seepage, runoff and flood water, which are mostly of local importance. The
occurrence of excess rainfall applies especially to humid climates. However, it may
also occur in semi-arid climates following the common type of intense, heavy storm
or in general during the rainy season. The drainage load from rainfall not only
depends on the amount of rainfall but also on the storage capacity of the soil and on
the rate of evapotranspiration. Part of the rainfall may be stored beneficially in the
soil profile or be readily evaporated so that only the remaining excess water needs to
be removed from the land.

Design Considerations for Land Drainage

When designing a system for a given area, drainage engineers should use certain
criteria to determine whether or not water is in excess. Water balance of the area to be
drained is the most accurate tool to calculate the volume of water required to be
drained (Bos and Boers, 1994). Before carrying out the water balance of an area, a
number of field investigations should be undertaken which would result in adequate
hydrogeological, hydropedological and topographic maps (Bos and Boers, 1994),
among other information. Also, all subsurface water inflows and outflows must be
measured or estimated.
The precipitation and relevant evapotranspiration data from the area under
investigation should be analyzed. In addition, all relevant data on the hydraulic
properties of the soil should be collected. The above processes in drainage surveys
call
for a sound theoretical knowledge of various subjects related to the field of Soil and
Water Engineering.

In some cases, a proper identification of the source of „excess water‟ can avoid the
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construction of a costly drainage system. Some examples are as follows (Bos and
Boers, 1994):

∙ If irrigation water causes water logging, the efficiency of water use in the water-
supply system and at the field level should be studied in detail and improved.
∙ If the surface water inflow from surrounding hills is a major cause of excess water in
an area, this water could be intercepted by a hillside drain which diverts the water
around the agricultural area. If the problem of surplus water is caused by an inflow of
saline groundwater, this groundwater inflow could be intercepted by a series of
tubewells, which can dispose of effluent into a drain that bypasses the agricultural
land.

∙ If an area is partially inundated due to the insufficient discharge capacity of a natural

stream, a renovation of the stream may solve the drainage problem.
However, if the origin of excess water lies in the agricultural area itself (e.g., excess
rainfall or extra irrigation water to meet the leaching requirement for salinity control),
then the installation of drainage facilities within the agricultural area should be
considered. Usually, drainage facilities consist of: (i) a drainage outlet, (ii) a main
drainage canal, (iii) some collector drains, and (iv) field drains (also called „lateral
drains‟).

Types of Drainage Systems

Three most commonly used techniques for removing (draining) excess water are: (a)
surface drainage, (b) subsurface drainage, and (c) vertical drainage (also known as
„tubewell drainage‟). Besides these conventional drainage techniques, there is an
emerging non-conventional drainage technique known as biodrainage.

Surface Drainage

Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the soil surface in time to
prevent damage to crops and to keep water from ponding on the soil surface, or, in
surface drains that are crossed by farm equipment, without causing soil erosion”.
Surface drainage is a suitable technique where excess water from rainfall or surface
irrigation cannot infiltrate into the soil and move through the soil to a drain, or cannot
move freely over the soil surface to a natural/artificial drainage channel. Surface
drainage problems occur in flat or nearly flat areas, in the areas having uneven land
surfaces with depressions or ridges preventing natural runoff, and in the areas where
there is no outlet.

Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage is defined as „the removal of excess soil water in time to prevent
damage to crops because of a high water table‟. Subsurface drainage problems occur
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in the areas having shallow water table (e.g., canal commands), which occurs due to
substantial groundwater recharge and sluggish subsurface outflow. Subsurface field
drains can be either open ditches or pipe drains, but nowadays they are mostly pipe
drains. Pipe drains are installed underground at depths normally ranging from 1 to 3
m Excess groundwater enters the perforated field drains and flows by gravity to an
open or closed collector drain.

Vertical Drainage

Vertical drainage or tubewell drainage can be defined as the „control of an existing or

potential high water table or artesian groundwater condition‟. It is accomplished
using shallow or deep tubewells; sometimes open wells are also used. Most tubewell
drainage systems consist of a group of wells spaced with a sufficient overlap of their
cones of depression so as to control the water table at all points in an area. The need
to remove the excess water‟ is strongly influenced by a concern for the environment.
The design and operation of all drainage systems must ensure sustainable agriculture
in the drained area and must minimize the pollution of rivers and lakes from irrigation
return flow or drainage effluent (Bos and Boers, 1994). The quality of drainage
effluent is generally inferior because it often contains significant amounts of
sediments, agricultural chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) and other contaminants.
Therefore, proper disposal of drainage effluents is a serious concern in most canal
commands of the world, especially in developing countries.

VI. Learning Activities/Task/Exercises

Visit an exixting irrigation system in your area (you may visit Irrigators
Association), gather data related to Irrigation and Drainage and submit output on
the status, management practices, source of water, type of irrigation system, etc.
(If there is no existing irrigation and drainage system in your area, through
reading and internet sources, identify at least 2 irrigation system and provide
general information of the systems, and the management applied.

IX. Assessment /Self-check test/Evaluation/Post-test/Questions/Problems/Exercises

1. Enumerate the major sources of irrigation water. Define and explain each.
2. Is all precipitation that falls on cropland available to the crops? Defend your
answer.
3. Does ground water contribute directly to the water needs of the plant? When?
When is it harmful?
4. Differentiate irrigation in humid and arid areas
5. What are the major factors I n the development of irrigation project/systems?
6. What are the factors to be considered in the establishment of Drainage?
7. What are the benefits derived from the establishment of drainage system.
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8. What are the types of drainage in agricultural land?

X. Summary

The Introduction to Irrigation and Drainage has been demonstrated and illustrated.

References/Internet Resources

1. Irrigation Principles and Practices. Hansen, V.E. 4th Edition

2. Irrigation System Design: An Engineering Approach. Cuenca R.H.1989,
3. Drainage Engineering. Luthin J.N.
4. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Schwab, Glenn O et.al 5th Edition
5. Applied Hydrology and Sedimentology for Disturbed Areas. 1981.
Barfield, B., Warnes and Haan. Ohio, USA
6. Handbook of Applied Hydrology. Ven Te Chow
7. Other books, journals, internet sources, etc.
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Laboratory #1. Assessment Irrigation and Drainage System

1. Visit or Search for an irrigation system ( you may visit Irrigators Association)
and answer the following:

a. Provide General Information of the Irrigation System.

b. What is the status of irrigation?
c. How climate, water supply and soil characteristics affects the irrigation
practices
d. What economic contribution brought about by the irrigation system to
the community?

Note: in the preparation of laboratory outputs, you may use the following guide:

(Introduction, Objectives, Materials/Equipment/Resources/Procedure-Special

Instructions- Step-by-Step instructions on what to do and what key points to
observe. Guide Questions. References).