Chemistry and Its Importance Cations – positively-charge ions.

Example:
Chemistry – earlier study of alchemy (an art H+, K+, NH4+ and Mg2+
of transforming common metals to precious Anions – negatively-charge ions. Example:
metals, usually lead to gold but to no success) Br-, OH-, O2- and S2O32-
(alchemy has since been proven to be a
wrong and currently dead branch of science) Velocity of the particle increases when
Chemistry – is the study of  Temperature increases
the composition, structure, properties and int  Kinetic energy increases
eractions of matter.
Founder of Modern Chemistry (try and Diffusion – movement of particles from a
read up on the history of these two great region of high concentration to a region
men) of lowconcentration.
1. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) – Changes in the States of Matter
performed controlled experiments and 1. Freezing / Solidification – liquid ->
published his work with elaborate details solid
such as procedure, apparatus and 2. Melting – solid -> liquid
observations. 3. Evaporation – liquid -> gas / vapour
2. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) – 4. Condensation – gas / vapour -> liquid
developed the Law of Conservation of 5. Sublimation – gas / vapour -> solid
Mass and thetheory of combustion. 6. Sublimation – solid -> gas / vapour
Scientific Method (Sublimation – iodine, ammonium chloride
1. Making Observation and solid carbon dioxide)
2. Making Inference (smart guess)
3. Identifying the Problem Important Scientist and Their
4. Making a Hypothesis Contributions
5. Identifying the Variables Berry Berry Teacher thinks that it will be good
6. Controlling the Variables if students can link the contribution of each
7. Planning an Experiment great scientists to their findings. This will
8. Collecting Data allow a chronological understanding of the
9. Interpreting Data discoveries (for easier understanding) and to
10. Making a Conclusion appreciate the work of these fine scientist.
11. Writing a Report
SPM Form 4 – Terminology and
John Dalton (1808) – atomic theory
Concepts: The Structure of the Atom
1. Atoms – small indivisible particles.
Important Terms
2. Atoms –
Matter – anything that occupies space and
neither created nor destroyed.
has mass.
3. Atoms – an element are alike.
Compound – a substance
4. Atoms – it combine in simple ratio.
consists two or more elements that
5. Atoms – chemical reactions result
are chemically bonded (molecule or ions).
from combination / separation of atoms.
Element – a substance that cannot be made
J. J. Thomson (1897)
into anything simpler by chemical reaction.
1. Electrons – negatively-charged
Atom – smallest particle of an element.
particles.
Molecule – a group of two or more atoms.
2. Atoms – positively-charged sphere.
Ion –
Ernest Rutherford (1911)
a positively charged / negatively charged
particle.
1. Atoms – consists of a positively-  not too many elements can
charged nucleus with a cloud of electrons react readily with hydrogen,
surrounding nucleus.  the reactive masses of some elements
2. Protons – positively-charged particles. were not accurate,
 hydrogen exists as a gas at room
Niels Bohr (1913) temperature and
1. Electrons – surrounding the nucleus  has a number of isotopes with
(orbit). different masses.
James Cadwick (1932) Helium scale: the second lightest atom of all
1. Neutrons – electrically neutral and the mass of one helium atom was
subatomic particles. assigned 1 unit.
2. Neutrons – mass almost the same with Weakness of Helium scale:
a proton.
3. Nucleus of an atom – consists of
protons and neutrons.  Mass of 1 helium atom = 4 times the
Concepts of the Atomic Model mass of a hydrogen atom
Modern Atomic Model  So, mass of 1 helium atom = 4 times
1. Nucleus of an atom – consists 1/12 mass of a carbon atom
of protons and neutrons.  helium exists as a gas at room
2. Electrons – moving around temperature and
the nucleus (orbits / electron shells/  helium is an inert gas.
quantum shells) Oxygen scale: chose as the standard atom to
compare the masses of atoms
Proton number / Atomic number / Weakness of Oxygen scale:
Number of protons
1. Number of protons in its atom.  the existence of three isotopes of
2. Number of electrons (neutral atom).
oxygen were discovered,
Nucleon number / Mass number /
 natural oxygen (containing all the
Number of nucleon
three isotopes) as the standard (Chemist)
1. Sum of the number protons and
and
neutrons.
 used the isotopes oxygen-16 as the
standard (Physicists).
Isotopes – atoms of the same element
Carbon scale: standard atom of
with same proton number but different
comparison internationally.
nucleonnumbers.
 a carbon-12 atom is 12 times
SPM Form 4 – Terminology and
Concepts: Chemical Formulae and heavier than an atom of hydrogen,
Equations – Part 1  used as the reference standard in mass
1. Relative atomic mass, Ar is the atomic spectrometers,
mass of an atom when compared to  exists as a solid at room temperature,
a standard atom  most abundant carbon isotope,
2. Standard atom: happening about 98.89% and
Hydrogen scale: hydrogen is the lightest  carbon-12 is close to the agreement
atom of all and the mass of one hydrogen based on oxygen.
atom was assigned 1 unit. 3. Relative molecular mass, Mr of a
Weakness of Hydrogen scale: substances is the average mass of
a molecule (two or more atoms) of the
substances when compared 1/12 with of the
mass of a carbon-12 atom.
4. Relative formula mass, Fr is
for ionic compound which is calculated by
adding up therelative atomic masses of all the
atoms.
5. Example:
 Relative atomic mass, Ar of helium = 4
 Relative molecular mass, Mr of CO2 =
12 + 2(16) = 44
 Relative formula mass, Fr of NaCl =
23 + 35.5 = 58.5
 Relative formula mass, Na2CO3·10H2O
= 2(23) + 12 + 3(16) + 10 [2(1) + 16] = 286
Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (Name
at birth: Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo
Avogadro)
 Born: 9 August 1776
 Birthplace: Turin, Piedmont, Italy
 Died: 9 July 1856
 Best Known As: The guy they
named Avogadro’s number after
1. Avogadro constant / Avogadro’s
number is 6.02 x 1023
2. Atomic substances
 Elements – all the particles are atoms.
 Example: zinc (Zn), sodium (Na),
aluminium (Al) and all noble gases, argon
(Ar), helium (He) and neon (Ne).
 RAM (Relative Atomic Mass) of Na =
23
3. Molecular substances
 Covalent compounds – the particles
are molecules.
 Example: carbon dioxide (CO2), water
(H2O) and non-metal elements, iodine
(I2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2).
 RMM (Relative Molecular Mass) of
I2 = 127 + 127 = 254
4. Ionic substances
 Ionic compounds – the particles
are ions.
 Example: sodium chloride (NaCl),
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and potassium
iodide (KI).
 RFM (Relative Formula Mass) of HCl
= 1 + 35.5 = 36.5
5. Avogadro’s Law / Gas Law states that
equal volumes of all gases contain the same
numberof molecules under the same
temperature and pressure.
 Example: equal volumes of molecular
hydrogen and nitrogen would contain the
same number of molecules under the
same temperature and pressure.
6. Volume of gas (dm3) = Number of moles
of gas x Molar volume
7. Room temperature and pressure
(r.t.p.) = 24 dm3 mol-1 (25°C and 1 atm)
 Example: What is the volume of 5.0
mol helium gas at s.t.p.?
 Volume of gas = Number of moles x
Molar gas volume
= 5.0 mol x 24 dm3 mol-1
= 120 dm3
8. Standard temperature and pressure
(s.t.p.) = 22.4 dm3 mol-1 (0°C and 1 atm)
 Example: What is the volume of 5.0
mol helium gas at s.t.p.?
 Volume of gas = Number of moles x
Molar gas volume
= 5.0 mol x 22.4 dm3 mol-1
= 112 dm3
9. Mass (g) = Number of moles x Molar mass
10. Number of particles = Number of
moles x Avogadro constant
11. Volume (dm3) = Number of moles x
Molar volume
SPM Form 4 – Terminology and
Concepts: Chemical Formulae and
Equations (Part 3)
Empirical and Molecular Formulae
1. Empirical (simplest ratio of atoms of each
element that present in the compound) and
molecular formulae (actual number of atoms
of each element that are present in one
molecule of the compound) indicate:
 the types of the elements
 the symbols of the elements and the
ratio of atoms or
 moles of atoms of each element in a +3 * Chromium(III) ion Cr3+
compound. +3 * Iron(III) ion Fe3+
2. Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n +4 * Lead(IV) ion Pb4+
n is a positive number
+4 * Tin(IV) ion Sn4+
Compound Molecular formula n Empirical
* referformula
to the Roman numerals
Carbon dioxide CO2 1 (CO
Ethane CH3 2 (CH
5. Anions are negatively-charged ions.
Propene CH2 3 (CH
Glucose CH2O 6 (CH
Quinine C10H12NO 2 C Charge Anions Formula
3. Chemical formulae for covalent compounds. -1 Bromide ion Br-
-1 Chloride ion Cl-
-1 Chlorate(V) ion ClO3-
Name Chemical Number of each element
-1 Ethanoate ion CH3COO-
formula
-1 Fluoride ion F-
Nitrogen gas N2 2 nitrogen atoms
-1 Hydride ion H-
Oxygen gas O2 2 oxygen atoms
-1 Hydroxide ion OH-
Ammonia NH3 1 nitrogen atom and 3
-1 Iodide ion I-
hydrogen atoms
-1 Manganate(VII) ion MnO4-
Water H2O 2 hydrogen atoms and 1
oxygen atom -1 Nitrate ion NO3-
4. Cations are positively-charged ions. -1 Nitrite ion NO2-
-2 Oxide ion O2-
-2 Carbonate ion CO32-
Charge Cations Formula -2 Chromate(VI) ion CrO42-
+
+1 Ammonium ion NH4 -2 Dichromate(VI) ion Cr2O72-
+1 * Copper(I) ion Cu+ -2 Sulphide ion S2-
+
+1 Hydrogen ion H -2 Sulphate ion SO42-
+
+1 Lithium ion Li -2 Sulphite ion SO32-
+1 * Nickel(I) ion Ni+ -2 Thiosulphate ion S2O32-
+1 Potassium ion K+ -3 Nitride ion N3-
+
+1 Silver ion Ag -3 Phosphate ion PO43-
+
+1 Sodium ion Na -3 Phosphite ion PO33-
+2 Barium ion Ba2+ 6. Chemical formulae for ionic compounds
+2 Calcium ion Ca2+
+2 * Copper(II) ion Cu2+
+2 * Iron(II) ion Fe2+ Name Chemical formula Number of Num
2+ cation anion
+2 * Lead(II) ion Pb
Zinc chloride ZnCl2 1 Zn2+ 2 Cl-
+2 Magnesium ion Mg2+
Copper(II) sulphate CuSO4 2 Cu2+ 2 SO4
+2 * Manganese(II) ion Mn2+
Aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3 2 Al3+ 3 SO4
+2 Nickel(II) ion Ni2+
7. Meaning of prefixes
+2 * Tin(II) ion Sn2+
+2 Zinc ion Zn2+
+3 Aluminium ion Al3+ Prefix Meaning
Mono- 1  Elements were classified into 4 groups
Di- 2  Limitation – some wrong information
Tri- 3 (light and heat were consider as elements
Tetra- 4 B) Johann Dobereiner (1780 – 1849) –
German chemist
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7  Elements were classified into groups
Octa- 8 named as triad (Triad Law – relationship
Nona- 9 between properties and atomic masses of
the elements)
Deca- 10
 Limitation – few elements were
8. Naming of chemical (non-metal)
classified
compounds with Greek numerical prefixes.
C) John Newlands (1837 – 1898) – British
chemist
Non-metal compound Chemical formula
Carbon monoxide CO  Elements were
Carbon dioxide CO2 arranged horizontally in ascending order
Sulphur dioxide SO2 of their atomic masses and each row
Sulphur trioxide SO3 consisted of 7 elements (Law of Octaves –
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 same properties were repeated at every
(tetrachloromethane) eight element)
 Limitation – obeyed by the first 17
Development of the Periodic Table elements only (from H to Ca)
Chapter 4 D) Lothar Meyer (1830 – 1895) – German
chemist

 Properties of the elements were in a

periodic pattern with their atomic masses
 Similar chemical properties occupied
the same relative positions on the curve
E) Dmitri Mendeleev (1834 – 1907) – Russian
chemist

 Elements were arranged in ascending

order of their atomic masses
 Elements with similar chemical
properties were placed in a group
 Gap for undiscovered elements
 Prediction: gallium, scandium and
Periodic Table germanium (discover later)
 Separate groups for certain elements:
A) Antoine Lavoisier (1743 – 1794) – French transition elements
chemist
 Meedeleev’s Periodic Table was used
as a basis for the formation of the Periodic
Table
F) H. J. G. Moseley (1887 – 1915) – British
physicist
 Elements were arranged horizontally
in ascending order – proton numbers
 Elements with the same number
valence electrons – same group
 18 vertical columns – Group 1, Group
2, until Group 18
 Alkali metal – Group 1
 Alkaline earth metal – Group 2
 Transition elements – Group 3 to
Group 12
 Halogen – Group 17
 Noble gas – Group 18
 Horizontal row of the elements –
period
 Period 1 – 2 elements
 Period 2 and 3 – 8 elements
 Period 4 and 5 – 18 elements
 Period 6 – 32 elements
 Period 7 – 27 elements
 Lantanides – proton numbers 58 to 71
 Actinides – proton numbers 90 to 103
 Elements (Group 1, 2 and 13) – metal
 Transition elements (Group 3 to 12) –
metal
 Elements (Group 15, 16 and 17) – non-
metal
 Carbon and silicon (Group 14) – non-
metal
(Tips: Draw out the electron arrangements
of atoms of elements in a group side by side
on a piece of paper. Then compare them.
Then draw it again but put a mockup
periodic table beside your drawing. This
way, you’ll have a mental picture of the
electron arranngements, its position in the
periodic table and their interconnectivity.
This tip is provided by a top student during
his study days, very effective among Berry
Berry Teacher’s students)
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –
Periodic Table of Elements (Part 2)
Relationship between the electron
arrangement of the atom of an element
to its group and period
 The number of valence electrons
determines the chemical properties of
elements (group).
 Elements in the same group have the
same number of valence electrons.
 The number of shells occupied with
electrons in an atom determines the
period number of an element.
Group 1 Group 2
Period 2 Lithium / Li / 2.1 Beryllium / Be / 2.2
Period 3 Sodium / Na / 2.8.1 Magnesium / Mg / 2.8.2
Period 4 Potassium / K / 2.8.8.1 Calcium / Ca / 2.8.8.2
Group 18 elements
 Group 18 elements are known as noble
gases (inert chemically and chemically
unreactive).
 Atomic radius (atomic size)
– increases (going down the group)
 Helium atom has only one filled
electron shell which is 2 electrons (duplet
electron arrangement)
 The outermost shell of the atoms (Ne,
Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) have 8 electrons (octet
electron arrangement)
 Atoms of noble gases do not release
electrons, accept electrons or share
electrons.
Element Electron arrangement of atom
Helium / He 2
Neon / Ne 2.8
Argon / Ar 2.8.8
Krypton / Kr 2.8.18.8
Xenon / Xe 2.8.18.18.8
Radon / Rn 2.8.18.32.18.8
Physical properties
 Monoatomic gases
 Colourless gas at room temperature
 Insoluble in water
 Cannot conduct electricity
 Poor conductors of heat
 Melting point and boiling point
increases (going down the group) –
atomic size increases and force of
attraction between atoms of each element
become stronger
 Density of element increases (going
down the group)
Chemical properties
 Chemically inert / not reactive / non-
flammable – do not gain, lose or share
electrons with other elements
Uses
 Helium – airships, weather balloons,
cool down metals
 Neon – advertising light bulb
 Argon – welding, filled light bulbs
 Krypton – used in laser, filled
photographic flash lamps
 Radon – treat cancer
(Tips: Please follow the safety precaution
prescribed by your teacher in handling the
alkali metals (if you were given the chance to
do so). The reason is simple, as you will only
need to see the volatile nature of alkali metals
here when they are in contact with water,
Brainiac’s video on Alkali Metal <view here>.
After viewing the video, you should have no
reasons to not follow the safety precautions)
(Second Tips: Do try your best to memorise
the elements down the group. Read aloud
everyday a few times: Lithium, Sodium,
Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and
Francium. If you do so, you’ll memorise it
without much effort. That’ll be an advantage
in exams.)
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –
Periodic Table of Elements (Part 3)
Alkali metal atom arrangement
Group 1 elements
 Group 1 elements are known as alkali
metals
 Atomic radius (atomic size)
– increases (going down the group)
 The outermost shell of the atoms (Li,
Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr) have 1 valence
electron
 Good reducing agents
 Very reactive – increases (going down
the group)
 Very electropositive – increases (going
down the group)
Element Electron arrangement of atom
Lithium / Li 2.1
Sodium / Na 2.8.1
Potassium / K 2.8.8.1
Rubidium / Rb 2.8.18.8.1
Caesium / Cs 2.8.18.18.8.1
Francium / Fr 2.8.18.32.18.8.1
Physical properties
 Grey solids with shiny silvery surfaces
when freshly cut
 Soft solids at room temperature
 Good conductors of electricity
 Good conductors of heat
 Low melting point and boiling point
(compared to heavy metal)
 Melting point and boiling point
decreases (going down the group) –
 atomic size increases and number of shells
occupied with electrons increases /
metallic bonding between atoms becomes
weaker & less heat energy is required to
overcome the weaker metallic bonding.
 Low density (Li, Na and K float on the
surface water / Rb, Cs and Fr sink in the
water)
 Density of element increases (going
down the group)
Chemical properties
 Chemically very reactive and react
rapidly with oxygen and water vapour in
the air (must be kept in paraffin oil)
 Reactivity increases (down the group)
– how easily it can lose one (single)
its valence electronto achieve stable (octet Molecules of Halogen
or duplet) electron arrangement
 React vigorously with cold water – Group 17 elements
produce alkaline metal hydroxide  Group 17 elements are known
solutions and hydrogen gas as halogens
 React with oxygen – produce white  Exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2,
solid metal oxides and metal oxides can Br2, I2 and At2)
dissolve in water to form alkaline metal  Non-metals
hydroxide solutions  Atomic radius (atomic size)
 React with halogens – produce white – increases (going down the group)
solid metal halides  The outermost shell of the atoms (F,
Safety precautions Cl, Br, I and At) have 7 valence electrons
 Cannot hold with bare hands  Good oxidising agents
 Wear safety goggles and gloves  Very reactive – decreases (going down
 No flammable substance nearby the group)
 Avoid the fire  Very electronegative – decreases
(Tips: You should draw out the diatomic (going down the group)
molecules and their electron configurations Element Electron arrangement of atom
so that you can better understand why they Fluorine / F 2.7
typically exist in the form of diatomic Chlorine / Cl 2.8.7
molecules. Try to also memorise the atomic
Bromine / Br 2.8.18.7
size as they go down a group. Note whether if
Iodine / I 2.8.18.18.7
it is metallic or non-metallic. How about
Astatine / At 2.8.18.32.18.7
their oxidising abilities? If you can answer
those and beyond, you would have mastered Physical properties
the basic knowledge on halogens.)  Non-metals
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –  Insulators of electricity
Periodic Table of Elements (Part 4)  Poor conductors of heat
 Low melting point and boiling point
 Melting point and boiling point
increases (going down the group) –
molecular size increases / forces of
attraction between molecules become
stronger & more heat energy is required to
overcome the stronger forces of attraction
(Van der Waals’ forces of attraction
between molecules).
 Colour: F2 (pale yellow gas),
Cl2 (greenish-yellow gas),
Br2 (reddish-brown liquid),
I2 (purplish-black solid) and
At2 (black solid – rarest naturally
occurring element and extremely
radioactive)
 Low density
 Density of element increases (going Elements: Zinc Copper Lead Magnesium
down the group) – increase in atomic
mass
Chemical properties
 Chemically reactive Elements in a period
 Reactivity decreases (down the group)  The Periodic Table – 7 periods (Period
– how easily it can gain one (single) 1 to Period 7)
more valenceelectron to achieve  Proton number increases by one
stable (octet) electron arrangement (across a period – from left to right)
 React with water – produce two acids  Number of valence electrons of each
 React with hot iron – produce brown element increases (across a period – from
solids iron(III) halides left to right)
 React with sodium hydroxide NaOH Across Period 3
solution – produce water and two types of  Atomic radius / atomic
sodium salts (sodium halide and sodium size decreases – increasing number of
halite(I)) electrons / attraction by nucleus on the
Safety precautions valence electrons becomes stronger
 Poisonous gas (pulled closer to the nucleus)
 Wear safety goggles and gloves  Proton number increases – positive
 Handle in the fume cupboard charge of the nucleus increases
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –  Electronegativity (strength to attract
Periodic Table of Elements (Part 5) electrons towards its nucleus) increases –
proton number increases / positive charge
of the nucleus increases
 Change from solid to gas
 Left – solid metals
 Right – non-metals gases
 Electropositive / metallic
properties decreases
 Na, Mg, Al (metals): good conductor /  Electronegativity is low but increases
Si (semi-metal): weak conductor of (across the series)
electricity / P, S, Cl (non-metals): cannot 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
conduct electricity Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
 Na, Mg (metals): form oxides with
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
basic properties
La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
 Al (metal): form oxides with both
Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub
basic and acidic properties = amphoteric
oxides
 Si (semi-metal): forms oxides with
acidic properties
 P, S, Cl (non-metals): forms oxides
with acidic properties
Uses of semi-metals (metalloids)
 Semiconductor (flow in one direction)
 Microchip
The next part, Part 5 is the final part in this
series of notes from Berry Berry Easy on
the Periodic Table of Elements for SPM
Chemistry Form 4 students. The next post
which conclude the entire series of post will be
on transition elements.
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –
Periodic Table of Elements (Part 6 –
Final)
Transition elements
 Elements from Group 3 to Group 12 Colourful Complex of Transition Elements
 Metals
Special characteristics
 Atomic radius (atomic size)
 Form coloured ions (Cu2+: blue /
approximately the same
Fe2+: pale green / Fe3+: yellow)
 Solids with shiny surfaces
 Form coloured compound (cobalt
 Very hard (compared to Group 1 and
chloride crystal: pink)
Group 2 metals)
 Different oxidation numbers in their
 High density
compound
 Ductile (ability to stretched into wires
 Useful catalysts (nickel –
without breaking)
hydrogenation of vegetable
 Malleable (ability to be bent into new
oil, copper(II) sulphate – reaction of
shape)
zinc with dilute sulphuric acid to liberate
 High tensile strength (ability to stay in
hydrogen gas, manganese(IV) oxide –
their shape without breaking) decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to
 High melting and boiling points liberate oxygen gas, iron – Haber
 High density process,vanadium(V) oxide – Contact
 Good conductors of electricity process, platinum – Ostwald process)
 Good conductors of heat
 Form complex ions (bigger-sized
polyatomic ion) (Hexacyanoferrate(III)
ion / [Fe(CN)6]3- )
Uses
 Iron – used as steel
 Chromium – coating corroded metals,
heat-resisting alloys and make stainless
steel
 Copper – making cables, pipes and
electrical wires

Titanium – metal pipes and tanks, wings of

supersonic aircraft

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –

Chemical Bonds (Part 1) Chapter 5
Formation of Compounds
 Compounds – different elements
that chemically bonded together
 Octet electron arrangement – electron
arrangement of an atom where the
outermost occupied shell is filled
with eight valence electrons
 Duplet electron arrangement –
electron arrangement of an atom where a
single shell filled with two valence
electrons
Example:
Compound water is hydrogen and oxygen
atoms are chemically bonded together.
Stability of Noble Gases
 Atom of noble gas does not gain, lose
nor share electrons with other atoms.
 Noble gas atoms do not combine with
atoms of other elements to form
compounds or with each other to form
molecules.
 Noble gases are chemically unreactive.
 Noble gases exist as monoatomic.
Chemical Bonds
Chemical Bond
Types of chemical bonds:
 ionic bonds (metal + non-metal)
 covalent bonds (non-metal + non-
metal)
Atoms of other elements can achieve the
stable octet electron arrangement by
 transfer of electrons
 sharing of electrons

Ionic Bonds
 It is a chemical bond formed from
the transfer of electrons from metal atoms
to non-metal atoms
 Metal atoms donate valence
electrons to form positive ions (cations,
Mb+) and achieve the stable duplet or octet
electron arrangement of the noble gases
 Non-metal atoms receive electrons to
form negative ions (anions, Xa-) and
achieve the stable duplet or octet electron
arrangement of the noble gases
 Cations and anions are attracted to
each other by strong electrostatic force of
attraction
Example:
Metal + Non-metal –> Ionic compound  An aluminium atom with an electron
Sodium + bromine –> Sodium bromide arrangement of 2.8.8.3 achieves stability
Calcium + chlorine –> Calcium chloride after it donates three valence electrons to
form an alumium ion, Al3+. The electron
Lithium + oxygen –> Lithium oxide
arrangement of the aluminium ion, Al3+, is
Aluminium + nitrogen –> Aluminium nitride
2.8.8 with stable octet electron
Metals
arrangement.
Group 1
Non-metal
Group 15
 A lithium atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.1 achieves stability after  A nitrogen atom with an electron
it donates one valence electron to form a
arrangement of 2.5 achieves stability after
lithium ion, Li+. The electron arrangement
it accepts three valence electrons to form a
of the lithium ion, Li+, is 2 with stable
nitride ion, N3-. The electron arrangement
duplet electron arrangement.
of the nitride ion, N3-, is 2.8 with stable
 A sodium atom with an electron
octet electron arrangement.
arrangement of 2.8.1 achieves stability  A phosphorus atom with an electron
after it donates one valence electron to
arrangement of 2.8.5 achieves stability
form a sodium ion, Na+. The electron
after it accepts three valence electrons to
arrangement of the sodium ion, Na+, is 2.8
form a phosphoride ion, P3-. The electron
with stable octet electron arrangement.
arrangement of the phosphoride ion, P3-,
 A potassium atom with an electron
is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron
arrangement of 2.8.8.1 achieves stability arrangement.
after it donates one valence electron to Group 16
form a potassium ion, K+. The electron
arrangement of the potassium ion, K+, is
2.8.8 with stable octet electron  An oxygen atom with an electron
arrangement. arrangement of 2.6 achieves stability after
Group 2 it accepts two valence electrons to form a
oxide ion, O2-. The electron arrangement
of the oxide ion, O2-, is 2.8 with stable
 A magnesium atom with an electron
octet electron arrangement.
arrangement of 2.8.2 achieves stability  A sulphur atom with an electron
after it donates two valence electrons to
arrangement of 2.8.6 achieves stability
form a magnesium ion, Mg2+. The electron
after it accepts two valence electrons to
arrangement of the magnesium ion, Mg2+,
form a sulphide ion, S2-. The electron
is 2.8 with stable octet electron
arrangement of the sulphide ion, S2-, is
arrangement.
2.8.8 with stable octet electron
 A calcium atom with an electron
arrangement.
arrangement of 2.8.8.2 achieves stability Group 17
after it donates two valence electrons to
form a calcium ion, Ca2+. The electron
arrangement of the calcium ion, Ca2+, is  A fluorine atom with an electron
2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement of 2.7 achieves stability after
arrangement. it accepts one valence electron to form a
Group 13 fluoride ion, F -. The electron arrangement
 of the fluoride ion, F -, is 2.8 with stable In the diagram of ionic compound, always
octet electron arrangement. shows
 A chlorine atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.8.7 achieves stability  The outermost shells of all ions must
after it accepts one valence electron to achieve a stable duplet or octet electron
form a chloride ion, Cl -. The electron arrangement.
arrangement of the chloride ion, Cl -, is  The charge of each ion must be placed
2.8.8 with stable octet electron
outside the bracket.
arrangement.
 Label the ions.
Predict the Formula of an Ionic
In the next part (Part 3) of Berry Berry
Compound
Easy notes on Chemical Bonds for SPM
 Cation Mb+
Form 4 chemistry students, Berry
 Anion Xa-
Readers will learn covalent bonds and the
 Formula of an ionic compound non-metals needed to form the bonds, the
formed, MaXb different types of covalent bonds, examples
Formulae for ionic compound and structure of covalent compounds.
[Extra: Pure ionic bonds cannot actually be
Metal Non-metal Ionic formed as all ionic compounds have some
atom, M atom, X Compound levels of covalent bonding. However, this is
not covered in the syllabus, hence it'll only be
Group 1 Group 15 M3X
for your own reference, in case you do extra
Group 1 Group 16 M2X
reading online and get confused. Hence, the
Group 1 Group 17 MX
traditional ionic bond only exist when ionic
Group 2 Group 15 M3X2 character > covalent character]
Group 2 Group 16 MX SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –
Group 2 Group 17 MX2 Chemical Bonds (Part 3)
Group 13 Group 15 MX
Group 13 Group 16 M2X3
Group 13 Group 17 MX3
Some common ionic compound

 Sodium chloride (NaCl)

 Magnesium oxide (MgO)
 Calcium sulphide (CaS)
 Potassium oxide (K2O)
 Magnesium fluoride (MgF2)
Structure of ionic compounds
 The oppositely-charged ions, Mb+ and
Xa- are attracted to each other by a strong
electrostatic force.
 It form a rigid 3-
dimensional lattice structure
 Formed crystal. Molecules
 Giant ionic lattice.
Berry Important Notes:
Covalent Bonds
 It is a chemical bond formed from
the sharing of valence electrons between
non-metal atoms to achieve the stable
duplet of octet electron arrangement.
 Each shared pair of electrons is
as one covalent bond.
 It produces molecules.
 Usually the covalent bonds form
between non-metal atoms from Group 15,
16 and 17 and sometimes can be formed
from Group 14 (carbon and silicon) and
hydrogen.
 Covalent bond can be formed from
atoms of the same element and atoms of
different elements.
Example:
Non-metal + Non-metal –> Covalent compound
Bromine + bromine –> Bromine (Br2)
Nitrogen + nitrogen –> Nitrogen (N2)
Carbon + chlorine
–> Tetrachloromethane (CCl
Hydrogen + oxygen –> Water (H2O)
Hydrogen + nitrogen –> Ammonia (NH3)
Types of covalent bond formed:
 Single bond = one pair of electrons
shared between two atoms.
 Double bond = two pair of electrons
shared between two atoms.
 Triple bond = three pair of electrons
shared between two atoms.
Non-metal
Group 15
 A nitrogen atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.5 needs three more
electrons to achievestable octet electron
arrangement after it contribute (through
sharing) three valence electronsto another
atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).
 A phosphorus atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.8.5 need three more
electrons to achieve stable octet electron
arrangement after it contribute (through
sharing) three valence electrons to
another atom (can be from Group 14, 15,
16, 17).
Group 16
 An oxygen atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.6 needs two more
electrons to achievestable octet electron
arrangement after it contribute (through
sharing) two valence electronsto another
atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).
 A sulphur atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.8.6 need two more
electrons to achievestable octet electron
arrangement after it contribute (through
sharing) two valence electronsto another
atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).
Group 17
 A fluorine atom with an electron
arrangement
of 2.7 needs one more
electron to achievestable octet electron
arrangement after it contribute (through
sharing) one valence electron to another
atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).
 A chlorine atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.8.7 need one more
electron to achievestable octet electron
arrangement after it contribute (through
sharing) one valence electron to another
atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).
Predict the Formula of a Covalent
Compound
 Non-metal X atom (valence electron
is a)
 Combine with another non-metal Y
atom (valence electron is b)
 b = simplest ratio (n) and a = simplest
ratio (m)
 Formula of a covalent compound
formed, XnYm
Example:
The electron arrangement of atom X is 2.8.6
and atom Y has four valence electrons. Which
of the following is the formula of the In the diagram of ionic compound, always
compound formed between X and Y? shows

(A) Y4X  The outermost shells of all atoms must

(B) Y2X achieve a stable duplet or octet electron
(C) YX arrangement through sharing.
(D) YX2  The outermost shells of each atom
Solution: must overlap.
 Label all atoms clearly.
 X has 6 valence electrons, it needs to SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –
share 2 electrons to achieve the stable Chemical Bonds (Part 4 – Final)
octet electron arrangement. Properties of Ionic and Covalent
 Y has 4 valence electrons, it needs to Compounds
share 4 electrons to achieve the stable
octet electron arrangement.
 Therefore, the formula of the covalent
compound is X4Y2 = Y2X4 = simplest ratio
YX2.
Answer: D
Some common covalent compound

 Hydrogen molecule, H2 (single bond)

 Chlorine molecule, Cl2 (single bond)
 Bromine molecule, Br2 (single bond)
 Fluorine molecule, F2 (single bond)
 Water molecule, H2O (single bond)
 Nitrogen trifluoride molecule,
NF3 (single bond)
 Tetrachoromethane / carbon Ionic Compound
tetrachloride, CCl4 (single bond)
 Ammonia molecule, NH3 (single bond) Ionic Compound – ionic bonding is strong
 Oxygen molecule, O2 (double bond) electrostatics forces between the oppositely-
 Carbon dioxide molecule, CO2 (double charged ions
bond)
 Nitrogen molecule, N2 (triple bond)
 Ethyne molecule, C2H2 (triple bond)
Structure of covalent compounds
 Can be simple molecular structure or
giant molecular structure.
 The atoms in the molecule are joined
together by strong covalent bond but
intermolecular forces are weak by weak
van der Waals’ forces.
Berry Important Notes:
 propanone)
Conduct electricity Electricity Cannot conduct elec
in liquid and conductor any state (no free mo
aqueous solution
(positive and
negative ions can
move freely).
Cannot conduct
electricity in solid
state (fixed position
and cannot move
freely).
Uses of covalent compounds as solvent
 Ether – solvents in the extraction of
chemicals from aqueous solution
 Alcohol – solvents used to make ink
Covalent Compound and dye because these solvent are volatile
 Turpentine – dissolved paint
Covalent Compound – covalent bonding is
 CFC (chlorofluocarbons) – solvents to
strong bonding between the atoms in the
clean computer circuits board
molecule
 Propanone – remove nail varnish

Ionic Compound Differences Covalent Compound
Ions Particles Molecules
Lost or gained Electron Shared SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –
Strong electrostatics Forces Electrochemistry
Strong (Covalent bond) (Part 1)
forces (Ionic bond) between the atoms in the
between the molecule. Weak forces of
oppositely-charged attraction between the
ions arranged in a molecules (van der Waals’
3-D giant crystal forces)
lattice
Solid State Gases or volatile liquids
High Melting point Low (Simple molecules)High
(Giant molecules)
High Melting point Low (Simple molecules)High
(Giant molecules)
Voltaic Cell
Non-volatile Volatility Very volatile (Simple
molecules)Non-volatile
Electrolyte (Giant
molecules)  Electrolytes are substances that can
Dissolve in water Solubility in Do not dissolve in water electricity in molten or aqueous
conduct
and polar solvents water state and undergo chemical changes.
Do not dissolve in Solubility in Dissolve in organic
 solvent
It can conduct electricity due to
organic solvent organic solvent (ether, alcohol, benzene,
the presence of free moving ions.
tetrachloromethane and
Example for electrolytes (alkalis, acids, salt This is the end of the introductory post
solution or molten salt): on Electrochemistry for SPM Form 4
Chemistrystudents by Berry Berry Easy.
 molten lead(II) chloride Stay tuned to the next part, Part 2 of the series
which focuses onelectrolysis in molten
 copper(II) sulphate solution
compounds.
 solution containing ions such as
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes –
hydrochloride acid
Electrochemistry (Part 2)
Non-electrolyte
 Non-electrolytes are molecules
that cannot conduct electricity and will
not undergo any chemical changes.
 It cannot conduct electricity due to
the absent of free moving ions.
Example of non-electrolytes (covalent
substances):

 molten acetone
 molten naphthalene
 glucose solution
Conductor
 Conductors are substances that can
conduct electricity in solid or molten state
but do not undergo any chemical changes.
 It can conduct electricity due to Voltaic Cell
the flow of electrons.
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Example of conductor:
 Electrolysis (with battery / electricity
current) is a process of decomposition /
 iron breaking down / separation of a
 graphite compound (electrolyte) into
 mercury its constituent elements when electric
Ionic Compounds current passes through it.
Solid state Important definition
Molten state or aqueous
state (dissolved in water)
Do not conduct electricity Can conduct electricity Anode Electrode connected to the
Ions are held in a lattice - positive terminal (+) of a battery
Ions do not move freely Ions are free to move Cathode Electrode connected to the
Covalent Compounds negative terminal (-) of a battery
Solid state Molten state or aqueous Anion Negatively-charged ion. Example:
state (dissolved in water) Cl-, SO42- and O2-
Do not conduct electricity Do not conduct electricity Cation Positively-charged ion. Example:
Exist in molecules Exist in molecules Na+, Zn2+ and Al3+
Molecules do not have free Exception: HCl and NH Classification of electrodes
moving ions as free moving ions in water
Inert Electrodes that do not take CarbonElectrolysis
or of Aqueous Compounds
electrodes part in chemical reactions (dissolved
platinum in water, H2O)
during electrolysis There are three important factors to
Active Electrodes that take part in Copperdetermine
or zinc the types of ions to be discharged at
electrodes chemical reactions during the electrodes.
electrolysis
Example 1: 1. Positions of ions in the
Molten magnesium oxide, MgO electrochemical series
2. Concentration of ions in the solution
3. Types of electrodes used
 Ions: Magnesium ions (Mg2+) & oxide
1. Positions of ions in the
ions (O2-)
electrochemical series
 Cathode (Negative electrode):
The lower the position of the ion in the
Mg2+ move to the cathode
electrochemical series, the easier the ion is
 Anode (Positive electrode): O2- move
selectivelydischarged.
to the anode Electrochemical series:
 Electrons flow from anode to the
cathode through the wire
 Can conduct electricity Cation Anion
+
Example 2: K F-
Molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2 Na+ SO42-
 Ions: Lead(II) ions (Pb2+) & bromide Ca2+ NO3-
ions (Br - ) Mg 2+
Cl-
 Cathode (Negative electrode): Al3+ Br-
2+
Pb move to the cathode Zn2+ I-
 Anode (Positive electrode): Br - move Fe2+ OH-
to the anode Sn 2+

 Electrons flow from anode to the

Pb2+
cathode through the wire
H+
 Can conduct electricity
Cu2+
Example 3:
Hg+
Molten naphthalene
Ag+
Au+
 Ions: No ions present (naphthalene is
Example 1:
covalent compound which consists of 0.5 mol dm3 of potassium chloride, KCl
molecules = uncharged particles) solution
 No electrons flows  Positive ions (cations): potassium ions
 Cannot conduct electricity (K+) and hydrogen ions (H+),
This is end of Part 2, the next part of short  Negative ions (anions): chloride ions
notes from Berry Berry Easy on SPM (Cl ) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
-

Form 4 Chemistry –  Cathode (negative electrode): H+ move

Electrochemistry will be on the main title
to the cathode (ions are selectively
of Electrolysis of Aqueous
discharge)
compounds focusing on the smaller subtopic
of positions of ions in the
electrochemical series.
 Anode (positive electrode): OH- move
to the anode (ions are selectively
discharge)
Example 2:
0.1 mol dm3 of copper(II) sulphate,
CuSO4 solution
 Positive ions (cations): copper ions
(Cu2+) and hydrogen ions (H+),
 Negative ions (anions): sulphate ions
(SO42-) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
 Cathode (negative electrode):
2+
Cu move to the cathode (ions are
selectively discharge)
 Anode (positive electrode): OH- move
to the anode (ions are selectively
discharge)
The next part, Part 4 of short notes
from Berry Berry Easy on SPM Form 4
Chemistry – Electrochemistry will be on
the main title of Electrolysis of aqueous
compounds while focusing on the subtopic
of effects of concentration of ions in the
solution.
2. Effect of concentration of ions in the
solution
The concentration of a particular type of ion is
high = ion more likely to be discharged in
electrolysis.
Example:
2.0 mol dm-3 of lead(II) chloride,
PbCl2 solution
 Positive ions (cations): lead(II) ions
(Pb ) and hydrogen ions (H+),
2+
 Negative ions (anions): chloride ions
(Cl ) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
-
 Cathode (negative electrode):
Pb2+ move to the cathode (ions are
selectively discharge)
 Anode (positive electrode): Cl- move to
the anode (ions are selectively discharge)
Nevertheless, if the two ions are placed very
far apart in the electrochemical series, the
concentration aspect becomes insignificant.
Example 1:
2.0 mol dm-3 of sodium bromide, NaBr
solution
 Positive ions (cations): sodium ions
(Na+) and hydrogen ions (H+),
 Negative ions (anions): bromide ions
(Br ) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
-
 Cathode (negative electrode): H+ move
to the cathode (ions are selectively
discharge)
 Anode (positive electrode): Br - move
to the anode (ions are selectively
discharge)
Example 2:
2.0 mol dm-3 of lead(II) nitrate,
Pb(NO3)2 solution
 Positive ions (cations): lead(II) ions
(Pb ) and hydrogen ions (H+),
2+
 Negative ions (anions): chloride ions
(NO3-) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
 Cathode (negative electrode):
Pb2+ move to the cathode (ions are
selectively discharge)
 Anode (positive electrode): OH - move
to the anode (ions are selectively
discharge)
This ends Part 4. The next part, Part 5 of
short notes from Berry Berry Easy on SPM
Form 4 Chemistry –
Electrochemistry will be on the main title
of electrolysis of aqueous compounds while
dwelling on the subtopic of types of
electrodes used in the electrolysis.
3. Types of electrodes used in the
electrolysis
There are 2 important notes:
 Inert electrodes: Carbon and platinum
(Both of these electrodes do not react with
the electrolytes or products of electrolysis)
 Active electrodes: Silver, copper and
nickel (Active anode ionises and
concentration of cations in the electrolyte
does not change)
Example 1:
Carbon electrode (inert electrode) in the
electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm-3 of aqueous
copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution
 Positive ions (cations): copper ions
(Cu ) and hydrogen ions (H+),
2+
 Negative ions (anions): sulphate ions
(SO42-) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
 Cathode (negative electrode):
2+
Cu move to the cathode (ions are
selectively discharge). A brown deposited
on the cathode.
 Anode (positive electrode): OH- move
to the anode (ions are selectively
discharge). Gas bubbles are produced. A
colourless gas liberates and it ignites the
glowing wooden splinter.
 The intensity of the blue colour
solution decreases because the
concentration of copper(II) ions
decreases.
Example 2:
Copper electrode (active electrode) in the
electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm-3 of aqueous
copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 solution
 Positive ions (cations): copper ions
(Cu ) and hydrogen ions (H+),
2+
 Negative ions (anions): sulphate ions
(SO42-) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
 Anode (positive electrode): OH- and
SO42- are not discharged. Copper anode
dissolves by releasing electrons to form
copper(II) ions, Cu2+. Copper anode
becomes thinner.
 Cathode (negative electrode):
Cu2+ move to the cathode (ions are
selectively discharge) to form copper
metal. Copper cathode becomes thicker.
 The intensity of the blue colour
solution remains unchanged because the
concentration of copper(II) ions remains
the same.
Other examples:
3. Copper electrode (active electrode) in the
electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm-3 of aqueous
copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 solution
4. Silver electrode (active electrode) in the
electrolysis of 0.1 mol dm-3 of aqueous silver
nitrate, AgNO3 solution
This ends Part 5. The next part, Part 6 of short
notes from Berry Berry Easy on SPM Form 4
Chemistry – Electrochemistry will focus on
the prediction of electrolysis products of
aqueous solutions and industrial applications
of electrolysis.
Predict the Products of Electrolysis of
Aqueous Solutions
Main factor: Position of ions in the
electrochemical series
 Cation: The higher the position in the
electrochemical series are
very stable (remain as cation). Example:
K+ and Na+ are never discharged in an
aqueous solution in electrolysis.
 Anions: The higher the position in the
electrochemical series are
very stable (remain as anion). Example:
F - and SO42- are never discharged in an
aqueous solution in electrolysis.
Second factor: Concentration of the electrolyte
Third factor: Types of electrode as anode
Electrolysis in Industries
A. Extraction of reactive metals
 Reactive metals: Sodium, calcium,
magnesium and aluminium extract from
their compounds
 Example: extraction of aluminium
from aluminium oxide, Al2O3 (bauxite) by
using cryolite, Na3AlF6 at 980˚C.
B. Purification of metals
 Anode: impure metal
 Cathode: pure metal
 Electrolyte: solution containing the
ions of the metal to be purified
 Example: purification of impure
copper metal.
C. Electroplating of metals
 Electroplating is a process of coating
the surface of metal objects with a thin
and even layer of another metal.
 Importance of electroplating is to
prevent corrosion and improve the
appearance.
 Cathode: object to be electroplated
 Anode: pure plating metal
 Electrolyte: aqueous solution contains
plating metal ions
Voltaic Cell / Galvanic cell
It is an electrochemical cell which converts
chemical energy –> electrical energy
 Negative terminal: more
electropositive (higher position in the
electrochemical series)
 Positive terminal: less electropositive
(lower position in the electrochemical
series)
 Electrons released (more
electropositive metal) through the wire to
a less electropositive metal.
Example 1: Zinc plate and iron plate are
placed in 1.0 mol dm3 of lead(II) nitrate,
Pb(NO3)2solution
 Negative terminal (Anode): Zinc metal
(Zinc plate dissolves to form Zn2+)
 Positive terminal (Cathode): Iron
metal (hydrogen ions will be selectively
discharge to form hydrogen gas. It is
because H+ is lower position than Pb2+ and
Zn2+ in the electrochemical series)
Example 2: Magnesium plate and copper plate
are placed in 1.0 mol dm3 of sodium chloride,
NaCl solution
 Negative terminal (Anode):
Magnesium metal (Magnesium plate
dissolves to form Mg2+)
 Positive terminal (Cathode): Copper
metal (hydrogen ions will be selectively
discharge to form hydrogen gas. It is
because H+ is lower position than
Mg2+ and Na+ in the electrochemical
series)
Daniell Cell
It is another example of a voltaic cell.
 Solutions are connected by a salt
bridge (inert electrolyte) or a porous pot.
 The main function of a salt bridge /
porous pot is to complete the circuit by
allowing the movement of ions and
prevent two aq from mixing.
In the next part, Part 8 of short notes
from Berry Berry
Easy on Electrochemistry for SPM
Chemistry Form 4 students, the focus will
be on half equations and overall
equations, in addition to comparison of
Electrolytic Cells and Voltaic Cells.
Berry Important Half Equations
Anode:
 2Cl - –> Cl2 + 2e
 2Br - –> Br2 + 2e
 2I - –> I2 + 2e
 4OH- –> 2H2O + O2 + 4e
Cathode:
 2H+ + 2e –> H2
 Zn2+ + 2e –> Zn
 Fe2+ + 2e –> Fe
 Pb2+ + 2e –> Pb
 Cu2+ + 2e –> Cu
 Ag+ + e –> Ag
How to write overall reaction equation?
Example 1:
 Anode: 2I - –> I2 + 2e
 Cathode: 2H+ + 2e –> H2
 Overall: 2I - + 2H+ –> I2 + H2
Example 2:
 Anode: 2Br - –> Br2 + 2e
 Cathode: Pb2+ + 2e –> Pb
 Overall: 2Br - + Pb2+ –> Br2 + Pb
Example 3:
 Anode: 4OH- –> 2H2O + O2 + 4e
 Cathode: 2H+ + 2e –> H2 (x2)
 Overall: 4OH- + 4H+ –> 2H2O +
O2 + 2H2
Example 4:
 Anode: 4OH- –> 2H2O + O2 + 4e
 Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e –> Cu (x2)  To construct an electrochemical series
 Overall: 2Cu2+ + 4OH- –> 2Cu + 2H2O = measure the potential
+ O2 difference between two metals in voltaic
. cells.
 Negative terminal (anode) in voltaic
cell has a higher tendency to release
Comparison of Electrolytic Cells and
electrons = higher position in the
Voltaic Cells
electrochemical series (Positive
Similarities:
terminal (cathode) in voltaic cell has
a lower tendency to release
 Two electrodes involves in the reaction electrons = lower position in the
 Electrons flow through the external electrochemical series.
circuit (connecting wires)  The greater the potential
 Anode (oxidation): loss of electrons difference (voltage) = further
 Cathode (reduction): gain of electrons apart the positions of two metals in
Differences: electrochemical series.
B) Electrochemical Series from the
Displacement Reaction of Metals
Electrolytic Cell
 To construct an electrochemical series
Main basic A battery is needed to = ability of a metal to displace another
structures supply electrical energy metal from its salt solution.
Energy conversion Electrical energy –>  Higher position of a metal in the
chemical energy electrochemical series = able to displace a
Transfer of electrons Anode (positive metal below it from its salt solution.
at the positive terminal): Oxidation – Example:
terminal anions lose electrons at Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) –> MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
the anode  Mg is more electropositive than Cu
Transfer of electrons Cathode (negative (placed higher than copper in
at the negative terminal): Reduction – electrochemical series)
terminal cations accept electrons  Mg atom loses electrons to form
from the cathode magnesium ion and dissolves in the
Electrochemistry solution.
 It is an arrangement of elements The Importance of Electrochemical
according to their tendencies to donate Series
electrons to form cations. To determine:
 Higher position in the series = a metal
that has a higher tendencies to ionise and
 Terminal of a voltaic cell
form positive ions.
 Voltage produced by a pair of metals
 Electrochemistry is constructed by
 Ability of a metal to displace another
the potential difference (voltage
difference) between pairs of metals and metal from its salt solution
the ability of a metal to displace another  Metal displacement of hydrogen from
metal from its own salt solution. an acid
A) Electrochemical Series based on the The Importance of Electrochemical Industries
Potential Difference (Voltage
Difference)
 Extract useful metals (aluminium,
sodium and magnesium) from its ore
using electrolysis.
 Manufacture of useful chemical
substances (chlorine and sodium
hydroxide) using electrolysis.
 Electroplating of iron with chromium
to protect the iron layer.
 Silver-plating to make fine cutleries. Sodium hydroxide
 Voltaic cell (batteries)
Bases / Alkalis
Effect of Electrochemical Industries towards  A base is a chemical substance
the Environment
which reacts with an acid to produce
a salt and water only.
 Heavy metals (chromium and  Base(s) + acid(aq) –> salt + water (l).
mercury) – cause water pollution.  Example: NaOH(s) + HCl(aq) –>
 Chlorine gas is a toxic gas – cause NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
problem (irritates) to human respiratory Base Formula Solubility in water I
system. a
 Mercury cell (batteries) is highly toxic. s
 Improper disposal of industrial waste Copper(II) oxide CuO Insoluble base -
– cause water pollution. Lead(II) oxide PbO Insoluble base -
Chapter 7 acid n basses Magnesium oxide MgO Insoluble base -
Acids Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2 Insoluble base -
 An acid is a chemical substance Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3 Insoluble base -
which ionises in water to Sodium oxide Na2O Soluble base (alkali) N
produce hydrogen ions, H+ /hydroxonium Calcium oxide CaO Soluble base (alkali) C
ions, H3O+. Sodium hydroxide NaOH Soluble base (alkali) N
 H+(aq) + H2O(l) –> H3O+(aq) Potassium hydroxide KOH Soluble base (alkali) K
 Example: HCl(g) + H2O(l) –> H3O+ Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 Soluble base (alkali) B
(aq) + Cl -(aq) This ends Part 1 of the notes for SPM
Acid Acid name Ions Chemistry Form 4 on Acids and
HCl Hydrochloric acid H+, Cl - Bases from Berry Berry Easy. In the next
HNO3 Nitric acid H+, NO3- part in the series, you’ll learn about the uses of
H2SO4 Sulphuric acid H+, SO42- acid and bases in ourdaily life. So do stay
CH3COOH Ethanoic acid H+, CH3COO - tuned and log on to this site in the future.
 Monoprotic acid = acid can produce The Uses of Acids in Our Daily Life
only one hydrogen ion per molecule in Benzoic acid Its salt are used to preserve food
water. (Example: HCl) Carbonic acid To make carbonated drinks
 Diprotic acid = acid can produce two Ethanoic acid A main compound of vinegar
hydrogen ions per molecule in water. Hydrochloric acid To clean metals before electroplating /
(Example: H2SO4) household cleaning / leather
 Triprotic acid = acid can processing / swimming pool
produce three hydrogen ions per molecule maintenance
in water. (Example: H3PO4) Nitric acid Production of fertilisers, explosives,
 etching and dissolution of metals SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Acids
(purification and extraction of gold) and Bases (Part 3)
Sulphuric acid To make detergent, polymer andChemical Properties
fertilisers. important Definition for Acids
Monoprotic acid (monobasic acid) is an acid
Tartaric acid Manufacturing of soft drinks, provide
which produce one mole of H+ ion when one
tartness to food, as an emetic (a
mole of the acid ionise in water.
substance to induce vomiting)
The Uses of Bases in Our Daily Life Monoprotic Monoprotic acid
acid name
Ammonia Production of fertilisers (ammonium
HCl Hydrochloric acid
and nitrate salts), used in the
manufacture of nitric acid, neutralise HNO3 Nitric acid
CH
the acid (in the petroleum industry) and 3 COOH Ethanoic acid
prevent premature coagulation in.
natural / synthetic latex.
Aluminium Manufacture other aluminium Polyprotic acids
hydroxide compound and to make gastric medicine Diprotic acid (dibasic acid) is an acid which
(antacid) produce two moles of H+ ios from one mole of
Calcium To make cement, limewater, neutralise the acid in water.
hydroxide the acidity of soil and applicationDiprotic
of acid Diprotic acid name
sewage treatment. H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
Sodium Used in the manufacturing of soaps, H2CO3 Carbonic acid
hydroxide detergents, and cleaners.
Acid Alkali H2CrO4 Chromic acid
Magnesium Suspension of magnesium hydroxide in
In the presence of water, an are
acidused
will as an antacid,
In the presenceH2C2Owater, an Ethanedioic acid /
used as of
4
hydroxide water an
ionise to form hydrogen ion, H .+ Oxalate acid
antiperspirant armpitalkali will ionise
deodorant and asto form
hydroxide ion, OH . - Triprotic acid (tribasic acid)
a non-hazardous alkali to neutralise
Sour in taste is an acid which
acidic wastewater. Bitter in taste
pH values less than 7 pH values more than 7 produce three moles of
+
Indicator: Blue litmus paper (Red) Indicator: Red litmus paper H ions from one mole of the
(Blue) acid in water.
Indicator: Universal indicator (Orange Indicator: Universal Triprotic acid Triprotic acid
and red) indicator (Blue and name
purple) H3PO4 Phosphoric acid
Indicator: Methyl orange (Red) C6H8Oorange
Indicator: Methyl 7 Citric acid
(Yellow) We have reached the end
React with bases to React with acids to of Part 4 of the notes
produce saltsand water. produce salts and water. for SPM Chemistry Form
2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) –> CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) –> 4 on Acids and
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) Bases from Berry Berry
React with metals (reactive metal, higher React with an ammonium Easy. In the next part in the
position than H+ in the electrochemical salt (alkali is heated) to series, you’ll learn about the
series) to producesalts and hydrogen produce ammonia gas. berry berry important pH
gas. Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(s) – scale – colour of the
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) –> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) > BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + universal indicator. Very
2NH3(g) important for exams, so do
React with carbonates to React with aqueous salt stay tuned.
producesalts, carbon dioxide solutions to produce metal
gas andwater. hydroxides (as
H2SO4(aq) + ZnCO3(s) –> ZnSO4(aq) + precipitate).
H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) –>
Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Acids
and Bases (Part 5)
(The above image is just a representation,
colours may vary, so please follow the
colours described in the table below)
The pH scale and the Measurement of
pH Value of a Solution
 pH scale is a set of numbers used to
represent the degree of acidity or
alkalinity of a solution.
 pH is a measurement of the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the
solution.
 pH value greater than 7: alkaline
solution
 pH value of exactly 7: neutral solution
 pH value less than 7: acidic solution
 In an acidic solution = higher in the
concentration of the H+ ions, the lower the
pH value.
 In an alkaline solution = lower in the
concentration of the H+ ions, the higher
the pH value.
 pH solution can be measured by using
universal indicator, pH paper and pH
meter.
pH value Colour of Universal
Indicator
0, 1, 2 Red
3 Orange red
4 Orange
5 Orange yellow
6 Yellow
7 Green
8 Greenish-blue
9 Blue
10 Blue
11 Bluish-purple
12, 13, 14 Purple
Strong Acids
 Strength of an acid –
the degree of ionisation or dissociation of
the acid in water.
 Strong acid – an acid which ionises /
dissociates completely in water to
form high concentration of hydrogen
ions (H+).
 Example of strong acid: Mineral acid –
hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid
(HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
 Example of the strong acid reaction in
water: HCl(aq) –> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (The
concentration of hydrogen ions is equal to
the concentration of hydrochloric acid)
Weak Acids
 Weak acid – an acid which ionises /
dissociates partially in water to form low
concentration ofhydrogen ions (H+).
 Example of weak acid: ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH) and methanoic acid
(HCOOH)
 Example of the weak acid reaction in
water: CH3COOH <—-> CH3COO-(aq) +
H+(aq) {The concentration of hydrogen
ions is low and the ions (CH3COO- and H+)
reacts to reform the ethanoic acid
molecule = reversible reaction}
Strong Alkalis
 Strength of an alkali –
the degree of ionisation or dissociation of
the alkali in water.
 Strong alkali – an alkali
which ionises / dissociates
completely in water to form high
concentration of hydroxide ions (OH – ).
 Example of strong alkali: Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) solution, potassium
hydroxide (KOH) solution and barium
hydroxide (Ba(OH)2) solution.
 Example of the strong alkali reaction
in water: NaOH(aq) –> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Weak Alkalis
 Weak alkali – an alkali which ionises /
dissociates partially in water to form low
concentrationof hydroxide ions (OH – ).
 Example of weak alkali: ammonia
(NH3) solution.
 Example of the weak alkali reaction in
water: NH3(g) + H2O(l) <—-> NH4+(aq) +
OH- (aq)
This is the end of this part. Stay tuned for the
upcoming Part 7 in the series of notes
by Berry Berry Easy on the topic of Acids
and Bases for SPM Form 4
Chemistry students where we will be sharing
information on the concentration of acids and
alkalis, pelationship between number of moles
with molarity and volume of a solution,
preparation of standard solutions, dilution
method and relationship between pH Values
and molarities of acids or alkalis for SPM
Chemistry. It sounds long and comprehensive
but it is really not, just a compilation of many
shorter points.
Concentration of Acids and Alkalis
 Quantity of solute can be measured in
grams or moles: g dm-3 or mol dm-3.
 Concentration (g dm-3) = mass of
solute (g) / volume of solution (dm3)
 Concentration (mol dm-3) = number of
moles of solute (mol) / volume of solution
(dm3)
Relationship between Number of Moles
with Molarity and Volume of a Solution
 Molarity (mol dm-3) = number of
moles of solution (mol) / volume of
solution (dm3)
 M = molarity of solution (mol dm-3), V
= Volume of solution (dm3), n = Number
of moles of solute (mol)
 M = n/V
Preparation of Standard Solutions
 Standard solution = a solution in
which its concentration is accurately
known.
 Standard solution is prepared by using
volumetric flask with a fixed volume (100
cm3, 200 cm3, 250 cm3, 500 cm3 and 1000
cm3)
Preparation of a Solution by Dilution
Method
 Dilution = a process of diluting a
concentrated solution by adding a
solvent (water) to obtain amore diluted
solution.
 The concentration of the
solution decreases after dilution.
 The number of moles of solute in the
solution remains unchanged after
dilution.
 (MaVa) / 1000 = (MbVb) / 1000
 Ma = Initial molarity of solution, Mb =
Final molarity of solution, Va = Initial
volume of solution and Vb = Final volume
of solution
Relationship between pH Values and
Molarities of Acids or Alkalis
 pH values depends on degree of
dissociation and molarity / concentration
of hydrogen ions, H+/ hydroxide ions,
OH- in the solution.
 The higher the molarity of a strong
acid, the lower is its pH value.
 The higher the molarity of a strong
alkali, the higher is its pH value.
 The molarity of an acid can be
changed when (i) water is added, (ii) an
 acid of different concentration is added  Titration – a quantitative analysis
and (iii) an alkali is added. method to determine the volume of
Neutralisation an acid that is required
 Neutralisation = a reaction between to neutralise a fixed volume of an alkali / a
an acid and a base/alkali to quantitative analysis method to determine
produce salt and water only. the volume of an alkali that is required to
 Acid + alkali –> salt + water neutralise a fixed volume of an acid.
 Ionic equation of neutralisation: H+  End point of a titration –
(aq) + OH-(aq) –> H2O(l) a point which neutralisation occurs when
Application of Neutralisation Reactions the acid has completely neutralised the
in Daily Life alkali / the alkali
Digestive juices in has completely
Break up food (only in acidic condition) and neutralised the acid.
stomach maintained at pH of between  Reactants: Acid and alkali
Insect stings  Products:
Bees and ants inject an acidic liquid into the Salt and water
End point can be determined by (i) the
 liquid.
skin but wasps inject an alkaline
Toothpaste An alkaline compound (magnesium use of acid-base indicators during
hydroxide) in toothpastes titration, (ii) measuring the pH values of
organic acids produced by the food. the solution during titration and (iii)
pH of the swimming Calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl) measuring the electrical conductivity of
pool water. solution during titration.
Latex industries Ammonia is used to neutraliseIndicator
the organic Alkali Neutral Acid
Litmus
acidproduces by bacteria to prevent Blue Orange Red
coagulation. Methyl orange Yellow Orange Red
Neutralisation Manufacture fertilisers, soaps Phenolphthalein
and detergents Pink Colourless Colourless
Effluent from factories It can be treated with lime Finally, you have arrived at the end of this
Sulphuric acid Manufacture of dyes, explosives, series of notes on Acids and Bases for SPM
steel,
fertilisers, paints and plastics. Form 4 Chemistry by Berry Berry Easy.
Soil treatment Plants grow best when the pH of the soil
about 7. The soil is too acidic, quick lime
(calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide) is added to the soil to neutralise
the excess acid.
You have reached the end of Part 8 of
essential short notes on Acids and
Bases by Berry Berry Easy specially for
SPM Chemistry Form 4 students. In the next
post, you’ll learn about the very exam-
popular acid-base titration. So make sure
you don’t miss out on the next post.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes – Acids

and Bases (Part 9 – Final)
Acid-base Titration