Production of Rare Earth Oxides-Assessment of The Environmental Impacts in Two Chinese Mines by Aländj I BOUORAKIMA

Production of rare earth oxides
Assessment of the environmental impacts in two Chinese mines
Dissertation for the Master of Science in

Environmental Systems Engineering
Aländji BOUORAKIMA
Supervisor: Julia STEGEMANN
University College London

Department of Civil, Environmental & Geomatic Engineering
London, United Kingdom, September 2011
2
Abstract
The recent interest in environmental friendly technologies has created a significant

increase in the demand of rare earths. Rare earths are indeed used in many applications
(e.g. car electric batteries, rechargeable batteries, energy saving light bulbs) because of
their specific properties. As such, it was interesting to shed a light on the environmental
cost of producing these rare earths.
Thus, this study aims at determining the different environmental impacts from
producing rare earth. It appraises the impacts from the mining of virgin ore until the
production of rare earth oxides (which is the most commonly used and produced form of
rare earth). This study focuses on two Chinese deposits (Bayan Obo and Maoniuping) that
account for 70% of the world production of rare earths.
After two literature reviews describing firstly the rare earth market and then the
processes used in the two deposits, the emphasis is laid on the life cycle assessment
methodology. Based on both data collected in the literature reviews and personal
estimations, the life cycle assessment is carried out using a standardised methodology.
As a result, the environmental impacts of producing rare earth oxide are assessed
regarding the following categories: global warming, acidification, eutrophication,
radioactive waste generation, land use and toxicity in wastewaters.
To conclude, on the one hand this study provides an extensive analysis of rare
earths in general, then it describes in detail the two biggest mines presently in operations.
On the other hand, the life cycle assessment methodology provides results concerning six
different impact categories. These results are potentially generalizable since it appraises
generic processes to this industry. This study can be useful to whoever is trying to
measure the environmental impacts of a product that contains rare earth oxides.
Keywords: rare earths, rare earth oxide, life cycle assessment, Chinese rare earths,
Bayan Obo, Baotou, Maoniuping, environmental impacts.
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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Julia Stegemann whose help was invaluable to me. She gave
me the proper advices at the proper times and helped me to design this study from the
beginning to the end. Thanks to her, I have enjoyed carrying out this study.
I also would like to express my thanks to Marie for her support.
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Table of contents
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 15
1.1. Background information............................................................................. 15
1.2. Aim of the study ......................................................................................... 16
1.3. Objectives ................................................................................................... 16
1.4. Approach .................................................................................................... 16
2. Information on rare earth elements.................................................................... 17
2.1. How rare are rare earths? ............................................................................ 17
2.2. Description of the main rare earth minerals ............................................... 18
2.3. Description of the rare earth reserves ......................................................... 22
2.4. Historical production of rare earth oxide.................................................... 22
2.5. Description of the main applications of the rare earth elements ................ 24
3. Production of rare earth elements ...................................................................... 27
3.1. World production of rare earth elements .................................................... 27
3.2. Chinese production of rare earths ............................................................... 27
3.3. Prospective other productions .................................................................... 30
4. Scope refining.................................................................................................... 32
5. Bayan Obo deposit ............................................................................................ 32
5.1. Description of the deposit........................................................................... 32
5.2. Composition of the original ore.................................................................. 32
5.3. Description of the beneficiation process .................................................... 32
5.4. Composition of the mixed rare earth concentrate....................................... 34
5.5. Processing of the mixed rare earth concentrate .......................................... 34
5.6. Obtaining of rare earth oxides .................................................................... 34
6. Maoniuping deposit ........................................................................................... 37
6.1. Description of the deposit........................................................................... 37
6.2. Composition of the original ore.................................................................. 38
6.3. Description of the beneficiation process .................................................... 38
6.4. Processing of the mixed rare earth concentrate .......................................... 40
6.5. Obtaining of rare earth oxides .................................................................... 40
7. Life cycle assessment methodology .................................................................. 42
8. Goal definition and scope .................................................................................. 42
8.1. Goal of the life cycle assessment................................................................ 42
8.2. Level of specificity ..................................................................................... 43
7
8.3. Display of results ........................................................................................ 43
8.4. Scope of the life cycle assessment.............................................................. 43
8.5. Guideline to life cycle assessment methodology........................................ 43
9. Process Modelling: ............................................................................................ 43
9.1. Bayan Obo deposit ..................................................................................... 43
9.2. Maoniuping deposit .................................................................................... 51
10. Life Cycle inventory ........................................................................................ 57
10.1. Input of chemicals, energy and explosives ............................................... 57
10.2. Air emissions ............................................................................................ 57
10.3. Output of wastes and chemicals ............................................................... 57
11. Life Cycle Impact Assessment ........................................................................ 62
11.1. Global Warming ....................................................................................... 62
11.2. Acidification ............................................................................................. 63
11.3. Eutrophication .......................................................................................... 64
11.4. Radioactive waste generation ................................................................... 64
11.5. Land use ................................................................................................... 65
11.6. Toxic chemical discharge in wastewater .................................................. 65
12. Life Cycle Interpretation ................................................................................. 67
12.1. Identification of the significant issues ...................................................... 67
12.2. Completeness, sensitivity and consistency of data ................................... 68
12.3. Conclusions of the life cycle assessment.................................................. 70
13. Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 74
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List of figures
Figure 1: Relative abundance of chemical elements in the Earth's crust (Haxel 2002).....17
Figure 2: Concentrations of rare earth elements in the Earth’s crust (Tyler 2004) ...........18
Figure 3: Contents of the main rare earth elements in bastnaesite for two mines
(Kingsnorth 2010) .............................................................................................19
Figure 4: Contents of the main rare earth elements in monazite for three deposits
(Kingsnorth 2010) .............................................................................................20
Figure 5: Contents of the main rare earth elements in xenotime (Kingsnorth 2010) ........20
Figure 6: Contents of the main rare earth elements in Chinese ionic clays (Kingsnorth
2010) ..................................................................................................................21
Figure 7: Breakdown of the economically viable rare earth resource (USGS 2011) ........22
Figure 8: Global production of rare earth oxide (USGS 2010) .........................................23
Figure 9: World production of rare earth oxides from 1950 to 2000 (Haxel 2002) ..........23
Figure 10: Global rare earth consumption in 2006 (Roskill 2007) ....................................24
Figure 11: Global production of rare earth oxides in 2010 (USGS 2011) .........................27
Figure 12: Breakdown of rare earth oxide-content at Bayan Obo (Crédit Suisse 2011) ...28
Figure 13: Bastnaesite content of rare earth elements at Maoniuping (Spooner 2005) .....29
Figure 14: Ionic clay content of rare earth elements at Longnan (Crédit Suisse 2011).....29
Figure 15: Distribution of the Chinese production of rare earths in 2010 .........................30
Figure 16: Composition by weight of the mixed bastnaesite-monazite concentrate
(Wang et al. 2002) .............................................................................................34
Figure 17: Composition of a tonne of rare earth oxides produced from Bayan Obo ore
(Spooner 2005) ..................................................................................................37
Figure 18: Composition of the ore in Maoniuping’s mineral (Zhu et al. 2000) ................38
Figure 19: Composition of a tonne of rare earth oxides produced from Maoniuping ore
(Spooner 2005) ..................................................................................................40
Figure 20: Beneficiation process in Bayan Obo for one tonne of original rock ................47
Figure 21: Beneficiation process in Maoniuping for one tonne of original rock...............51
Figure 22: Separation factor of rare earths in the Ln(III)-HCl-EHEHPA system (Sato
1989) ..................................................................................................................83
Figure 23: Separation flowsheet for bastnasite (Yan et al. 2006) ......................................83
Figure 24: Relative proportion of light rare earth elements in Bayan Obo concentrate
(Spooner 2005) ..................................................................................................85
Figure 25: Relative proportion of light rare earth elements in Maoniuping concentrate...87
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List of tables
Table 1: Categorisation of rare earth elements (Hedrick 2010) ........................................... 15

Table 2: Beneficiation process in Bayan Obo...................................................................... 33
Table 3: Processing of mixed rare earth concentrate in Bayan Obo .................................... 35
Table 4: Separation and refining processes in Bayan Obo .................................................. 36
Table 5: Beneficiation process in Maoniuping .................................................................... 39
Table 6: Processing of rare earth concentrate in Maoniuping ............................................. 41
Table 7: Summary of the mining and comminution processes modelling........................... 46
Table 8: Summary of the beneficiation modelling .............................................................. 46
Table 9: Summary of the stoichiometric coefficients in Bayan Obo ................................... 50
Table 10: Summary of the beneficiation modelling in Maoniuping .................................... 53
Table 11: Summary of the mining and comminution processes modelling in Maoniuping 53
Table 12: Summary of the stoichiometric coefficients in Maoniuping ............................... 56
Table 13: Required inputs for the different stages ............................................................... 58
Table 14: Emission to the air during processes in Bayan Obo ............................................ 59
Table 15: Outputs discharged .............................................................................................. 59
Table 16: Impact indicator for global warming ................................................................... 62
Table 17: Impact indicator for acidification ........................................................................ 63
Table 18: Impact indicator for eutrophication ..................................................................... 64
Table 19: Impact indicator for radioactive waste generation............................................... 64
Table 20: Impact indicator for land use ............................................................................... 65
Table 21: Impact indicator for toxicity in wastewater ......................................................... 66
Table 22: Assumptions analysis........................................................................................... 69
Table 23: Calculation of the chemical inputs for Bayan Obo .............................................. 88
Table 24: Calculation of the chemical outputs for Bayan Obo ............................................ 89
Table 25: Calculation of the chemical inputs for Maoniuping ............................................ 91
Table 26: Calculation of the chemical outputs for Maoniuping .......................................... 92
Table 27: CO2 emissions for mining operations ................................................................. 94
Table 28: CO2 emissions from electricity use ..................................................................... 94
Table 29: Calculation of the SO2 emissions ........................................................................ 95
Table 30: Acidification potential characterisation factors (Azapagic 2011) ....................... 95
Table 31: Acidification potential of different chemicals ..................................................... 95
Table 32: Eutrophication potential characterisation factors (Azapagic 2011)..................... 96
Table 33: Eutrophication potential of different chemicals .................................................. 96
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Table 34: Activity in waste slag........................................................................................... 97
Table 35: Activity in wastewater ......................................................................................... 97
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List of abbreviations
GWh gigawatt-hour (109 Wh)

kWh kilowatt-hour (103 Wh)
MWh megawatt-hour (106 Wh)
Mt megatonne (106 t)
LCA life cycle assessment
LCI life cycle inventory
LCIA life cycle impact assessment
REE(s) rare earth element(s)
REO(s) rare earth oxide(s)
t tonne
tpd tonne per day
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1. Introduction
1.1. Background information
Rare earth elements (abbreviated as REE, also called rare earth metals) are a group
of 17 chemical elements. They are all part of the third column of the periodic table and
possess therefore similar chemical and physical features (Hedrick 2000).
They are divided into two groups: light REEs and heavy REEs.
Table 1 gives information on REEs and the group to which they belong.
Table 1: Categorisation of rare earth elements (Hedrick 2010)
Chemical element Abbreviation Atomic Number Category
Scandium Sc 21 None 1
Lanthanum La 57
Cerium Ce 58
Praseodymium Pr 59
Neodymium Nd 60
Light REEs
Promethium Pm 61
Samarium Sm 62
Europium Eu 63
Gadolinium Gd 64
Yttrium Y 39
Terbium Tb 65
Dysprosium Dy 66
Holmium Ho 67
Heavy REEs
Erbium Er 68
Thulium Tm 69
Ytterbium Yb 70
Lutetium Lu 71
1
Scandium has physical properties that make it impossible to classify as either light
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REEs have become topical because they are found in many technological
applications of daily life and notably many green technologies such as wind turbines,
recyclable batteries, electric vehicles or compact fluorescent lamps (see 2.5).
Since these elements are common in modern life, this report considers the impacts
of extracting and producing REEs.
REEs exist in several forms (rare earth chlorides, metals, carbonates, oxides, etc.).
However, only rare earth oxides (and rare earth metal to a lesser extent) are of interest for
industrial applications (Kingsnorth 2010).
1.2. Aim of the study

The aim of this study is to assess some of the environmental impacts related to the
production of rare earth oxides (REOs).
1.3. Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows:
- describe precisely the rare earth market (e.g. production, applications)
- select the most representative mines
- refine the scope of the study
- develop a model representing the processes taking place in these mines
- determine a suitable method for measuring the impacts
- assess both quantitatively and qualitatively the environmental impacts
1.4. Approach
In order to complete the objectives, the study was decomposed into several parts.
Firstly, an extensive literature review was carried out with the aim of collecting
information on REEs, their minerals, the REE market and their applications. Based on this
literature review, it was possible to define the scope of the study and single out two mines
for the next step.
Secondly a further literature review was conducted to describe and understand the
processes to produce REO. This second literature review was used to help build models
representing these processes.
Thirdly, life cycle assessment was applied to the models developed in the previous
section using data extracted from the literature.
Finally, the results were discussed.
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2. Information on rare earth elements
2.1. How rare are rare earths?
Although they are called rare earths, some of these elements are quite abundant in
the Earth’s crust (Ce is the 25th most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust) and the
scarcest of them (Tm and Lu) are even 200 times more abundant than gold (Hedrick 2000;
Haxel 2002).
One REE, promethium, is a radioactive element with a half-life of 17.7 years for its
main isotope. As a result, it does not exist naturally.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrate the abundance of REEs both relatively to other
elements and quantitatively.
Figure 1: Relative abundance of chemical elements in the Earth's crust (Haxel 2002)
17
70
Concentration in the Earth's crust (ppm) 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 2: Concentrations of rare earth elements in the Earth’s crust (Tyler 2004)
2.2. Description of the main rare earth minerals

According to Kanazawa and Kamitani, around 200 different types of rare earth
minerals have been reported (Kanazawa and Kamitani 2006). However, in practice, the
extraction of REEs relies primarily on four different minerals:
• Bastnaesite
• Monazite
• Xenotime
• Ion adsorption clays
This is notably due to their high contents of REO. These four minerals account for
90% of economic production of REEs (Roskill 2007).
2.2.1. Bastnaesite
Bastnaesite is a fluorocarbonate with the following formula: ReFCO32. The grade of
REES in bastnaesite is up to 75%3.
Bastnaesite is the primary source of light REO (primarily lanthanum, cerium,
praseodymium and neodymium oxides) and accounts for more than 80% of the overall
amount of REO in the world (Kanazawa and Kamitani 2006; Roskill 2007; Naumov
2008).
Figure 3 illustrates the abundance of the main REEs in bastnaesite.
2
From this point on, the symbol Re represents a rare earth atom.
3
The grade of a mineral is defined as the mass fraction of the REEs in the ore.
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% among rare earth elementss in 60 USA, Moutain Pass
China, Baiyun Obo

50
40
bastnaesite
30
20
10
0
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium
Figure 3: Contents of the main rare earth elements in bastnaesite for two mines (Kingsnorth 2010)
2.2.2. Monazite
Monazite is a rare earth phosphate that contains up to 70% REEs (formula: RePO4).
With bastnaesite, it represents the most important source of light REEs. Until 1965,
monazite was the main source of REEs.
It was historically produced as a by-product of sand exploitation. However,
nowadays, the production of REEs from monazite has been considerably reduced because
of radioactivity caused by thorium and radium impurities (ThO2 has a concentration of
6-7% in monazite produced from mineral sand operations) (Roskill 2007; Naumov 2008;
Kingsnorth 2010).
Figure 4 illustrates the abundance of the main REEs in monazite.
19
50
% among rare earth elements in monazite 45
Mt Weld, Australia
India
40
Guandong, China
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Samarium
Figure 4: Contents of the main rare earth elements in monazite for three deposits (Kingsnorth 2010)
2.2.3. Xenotime
Xenotime is a phosphate which is composed primarily of yttrium (YPO4). This
mineral contains generally around 55% of REO. Moreover, it contains a particularly high
rate of heavy REEs which makes it valuable.
This mineral occurs usually in rocks that also contain uranium and thorium.
Historically, it was produced as a by-product of tin mining in Malaysia, Indonesia and
Thailand (Alex et al. 1998; Roskill 2007)
Figure 5 illustrates the abundance of the main REEs in xenotime.
70
% among rare earths in xenotime
Lahat Perak, Malaysia

60
Guangdong, China
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 5: Contents of the main rare earth elements in xenotime (Kingsnorth 2010)
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2.2.4. Ion Adsorption Clays
These minerals are peculiar to the Jiangxi province of southern China. They are the
result of the weathering of two minerals: xenotime and apatite.
Although they have a very small content of REEs (0.05% to 0.2%) (Kanazawa and
Kamitani 2006), these clays are particularly interesting because they contain relatively
high contents of heavy REEs compared to other rare earth minerals. (Roskill 2007;
Kingsnorth 2010).
Another advantage of these minerals is that they can be easily mined and
processed4. Besides, they contain very few radioactive elements (Kanazawa and Kamitani
2006).
However, as illustrated in the following figure, even though they come from the
same geographical area, their contents of REEs vary significantly.
Figure 6 illustrates the abundance of the main REEs in ionic clays.
70
Xunwu, Jiangxi, China
% among rare earths in ionic clays
60
Lognan, Jiangxi, China
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 6: Contents of the main rare earth elements in Chinese ionic clays (Kingsnorth 2010)
4
The processing of ion adsorption clays does not require any milling and REOs are
produced by a simple method (Kanazawa and Kamitani 2006).
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2.3. Description of the rare earth reserves
In 2011, it was estimated that the total recoverable resource amounts approximately
140 Mt (USGS 2011).
The economically viable reserves of REEs are summarised in Figure 7.
Australia Brazil
1.6 Mt 48,000 t
1% 0%
United States
Other countries
13 Mt
22 Mt
12%
19%
Malaysia
30,000 t China
0% 55 Mt
48%
India
3.1 Mt
3%
Commonwealth of
Independent
States
19 Mt
17%
Figure 7: Breakdown of the economically viable rare earth resource (USGS 2011)
2.4. Historical production of rare earth oxide

REOs were first produced in the 1880s with the mining of monazite in Sweden and
Norway. Their first industrial application was in the Welsbach incandescent lamp mantle
in 1884. The production of REOs in the USA began in 1903 with the mining of monazite
in South Carolina.
Over the first half of the last century, the production remained quite low. It then
increased due to the discovery of new applications such as catalysts to crack crude oil into
petroleum.
Until the 1960s, the production of REEs from placer monazite took mainly place in
the southeast of the USA. It was then abandoned due to its high content of thorium
(Hedrick 2000).
Then, the production moved to a major deposit located at Mountain Pass,
California. This mine was in operation from 1965 until the mid 1990s and over this period
only bastnaesite was processed in Mountain Pass. At Mountain Pass, the reserves of REEs
are still over 20 million tonnes with an average grade of rare earth minerals of 8.9%
(Castor and Hedrick 2006).
Through the 1990s, China’s exports grew importantly causing American production
to be undercut. Most of the Chinese production comes from Bayan Obo deposit (Inner
Mongolia, China) which represents the largest known REE resource in the world. In this
22
mine, both bastnaesite and monazite are processed (Castor and Hedrick 2006; Hurst
2010).
Figure 8 illustrates the growth in the production of REOs over the 20th century.
160,000
140,000
120,000
Production (tonne)
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Figure 8: Global production of rare earth oxide (USGS 2010)
Figure 9 illustrates the great periods of REE exploitation from 1950.
Figure 9: World production of rare earth oxides from 1950 to 2000 (Haxel 2002)
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2.5. Description of the main applications of the rare earth elements
This section is entirely based on the two following works:
- Roskill 2007
- Schüler et al. 2011
Figure 10 describes the world demand of REEs in 2006.
Other
8%
Phosphors
9%
Catalyst
21%
Magnets
20%
Glass, Polishing,
Ceramics
25%
Metal Alloys
17%
Figure 10: Global rare earth consumption in 2006 (Roskill 2007)
2.5.1. Magnets
There are two main kinds of rare earth magnets: neodymium-iron-boron magnets
and samarium-cobalt magnets. Neodymium-iron-boron (Nd2Fe14B) magnets are the
strongest available magnets. In addition to neodymium, they comprise other REEs:
praseodymium (30% the amount of neodymium) and dysprosium (3% the amount of
neodymium).
This market is growing very quickly since its average annual growth was 25%
between 1986 and 2006. This growth is driven by three main applications: electric motors
for hybrid and electric vehicles, generators in wind turbines and computer hard disks.
Moreover, several other applications requires neodymium magnets such as:
- loudspeakers, earphones and microphones
- MRIs scanners
- electric bicycles
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2.5.2. Catalyst
REEs are used as catalysts in the automobile industry, petroleum refinery and
chemical processing. REEs are use for the following applications:
- automotive catalysts and diesel additives (cerium)
- fluid cracking catalyst for the petroleum industry (cerium, lanthanum)
In the automobile industry, cerium is used to:
- reduce nitrogen oxide into nitrogen and water
- oxide CO to CO2
2.5.3. Glass, polishing, ceramics

2.5.3.1. Glass polishing
Thanks to its specific properties of physical and chemical abrasion cerium is
massively used to produce high-quality glass for the following markets:
- mirrors
- televisions and monitors
- panel displays
- glass platters in hard disks
This sector represents 13% of the global REE consumption. Its growth rate follows
that of plasma displays, LCDs and computer monitors.
2.5.3.2. Glass additives
REEs are used as glass additives for the following applications:
- colouring of glass (cerium for yellow and brown, neodymium for red,
erbium for pink)
- decolouring of glass (cerium)
- UV-resistant glass (e.g. for glass bottles, sunglasses, solar cells) (cerium)
- optical lenses, filters or coating (lanthanum, gadolinium, praseodymium)
This sector represents 12% of the global REE consumption. The growth of this
market is mainly driven by the growth in optical applications (e.g. digital cameras,
security cameras, mobile phones).
2.5.3.3. Ceramics
REEs are used in ceramics for the following applications:
- ceramic capacitors and semiconductors (lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium,
neodymium)
- superconductors (yttrium)
- dental ceramics (cerium)
- refractory materials (cerium, yttrium)
- laser (yttrium)
This sector represents 5% of the global REE consumption.
The growth of electronics results in an increase of the demand of REEs for ceramic
uses.
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2.5.4. Metal alloys
REEs are used in metal alloys for different applications. They bring new properties
to the metal they are mixed with. They can be used in:
- pyrophoric alloys (cerium, lanthanum)
- high-performance alloys to improve their performances (lanthanum, cerium,
yttrium)
- solid state storage of hydrogen in metallic matrixes
- scandium-aluminium alloys used in military aviation
- lanthanum-nickel alloys in Ni-MH batteries
2.5.5. Phosphors and luminescence
REEs are inserted into crystals of various natures in order to give them
luminescence properties. Depending on the wavelength expected, it is possible to choose
between cerium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, erbium, thulium
or lutetium.
As a result, these REEs are used in mainly two fields: energy saving lighting and
display technologies. They are found in the following applications
- compact fluorescent lamps (energy saving lamps)
- fluorescent tubes
- LEDs and OLEDs
- electroluminescent foils
- plasma displays
- LCDs
The growth in this sector is driven by:
- the general growth in the lighting demand (7% per year from 2004 to 2011)
- the replacement of incandescent bulbs in many countries by among other
compact fluorescent lamps and halogen lamps
- the growth of the LED market
- the replacement of cathode-ray tubes by plasma displays and LCDs
2.5.6. Other
Many other applications require REEs:
- agricultural use of REEs in phosphate fertiliser (cerium, lanthanum)
- Ni-MH batteries (lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium)
- solid oxide fuel cell electrolytes (yttrium)
- neutron absorbers in nuclear reactors (europium, gadolinium)
- waste water treatment (cerium)
26
3. Production of rare earth elements
3.1. World production of rare earth elements
Since the end of the 1990s, China has been the main producer of REEs in the world.
In 2010, its official production amounted to 130,000 tonnes of REOs while the second
and third largest producers (respectively India and Brazil) produced, respectively, 2,700
tonnes and 550 tonnes of REOs (USGS 2011).
As a result, the main REE mines and processing plants are to be found in China.
Figure 11 summarises the global production of REEs:
Brazil
550 t
1%
Malaysia
350 t
China India
0%
130,000 t 2,700 t
97% 2%
Figure 11: Global production of rare earth oxides in 2010 (USGS 2011)
3.2. Chinese production of rare earths

The Chinese production of REEs takes place in three different areas: Inner
Mongolia, Sichuan province, and seven southern provinces.
3.2.1. Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia houses the largest deposit of REEs in the world, namely Bayan Obo
deposit. It accounts for 80% of the Chinese reserve of REEs (Crédit Suisse 2011; Schüler
et al. 2011).
However, it appears that the precise amount of the REO resources contained in this
deposit varies according to the measurement method: the reserve ranges from 28 million
tonnes of REO (USGS classification) to 44 million tonnes (Chinese classification) (Crédit
Suisse 2011). The definitions of the different classifications are given in Appendix 1.
In Bayan Obo, REOs are produced as a by-product of iron ore whose reserve
amounts to 1.46 billion tonnes (Spooner 2005; Roskill 2007).
The REOs mined in Bayan Obo are composed primarily of light REEs that
represent 97% of the whole rare earth minerals. The rare earth minerals are concentrated
in two different minerals: bastnaesite and monazite (there is about 2.5 as much bastnaesite
as monazite) (Huang et al. 2005; Crédit Suisse 2011).
27
Figure 12 illustrates the composition of rare earth mineral in Bayan Obo’s ore.
Figure 12: Breakdown of rare earth oxide-content at Bayan Obo (Crédit Suisse 2011)
This deposit is owned by one state-owned company called Baotou Steel Rare Earth
Group Hi-Tech Co, Ltd (Baotou Rare Earth). It is a fully integrated company (from
mining operations to the production of REOs).
Besides, the Chinese Ministry of Land and Resources has decided to restructure the
industry of REE production in Inner Mongolia. As a result, Baotou Rare Earth will soon
become the only company extracting and producing REEs from the Bayan Obo deposit
(Crédit Suisse 2011; Global Times 2011).
In 2010, Baotou Rare Earth produced 62,400 t of REO (Crédit Suisse 2011).
3.2.2. Sichuan province
The second largest deposit of bastnaesite mineral in China is located in the county
of Mianning (Sichuan Province). This deposit is called Maoniuping after the name of a
surrounding city.
It is estimated to contain 3% of Chinese reserves of REO. This represents 1.56 Mt
of REOs according to the Chinese classification (Crédit Suisse 2011; Schüler et al. 2011).
In this deposit, rare earth minerals are contained almost exclusively in bastnaesite
(Tse 2011).
Since Bayan Obo’s ore is composed of approximately 70% bastnaesite, the content
of REEs in the Maoniuping’s ore is quite similar to Bayan Obo’s.
28
Figure 13 illustrates the composition in REEs of the bastnaesite in Maoniuping:
Figure 13: Bastnaesite content of rare earth elements at Maoniuping (Spooner 2005)
The REO production in Maoniuping accounts for 24% of China’s total production,
i.e., approximately 31,200 tonnes, in 2010 (Crédit Suisse 2011; Tse 2011; Wong and Li
2011).
As in Bayan Obo, the mining operations are controlled by a single company named
Jiangxi Copper (JXC Group) (Crédit Suisse 2011).
3.2.3. Southern Provinces
The seven southern provinces that contribute to the production of Chinese REEs
are: Jiangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Guangxi, Hunan, Yunnan and Zhejiang. They represent
the majority of China’s production of heavy REEs (Crédit Suisse 2011).
In these provinces, REEs are found in ionic clays which are composed at 90% of
heavy REEs. Figure 14 illustrates the content of ionic clay.
Figure 14: Ionic clay content of rare earth elements at Longnan (Crédit Suisse 2011)
29
The production of REEs from Chinese ionic clays was approximately 36,000 tonnes
in 2010 representing 28% of the China’s REE production (Crédit Suisse 2011; Tse 2011).
3.2.4. Summary of Chinese rare earth production

Figure 15 was drawn to summarise the information in the previous sections. It
shows the distribution of the REE production between the different Chinese regions.
Maoniuping
24%
Bayan Obo
48%
Southern
Provinces
28%
Figure 15: Distribution of the Chinese production of rare earths in 2010
Light REEs account for 72% of Chinese REE production. Since Chinese production
amounted to 97% of the global production, light REEs represented at least 70% of the
REEs produced globally in 2010.
As a result, since the production of light REEs from bastnaesite takes place only in
Bayan Obo and in Sichuan province, these two regions will be subsequently analysed.
3.3. Prospective other productions

In response to the introduction of quotas by the Chinese government and the
increase in REE prices, western companies have launched important projects that aim at
supplementing the Chinese production. Among these projects, two are particularly
significant because:
• they are both very large (production > 20,000 tonnes of REOs per year)
• they are in the final stages of development and, are planned to open in the
next two years
3.3.1. Mount Weld, Australia

Mount Weld is located in southwestern Australia. This deposit is own by Lynas
Corporation Ltd which is an Australian REE mining company. Mount Weld is estimated
to include 1.4 Mt of REO contained mainly in monazite (i.e. composed primarily of light
REEs) (Crédit Suisse 2011).
30
purification of REEs) will be carried out in Malaysia by a subsidiary of Lynas (Lynas
Malaysia).
The production will start at 11,000 t of REO p.a. and increase up to 22,000 t of REO
p.a (British Geological Survey 2011; Schüler et al. 2011).
3.3.2. Mountain Pass, USA

Mountain Pass is the deposit from which the REEs were historically produced for
several years. It was undercut by the Chinese production in the 1990s and was not
operating since then. Mountain Pass contains 4.3 Mt of REO in bastnaesite minerals.
It is now own by a company named Molycorp which plans to reopen the mines in
2012. Like Lynas in Australia, Molycorp will produce 20,000 t p.a. when operating at full
capacity. Thanks to the existing facilities, the mining and the processing will be carried
out on the same site (Hurst 2010; British Geological Survey 2011; Crédit Suisse 2011;
Schüler et al. 2011).
31
4. Scope refining
To limit the scope of this project, it was decided to focus only on the production of
light REEs since they account for the majority of world REE production.
Since Chinese production represented 97% of 2010 global production, it was
decided that concentrating on this production would give an accurate perspective of the
present environmental impacts of producing light REOs.
Finally, as explained in section 3.2.4, China’s light REEs come only from two
deposits: Bayan Obo and Maoniuping. As a result, the scope of the study was defined to
the assessment of environmental impacts of producing light REO in both Bayan Obo and
Maoniuping deposits.
5. Bayan Obo deposit

5.1. Description of the deposit
The Bayan Obo deposit (Inner Mongolia, China) is located 80 km south of the
Mongolian border.
The principal ore minerals are bastnaesite and monazite (rare earth minerals),
pyrochlore (Nb), magnetite and hematite (Fe) (Campbell and Henderson 1997).
In Bayan Obo, REEs were produced from more than twenty sites since the
beginning of the mining in 1957. The two largest deposits are the Main and East ore
bodies with a REE grade of 5.14% and 5.18% respectively5. The Bayan Obo ore is hosted
in dolomite (Castor and Hedrick 2006).
The mining operations are carried out using electric shovels and rail haulage at a
rate of 15,000 tonnes of rock per day from the two large open pits (Castor and Hedrick
2006).
5.2. Composition of the original ore

Baotou’s rock is complex and its composition varies significantly from one place to
another. Therefore it is not possible to give the composition of this ore in general.
However, it is possible to look at some specific elements (Drew et al. 1990; Castor and
Hedrick 2006):
- iron: average grade of 35%
- REOs: average grade of 6%
- niobium: average grade of 0.13%
- fluorite (CaF2): average grade of 9%
- barium oxide (BaO): average grade of 2.4%
5.3. Description of the beneficiation process

The beneficiation process is described in Table 2. For each stage of this process, a
description is given as well as the sources of the information.
5
These grades are surprisingly lower than the average rare earth grade (6%), this
may be because in Bayan Obo, REO are produced as a by-product of iron.
32
Table 2: Beneficiation process in Bayan Obo
Stage Purpose Process description Reference
o Schüler et al. 2011

o Cheng et al. 2007
Crushing • Crushing of 90% of the • The ore is crushed and ground in a mill o Guy et al. 2000
resulting particles to < 74 µm o Ren et al. 1997
o Drew et al. 1990
• Recovery of silicates and iron minerals (magnetite
Fe3O4 and hematite Fe2O3) from the bottom of the
flotation cell for ion beneficiation and niobium recovery
Bulk • Separation of rare earth minerals
• pH regulation by Na2CO3 o Gupta and Krishnamurthy 2005
flotation6 and the gangue from the other
valuable minerals • Depressant action by Na 2 SiO 3
• Collection of rare earth minerals and gangue by
sodium salt of oxidised petroleum (paraffin soap)
• Removal of the surplus paraffin - o Hout, et al. 1991

Thickening
soap and desliming at 5 µm o Gupta and Krishnamurthy 2005
• pH regulation by Na2CO3
Selective • Separation of rare earth minerals o Gupta and Krishnamurthy 2005
• Depressant action by Na2SiF6 and Na2SiO3
rare earth from calcite (CaCO3), fluorite o Ren, et al. 2003
(CaF2) and barite (BaSO4) • Collection of rare earth minerals by hydroxamic acid
flotation6 (paraffin soap) o Ferron, et al. 1991
minerals
o Gupta and Krishnamurthy 2005
Cleaning • Concentration of rare earth • Thickening, filtering and drying of the resulting slurry o British Geological Survey 2010
minerals o Wang, et al. 2010
6
The flotation process is described further in Appendix 2
33
5.4. Composition of the mixed rare earth concentrate
Figure 16 illustrates the composition of the mixed rare earth concentrate obtained
after the beneficiation process.
MnO
0.48%
CaO
5.11%
CO2
SiO2 11.91%
1.28%
P2O5
8.22%
F REO
6.96% 60.94%
Fe2O3
4.82%
ThO2
0.18%
Figure 16: Composition by weight of the mixed bastnaesite-monazite concentrate (Wang et al. 2002)
5.5. Processing of the mixed rare earth concentrate

5.5.1. Hydrometallurgy: acidic method
An acidic method is used to process 90% of the product of Bayan Obo. It consists in
the roasting and leaching of the concentrate with sulphuric acid (Schüler et al. 2011).
Table 3 summarises the hydrometallurgy processes at Bayan Obo.
5.5.1. Separation and refining
Table 4 describes the processes of separation and refining leading to the production
of REOs.
5.6. Obtaining of rare earth oxides

A tonne of REOs produced in Bayan Obo is composed as described in Figure 17.
34
Table 3: Processing of mixed rare earth concentrate in Bayan Obo
Stage Purpose Process description Reference

• Mixing of rare earth concentrate and 98% sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) in a rotary kiln at 500°C for 4 hours. o Schüler, et al. 2011
• Removal of CO2,
• Reactions for bastnaesite: o Huang, et al. 2005
Sulphatising phosphate and fluoride ReFCO3  ReFO + CO2
• Conversion of rare o Gupta and Krishnamurthy 2005
roasting 2 ReFO + 3 H2SO4Re2(SO4)3 +2 HF +2 H2O
earth minerals into rare o Nguyen, et al. 2002
earth sulphates • Reactions for monazite: o Wang, et al. 2010
2 RePO4 + 3 H2SO4  Re2(SO4)3 + 2 H3PO4
o Todorovsky, et al. 1993

• Decantation of the mixture to remove the solid o Roskill 2007
Removal of • Filtration and leaching with water o Schüler, et al. 2011
impurities • Removal of impurities • Obtaining of a pure rare earth sulphate solution o Kul, et al. 2008
o Nguyen, et al. 2002
• Rinsing of rare earth sulphates with bicarbonates o Nguyen, et al. 2002

• Selective precipitation
Carbonate and recovery of the rare NH4HCO3 in an acid solution: o Schüler, et al. 2011
precipitation earth sulphates into Re2(SO4)3+ 6 NH4HCO3  Re2(CO3)3 + 3 (NH4)2SO4 o Kul, et al. 2008
+ 3 CO2 + 3 H2O o Abreu and Morais 2010
carbonate precipitate
• Transformation of rare • Rinsing with hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Acid earth carbonate • Transformation to rare earth chlorides: o Schüler, et al. 2011
leaching precipitate into rare earth Re2(CO3)3 + 6 HCl  2 ReCl3 + 3 H2CO3 o Huang, et al. 2005
chlorides
35
Table 4: Separation and refining processes in Bayan Obo
Step Purpose Process description Reference

• The liquid-liquid extraction is carried out using 2-
ethylhexylphosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester (also
named HEH(EHP), EHEHPA or P 507) in a HCl medium. o Schüler, et al. 2011
Solvent • Separation of REEs
• Complexation reaction: o Fontana and Pietrelli 2009
Extraction7 from each other
Re3+ + 3 (HX)2  ReX6H3 + 3 H+ o Sato 1989
HX referring to P507
• The separated rare earth solution is precipitated by
• Separation of rare ammonium bicarbonate (NH4)HCO3 or oxalic acid C2H2O4 o Qiu, et al. 2010
Precipitation earth complexes from • Chemical reactions: o Schüler, et al. 2011
the solvent 2 ReCl3 + 3 C2H2O4  Re2(C2O4)3 + 6 HCl
• The precipitates are heated in order to oxidise them into
Production of • Oxidation of the REO
• Oxidation reaction: o Schüler, et al. 2011
REO precipitate
Re2(C2O4)3 + 3/2 O2  Re2O3 + 6 CO2 8
7
The solvent extraction process is described further in Appendix 3
8
The oxidation reactions depend on the rare earth concerned:
- for La, Nd and Sm: Re2(C2O4)3 + 3/2 O2  Re2O3 + 6 CO2
- for Ce: Ce2(C2O4)3 + 2 O2  2 CeO2 + 6 CO2
- for Pr: 3 Pr2C2O4 + 11/2 O2  Pr6O11 + 6 CO2
36
La2O3
235.4 kg
Pr6O11
51.2 kg
Nd2O3
CeO2 184.2 kg
512.8 kg
Sm2O3
16.4 kg
Figure 17: Composition of a tonne of rare earth oxides produced from Bayan Obo ore
(Spooner 2005)
6. Maoniuping deposit
6.1. Description of the deposit
Maoniuping deposit is located at 22 km southwest of the Mianning county town
(Sichuan Province, China). The soil is composed mainly of granite (K-feldspar granite
and alkali feldspar granite).
Among rare earth minerals, bastnaesite is the most important in this deposit
(Wu et al. 1997). The average grade of REEs in this deposit is about 4%. This deposit
contains also manganese (Mn) (2-10%), lead (Pb) and aluminium (Al) among other
minerals (Zhu et al. 2000).
Maoniuping is the second largest deposit of light REEs in China after Bayan Obo
(Xu et al. 2003).
37
6.2. Composition of the original ore
Figure 18 illustrates the composition of the ore in Maoniuping deposit.
TiO2
SO3
0.28
3.9
BaO
Al2O3 1.89
16.3
CaO
1.3
CO2
SiO2 3.77
36
F
Fe2O3 1.29
11
Rare earths H2O

4.34 6.22
Pb K2O
1.97 MnO
3.89 3.78
P2O5 Na2O MgO
0.64 0.4 3.03
Figure 18: Composition of the ore in Maoniuping’s mineral (Zhu et al. 2000)
6.3. Description of the beneficiation process

The process of beneficiation in Maoniuping is described in Table 5.
38
Table 5: Beneficiation process in Maoniuping
• Reduction of the
size of the particles so • The ore is crushed and ground in a mill o Schüler, et al. 2011
Crushing
as to increase the o Zhu, et al. 2000
surface of reaction
Gravity • Separation and o Schüler, et al. 2011

-
separation recovery of certain o Yang and Woolley 2006
valuable minerals
Selective rare • Separation of rare - o Schüler, et al. 2011

earth flotation earth minerals from
the gangue
• The resulting slurry is thickened, filtered and dried o Gupta and Krishnamurthy 2005
• Recovery of rare • The overall recovery of REEs lies between 80 and o British Geological Survey 2010
Cleaning
earth concentrate 85% and the concentrate contains up to 70% REEs o Wang, et al. 2010
o Li and Zeng 2003
39
6.4. Processing of the mixed rare earth concentrate
6.4.1. Hydrometallurgy: acidic method
Table 6 summarises the hydrometallurgy processes at Maoniuping.
6.4.2. Separation and refining operations

The separation and refining operations in Maoniuping are the same as those in
Bayan Obo (see 5.5.1) (Schüler et al. 2011).
6.5. Obtaining of rare earth oxides

A tonne of REOs produced in Maoniuping is composed as described in Figure 19.
La2O3
296.1 kg
Pr6O11
CeO2 46.7 kg
510.1 kg Nd2O3
131.8 kg
Sm2O3
15.2 kg
Figure 19: Composition of a tonne of rare earth oxides produced from Maoniuping ore
(Spooner 2005)
40
Table 6: Processing of rare earth concentrate in Maoniuping
• The concentrate is mixed with 98% sulphuric acid o Schüler, et al. 2011
• Removal of CO2
(H2SO4) in a rotary kiln at 500°C for 4 hours o Huang, et al. 2005
Sulphatising and fluoride
• Reactions: o Nguyen, et al. 2002
roasting • Conversion of rare
ReFCO3  ReFO + CO2 o Wang, et al. 2010
earth minerals into
ReFO + H2SO4Re2(SO4)3 +2 HF +2 H2O o Gupta and Krishnamurthy 2005
rare earth sulphates
• The mixture is decanted to remove the solid o Todorovsky, et al. 1993

• The solution is filtered and leached with water o Roskill 2007
Removal of • Removal of • A pure rare earth sulphate solution is obtained (this o Schüler, et al. 2011
impurities impurities solution contains around 40g/L of rare earth o Kul, et al. 2008
sulphates) o Nguyen, et al. 2002
• Selective • REEs are leached with sodium sulphates (at o Nguyen, et al. 2002
Sulphate precipitation and pH 1.5) o Schüler, et al. 2011
precipitation recovery of the rare • Precipitation reaction: o Kul, et al. 2008
earth sulphates into Re3+ +Na+ + 2 SO42-  NaRe(SO4)2 o Abreu and Morais 2010
sulphate precipitate
• Rare earth carbonates are leached with
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Transformation of
• The carbonates are transformed to rare earth o Schüler, et al. 2011
Acid Leaching rare earth carbonate chlorides
precipitate into rare o Huang, et al. 2005
earth chlorides • Chlorination reaction
NaRe(SO4)2 + HCl  ReCl3 + Na+ + 3 H+ + 2 SO42-
41
Life Cycle assessment (LCA)
7. Life cycle assessment methodology

A cradle-to-gate methodology rather than full cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment
(LCA) was used since it allowed restriction of the scope of this study. The cradle to gate
approach defines the boundaries as “from raw material to factory gate”. In this case, it
was indeed from raw material to REO output, without consideration of the fate of the
numerous products made with REEs.
In conformity with LCA methodology, this LCA is composed of the following
sections:
- Goal and Scope definition
- Life Cycle Inventory
- Life Cycle Impact Assessment
- Life Cycle Interpretation
Firstly, the goal and scope section exposes the reasons why the LCA is carried out
as well as defines the boundaries of the LCA.
Secondly, the life cycle inventory aims at determining the inputs and outputs of
material or energy that are required by the different processes. This phase is based on a
meticulous modelling of these processes.
Thirdly, the life cycle impact assessment classifies and characterises the results of
the life cycle inventory to come up with a quantitative estimate of environmental impacts.
Finally, the life cycle interpretation draws conclusion on the LCA based on the three
first steps. It helps analysing the results as well as the gaps in the study.
8. Goal definition and scope

8.1. Goal of the life cycle assessment
The goal of the LCA is to establish baseline information for the processes taking
place in the two biggest deposits of light REEs and resulting in the production of REO.
This baseline consists of energy and chemical requirements, waste generation and
pollution.
This study should be looked at as starting points for people aiming at:
- carrying out the full life cycle assessment of lanthanum, cerium,
praseodymium or neodymium products
- studying the environmental impacts of a product containing these REEs
- studying the two deposits that are scrutinised here
- carrying out a similar study for a different mineral
- gaining knowledge about REEs
The intended audience is whoever is interested in the requirements and impacts of
producing REOs.
42
8.2. Level of specificity
Although this study focuses precisely on two mines, it uses specific data when
available and average data otherwise. Due to the lack of available information, a high
level of accuracy is not to be expected. The results should rather be considered as giving
realistic orders of magnitude of the energy and chemical consumption, waste generation
and pollution emissions.
8.3. Display of results

Throughout the LCA, the results are expressed “per tonne of REOs” (except where
otherwise stated). This means that the amounts are estimated for a final production of one
tonne of REO.
8.4. Scope of the life cycle assessment

The study is not a full life cycle assessment, it is composed of two stages: raw
material acquisition and materials manufacture. It focuses on the mining, beneficiation
and refining operations to obtain REOs. These boundaries are in accordance with the
scope defined in section 4.
Besides, the study takes into consideration only primary activities that contribute to
extracting and transforming the mineral. It does not considerate activities that contribute
to making the primary activities possible.
8.5. Guideline to life cycle assessment methodology

In order to carry out this study according to international standards, a main
guideline was followed as meticulously as possible:
- Life cycle assessment: principles and practice by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (Curran 2006)
9. Process Modelling:
The processes described in the previous sections were modelled in order to calculate
the amount of inputs and outputs required by the production of REOs.
In order to simplify the understanding, the processes of Bayan Obo were firstly
modelled and then the processes of Maoniuping were modelled.
9.1. Bayan Obo deposit

The calculations are explained in Appendix 4.
9.1.1. Mining
On the one hand, there are two different kinds of inputs: energy to fuel the
machinery and explosives. On the other hand, there are two different types of outputs:
valuable minerals and waste rocks.
Before modelling the mining operation, consideration is given to the mining rate.
The results and assumptions are summarised in Table 7.
43
9.1.1.1. Mining rate
The mining rate is the rate of rock extraction, it is expressed in tonnes per day (tpd).
Assuming that mining rate in the Bayan Obo deposit increased proportionally to the
REO production, the mining rate of 15,000 tonnes per day (tpd) in 2006 (Castor and
Hedrick 2006) can be used to estimate the mining rate in 2010.
As a result, it is estimated that the Bayan Obo mining rate was about 16,200 tpd
in 2010.
9.1.1.2. Energy requirement
Due to a lack of public data, it was not possible to estimate the energy consumption
of the mining operations directly.
However, the order of magnitude of the energy consumption is provided in the
Mining Engineering Handbook, which estimates that surface mining operations require 5
to 10 kWh per tonne of rock handled (Nilsson 1992).
Thus, considering 7.5 kWh per tonne of rock handled (middle figure between 5 and
10 kWh), it is estimated that the annual quantity of energy consumed in the mining
operations amounts to 44.3 GWh.
Assuming that the mining operations are carried out with machinery (trucks,
shovel…), this amount of energy is provided with fuel.
9.1.1.3. Explosives input

In the same document, Nilsson estimates that surface mining operations requires
0.14 to 0.23 kg of ammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO) 9 per tonne of blasted rock
(Nilsson 1992).
Assuming that the mining operations requires 0.2 kg of ANFO per tonne of blasted
rock, the annual quantity of ANFO for the mining operations is about 1,180 tonnes.
9.1.2. Comminution
This stage of the operations does not require any input but energy to grind and crush
and the rock to be ground and crushed. The only output is the crushed rock.
The energy requirements are estimated based on a similar rare earth mining project.
This project takes place in Thor Lake (Northwest territories of Canada), it is supposed to
start the production not before 2014. The company Avalon Rare Metals is carrying out
this project (Eriksson and Olsson 2011).
Avalon Rare Metals has estimated that 6 MW are necessary in average for the 2,000
tpd milling operations (comminution, beneficiation and hydrometallurgy)
(Cox et al. 2011).
As a result, it is estimated that the comminution, beneficiation and hydrometallurgy
operations in Bayan Obo require 426 GWh per year.
The results and assumptions of the mining and comminution sections are
summarised in Table 7.
9
ANFO is an explosive composed of ammonium nitrates (NH4NO3) and oil.
44
9.1.3. Beneficiation
During the production of concentrated bastnaesite, several different chemicals are
used to obtain the right froth flotation. Unfortunately, it was not possible to identify the
different chemicals nor to determine how long these solutions can be used before being
discarded.
However, two main other inputs have been identified for this stage: energy for the
chemical reactions and mined minerals. The outputs are of three different types:
- rare earth concentrate
- other valuable minerals (such as those containing Fe or Nb)
- tailings
Assuming a full recovery and high selectivity of the magnetic minerals (Fe and Nb)
thanks to the magnetic separation roll, the beneficiation process is described in Figure 20.
45
46
Table 7: Summary of the mining and comminution processes modelling
Stage Type Quantity Assumptions
o proportionality to REO output

o Bayan Obo represented 48% of
Mining Mining rate 16,200 tpd
the production in 2006 (as in
2010)
Energy requirement 44.3 GWh per year o mining rate assumption
Explosives 1,180 tonnes per year o mining rate assumption
Comminution, Beneficiation and o proportionality to Thor Lake

Energy requirement 426 GWh per year
Hydrometallurgy project
Table 8: Summary of the beneficiation modelling
o 75% efficiency of the

Beneficiation Rare earth concentrate produced 139,000 tonnes per year subsequent stages
o 60% recovery of REEs
o Full recovery and perfect

9.8 tonnes per tonne of rare earth
Waste rock generated selectivity of Fe and Nb
concentrate produced
minerals
Nb
1.3 kg
0%
35.1 %
Fe
350 kg
Magnetic minerals 100%
Fe 6% Rare
350 kg Earth
35% 36 kg Gangue
60% 24 kg
Rare earth 40%
Gangue concentrate
588.7 kg
59%
Rare
Rare
Earth
Gangue Earth
60 kg
564.7 kg 24 kg
6%
96% 4%
Nb 58.9 %
1.3 kg
0%
Tailings
Figure 20: Beneficiation process in Bayan Obo for one tonne of original rock
As a consequence, the processing of one tonne of original ore results in the

production of:
- 351 kg of iron and niobium (recovered to be later refined)
- 60 kg of mixed rare earth concentrate
- 589 kg of tailings
Considering the production of REO in 2010 (62,400 t) and assuming a 75%
efficiency of the overall subsequent stages (Schüler et al. 2011), it is estimated that
139,000 tonnes of mixed-rare earth concentrate were produced that year.
The results and assumptions of the beneficiation process are summarised in Table 8.
9.1.4. Hydrometallurgy and separation of rare earths

This stage was described in section 5.5. It is composed of several successive
chemical reactions.
47
For both deposits, the overall recovery rate of the separation and refining processes
is considered to be 75% (Schüler et al. 2011). It is considered that the five different
chemical reactions each have the same recovery rate rR:
!
!! = !. 75 = 94.4%
Considering that the bastnaesite/monazite ratio was 5:2 (71.4% of bastnaesite and
28.6% of monazite in Bayan Obo’s rare earth mineral) (Huang et al. 2005), each chemical
reaction was scrutinised to estimate how much of every chemical is required per rare earth
atom. This is described in the following section:
Chemical reactions
ReFCO3 RePO4
0.71 CO2 For bastnaesite:

3/2 H2SO4 0.71 HF ReFCO3  ReFO + CO2
Acidic roasting
Heat 0.71 H2O
2 ReFO + 3 H2SO4 Re2(SO4)3
0.29 H3PO4 + 2HF+2 H2O
For monazite:
Re2(SO4)3
2 RePO4 + 3 H2SO4  Re2(SO4)3
+ 2 H3PO4
3/2 (NH4)2SO4
Carbonate
3 (NH4)HCO3 3/2 CO2 Re2(SO4)3+ 6 (NH4)HCO3 
precipitation 3/2 H2O Re2(CO3)3 +3 (NH4)2SO4
+ 3 CO2 + 3 H2O
Re2(CO3)3
3 HCl Acid leaching 3/2 H2CO3 Re2(CO3)3 + 6 HCl  2 ReCl3

+ 3 H2CO3
ReCl3
Heat
Solvent extraction 3 (HX)2 ReCl3 + 3(HX)2  ReX6H3 + 3 HCl
3 (HX)2 ReX6H3 + 3 HCl  ReCl3 + 3(HX)2
48
The stoichiometric coefficients for the hydrometallurgy process are summarised in
Table 9.
9.1.5. Refining
Likewise, the estimation of the amounts of necessary chemicals for the refining
process was carried out based on the different chemical reactions.
ReCl3 Chemical reactions
2 ReCl3 + 3 C2H2O4  Re2(C2O4)3 +

3/2 C2H2O4 Precipitation 3 HCl 6 HCl
Re2(C2O4)3
Re2(C2O4)3+ 3/2O2 Re2O3+ 6 CO2 for
Heat
Oxidation 3 CO2 La, Nd & Sm
0.93 O2 Re2(C2O4)3+ 2 O2  2 ReO2 +6 CO2 for
Ce
3 Re2(C2O4)3+11/2O2Re6O11+18CO2
Rare earth oxide for Pr
The stoichiometric coefficients for the refining process are summarised in Table 9.
9.1.6. Stripping ratio
The stripping ratio is the ratio between the mass of waste rock that is generated and
the mass of mineral that goes for further processing.
The calculation of the stripping ratio is composed of three steps.
Firstly, the yearly mass (mY) recovered in Bayan Obo deposit in 2010 is calculated
from the mining rate of the mine:
!! = 16,250 ∗ 365 = 5.93 10! !"##$%
Then, the mass of mineral (mM) that is processed is calculated from the rare earth
grade of the mineral rate (6%), the production of REO in 2010 (62,400 t), the
beneficiation recovery (60%) and the recovery during subsequent processes (75%):
!"# !"#$%&'(#)!"#!
!! = = 2.31 10! !"##$%
!"#"$%&%'(%)#!"#$%"!& ∗ !"#$%$%&!"#$%"!& ∗ !"#$ !"#$ℎ!"#$%
Finally, the mass of waste recovered (mWaste) is calculated:
!!"#$% = !! − !! = 3.62 10! !"##!"
As a result, the stripping ratio in Bayan Obo is estimated:
!!"#$%
!"#$%%$&' !"#$% = = 1.57
!!
For each tonne of mineral that is processed in the early stages, 1.57 tonne of waste
are recovered.
49
Table 9: Summary of the stoichiometric coefficients in Bayan Obo
Stage Chemical Type: Input/Output Stoichiometric

(I/O) coefficient
Hydrometallurgy H2SO4 I 1.5
Hydrometallurgy (NH4)HCO3 I 3
Hydrometallurgy HCl I 3
Hydrometallurgy CO2 O 2.21
Hydrometallurgy H2 O O 2.21
Hydrometallurgy H2CO3 O 1.5
Hydrometallurgy H3PO4 O 0.29
Hydrometallurgy (NH4)2SO4 O 1.5
Hydrometallurgy HF O 0.71
Refining C2H2O4 I 1.5
Refining O2 I 0.93
Refining HCl O 3
Refining CO2 O 3.75
50
9.2. Maoniuping deposit
The calculations are explained in Appendix 5.
9.2.1. Beneficiation
The rocks mined in Maoniuping lead to three different outputs:
- A mix of aluminium, iron, manganese and lead which is separated at the gravity
separation step
- A bastnaesite concentrate containing 70% of REEs (Schüler et al. 2011)
- Tailings
In order to estimate the amount of tailings, it is assumed that the gravity separation
recovers only and completely the four elements cited above (Al, Fe, Mn, Pb).
Besides, the recovery of REEs during the flotation process is considered of 85%
(see Table 5). Figure 21 illustrates the distribution among the three types of outputs.
Mn
38.9 kg
12%
Fe
110 kg
33% Pb
19.7 kg
33.1% 6%
Al
163 kg
Rare Pb Mineral recovery 49%
Mn
earths 38.9 kg 19.7 kg
minerals 4% 2%
43.4 kg
4%
Al
163 kg
16%
Rare Gangue
5.3% 15.8 kg
earth
Fe minerals 30%
110 kg 36.9 kg
11% 70%
Rare earth
concentrate
Gangue
625 kg
63%
Rare
earth
minerals
61.6% 6.5 kg
Gangue 1%
609.2 kg
Tailings 99%
Figure 21: Beneficiation process in Maoniuping for one tonne of original rock
51
As a consequence, the processing of one tonne of original ore results in the
production of:
- 331 kg of valuable minerals (Al, Pb, Mn, Fe)
- 50 kg of bastnaesite concentrate
- 619 kg of tailings
Considering the production of REO in 2010 (31,200 t) and assuming a 75%
efficiency in the subsequent stages (Schüler et al. 2011), it is estimated that 59,400 t of
bastnaesite concentrate were produced that year.
The results and assumptions of the beneficiation process are summarised in
Table 10.
52
Table 10: Summary of the beneficiation modelling in Maoniuping
o 75% efficiency of the subsequent

Beneficiation Bastnaesite concentrate produced 59,400 tonnes per year stages
o 70% recovery of REEs
11.7 tonnes per tonne of rare earth o Full recovery and perfect
Beneficiation Waste rock generated
concentrate produced selectivity of Al, Pb, Mn and Fe
Table 11: Summary of the mining and comminution processes modelling in Maoniuping
o Same stripping ratio as Bayan

Obo
Mining Mining rate 7,100 tpd o Beneficiation process
assumption (see
Table 10)
Mining Energy requirement 21.6 GWh per year o Ditto
Mining Explosives 576 tonnes per year o Ditto
Comminution, Beneficiation and o Proportionality to Thor Lake

Energy requirement 208 GWh per year
Hydrometallurgy project
53
9.2.2. Mining and comminution
The mining and comminution are described subsequently to the beneficiation
because the data already calculated help determining the requirements.
9.2.2.1. Stripping ratio
It is assumed that the stripping ration in Maoniuping is equal to that in Bayan Obo.
Thus, the stripping ratio in Maoniuping is considered to be 1.57 (see 9.1.6).
9.2.2.2. Energy requirement for mining operations
The energy requirements for the mining operations at Maoniuping were calculated
similarly as for Bayan Obo.
The stripping ratio assumption makes it possible to calculate the total amount of
rock handled and thus the amount of energy required for the mining operations:
21.6 GWh are annually required to power the mining operations.
Once again, assuming that the mining operations are carried out with machinery
(trucks, shovel…), this amount of energy is provided with fuel.
9.2.2.3. Explosives input

Based on the estimation of Nilsson, it is calculated that the annual amount of ANFO
used in Maoniuping deposit accounts for 576 tonnes.
9.2.2.4. Comminution
Like for Bayan Obo, it is estimated that the comminution, beneficiation and
hydrometallurgy operations in Maoniuping require 208 GWh per year.
The results and assumptions of the beneficiation process are summarised in
Table 11.
54
9.2.3. Hydrometallurgy and separation of rare earths
In Maoniuping, the process is simplified by the fact that only bastnaesite is
processed. Similarly than for Bayan Obo, the flows were estimated from the analysis of
the chemical reactions.
The stoichiometric numbers of the hydrometallurgy process are summarised in
Table 12.
ReFCO3
ReFCO3  ReFO + CO2

3/2 H2SO4 1 CO2
Acidic roasting 2 ReFO + 3 H2SO4 Re2(SO4)3
Heat 1 HF + 2 HF +2 H2O
1 H2O
Re2(SO4)3
Sulphate Re2(SO4)3+Na2SO42NaRe(SO4)2
½ Na2SO4
precipitation
NaRe(SO4)
2
½ Na2SO4
Acid leaching 2 NaRe(SO4)2 + 6 HCl  2 ReCl3
3 HCl
3/2 H2SO4 + Na2SO4 + 3 H2SO4
ReCl3
ReCl3 + 3(HX)2  ReX6H3 + 3 HCl
Heat
Solvent extraction 3 (HX)2 ReX6H3 + 3 HCl  ReCl3 + 3(HX)2
3 (HX)2
9.2.4. Refining
The refining process and chemical reactions are the very same as in Bayan Obo
(see 9.1.5).
The stoichiometric numbers of the refining process are summarised in Table 12.
55
Table 12: Summary of the stoichiometric coefficients in Maoniuping
Type: Input/Output Stoichiometric

Stage Chemical
(I/O) coefficients
Hydrometallurgy H2SO4 I 1.5
Hydrometallurgy Na2SO4 I 0.5
Hydrometallurgy HCl I 3
Hydrometallurgy HF O 1
Hydrometallurgy CO2 O 1
Hydrometallurgy H2 O O 1
Hydrometallurgy H2SO4 O 1.5
Hydrometallurgy Na2SO4 O 0.5
Refining C2H2O4 I 1.5
Refining O2 I 0.93
Refining HCl O 3
Refining CO2 O 3
56
10. Life Cycle inventory
Thanks to the estimation of the model and some data in various articles, it is
possible to carry out the Life Cycle Inventory. In this section, every figure is expressed
per tonne of REOs produced.
Calculations for Bayan Obo (respectively Maoniuping) can be found in Appendix 6
(respectively Appendix 7)
The composition of one tonne of REOs in Bayan Obo (respectively Maoniuping) is
described in Figure 17 (respectively Figure 20).
10.1. Input of chemicals, energy and explosives

Table 13 inventories the necessary inputs.
10.2. Air emissions

Bayan Obo air emissions are listed in Table 14.10
10.3. Output of wastes and chemicals

Table 15 inventories the different wastes rejected when producing a tonne of REOs.
10
For Maoniuping processes, not enough data was found concerning air emissions
to proceed to the same description.
57
58
Table 13: Required inputs for the different stages
Type of input Stage Input Bayan Obo Maoniuping
Chemical Hydrometallurgy H2SO4 677 kg 678 kg
Chemical Hydrometallurgy NH4HCO3 1,091 kg -
Chemical Hydrometallurgy NA2SO4 - 327 kg
Chemical Hydrometallurgy HCl 504 kg 505 kg
Chemical Refining C2H2O4 622 kg 623 kg
Chemical Refining O2 138 kg 111 kg
Chemical Separation P 507 Unknown Unknown
Explosive Mining ANFO 19 kg 18.5 kg
Energy Mining Fuel 710 kWh 692 kWh
Energy Comminution, Beneficiation Electricity 6.83 MWh 6.67 MWh

and Hydrometallurgy
Table 14: Emission to the air during processes in Bayan Obo
Stage Emission Quantity Reference
Milling Dust 13 kg o Hurst 2010
Milling Dust containing 1 kg o Schüler, et al. 2011 11

radioactive particles
Acidic roasting Waste gases (inc. HF, SO2, SO3) 9,600 to 12,000 m3 o Schüler, et al. 2011
Table 15: Outputs discharged
Type of input Stage Output Bayan Obo Maoniuping
Waste Mining Waste rock 58.2 t 56 t
Waste Beneficiation Waste slag 20.4 t 21.8 t
Waste Beneficiation Radioactive waste slag 1.4 t 300 kg
Waste Amount of ThO2

Beneficiation 14.2 kg 10 kg
in waste slag
11
According to Schüler, et al., the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protections estimates that the amount of thorium containing dust
emitted each year is about 61.8 tonnes (0.99 kg per tonne of REO produced with an annual output of 62,400t) (Schüler, et al. 2011).
59
60
Waste Acidic roasting and acid

Wastewater 75 m3 12 -
leaching
Waste Separation and refining ThO2 in wastewater 0.6 kg 0.26
Chemicals Hydrometallurgy CO2 423 kg 192 kg
Chemicals Hydrometallurgy H2 O 173 kg 78 kg
Chemicals Hydrometallurgy H2CO3 346 kg -
Chemicals Hydrometallurgy H2SO4 - 640 kg
Chemicals Hydrometallurgy H3PO4 124 kg -
Chemicals Hydrometallurgy (NH4)2SO4 861 kg -
Chemicals Hydrometallurgy NA2SO4 - 327 kg
Chemicals Hydrometallurgy HF 62 kg 87 kg
Chemicals Separation NH4HCO3 61 kg -
Chemicals Separation HCl 28 kg 28 kg
Chemicals Separation H2SO4 38 kg -
12
(Hurst 2010)
Chemicals Separation H2SO4 38 kg -
Chemicals Refining CO2 760 kg 575 kg
Chemicals Refining HCl 476 kg 477 kg
Chemicals Refining C2H2O4 35 kg 35 kg
61
11. Life Cycle Impact Assessment
In order to conduct this Life Cycle Impact Assessment, different impact categories
were defined:
- Global Warming
- Acidification
- Eutrophication
- Radioactive waste generation
- Land use
- Toxicity in wastewater
For each of these categories, the LCI results were classified and assigned to one or
several category.
The calculations of the following sections are all included in Appendix 8.
11.1. Global Warming

11.1.1. Classification
The following elements were identified as taking part to global warming:
- CO2 emitted during chemical processes
- CO2 emitted during production of electricity
- CO2 emitted when burning fuel for mining
The carbon emissions are quantified in this section.
11.1.2. Characterisation
Table 16 summarises the impact indicators concerning global warming.
Table 16: Impact indicator for global warming
Classification Unit Bayan Obo Maoniuping
Emissions from
kg of CO2 1,180 770
chemical reactions
Emissions from
kg of CO2 170 170
fuel burning
Emissions from
kg of CO2 5,100 5,000
electricity use
Overall emissions kg of CO2 6,450 5,940
62
11.2. Acidification
The following elements were identified as taking part to the acidification
phenomenon:
- Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
- Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
- Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
- Ammonia (NH3)
Table 17 summarises the impact indicators concerning acidification.
Table 17: Impact indicator for acidification
SO2 (gas) kg of SO2 24.8 640
HCl kg of SO2eq 444 444
HF (gas) kg of SO2eq 99 139
NH3 kg of SO2eq 115 -
Atmosphere
acidification kg of SO2eq 124 779
potential
Wastewater
acidification kg of SO2eq 559 444
potential
63
11.3. Eutrophication
The following elements were identified as taking part to the acidification
phenomenon:
- Ammonia
- Phosphate
Table 18 summarises the impact indicators concerning eutrophication.
Table 18: Impact indicator for eutrophication
Phosphates kg of H3PO4 124 -
Ammonia kg of H3PO4eq 304 -
Discharge in 428 -

kg of H3PO4eq
wastewaters
11.4. Radioactive waste generation

The following types of radioactive waste were identified:
- Radioactive waste slag
- Radioactive wastewater
Table 19 summarises the impact indicators concerning radioactive waste generation.
Table 19: Impact indicator for radioactive waste generation
Activity of waste

Bq 5.1 107 3.6 107
slag
Specific activity of

Bq/kg 3.6 104 1.25 105
waste slag
Activity of
Bq 2.1 106 9.3 105
wastewater
Specific activity of

m3 2.9 104 -
wastewater
64
Radioactivity
Bq 5.3 107 3.7 107
discharge
11.5. Land use

The following elements were identified as taking part to land use:
- waste rock
- wastewater
Table 20 summarises the impact indicators concerning land use.
Table 20: Impact indicator for land use
Waste rock m3 20.4 23.8
Wastewater m3 75 -
Overall volume m3 95.4 23.8

required
11.6. Toxic chemical discharge in wastewater

In this section, the different sources of toxicity are listed. Their toxicity is described
in Appendix 9.
The following elements were identified as potential toxic elements discharged in
wastewaters:
- Oxalic acid
- Ammonium bicarbonate
- Ammonium sulphates
- Sodium sulphates
- Sulphuric acid
65
Table 21 summarises the impact assessments concerning discharge of toxic
chemicals in wastewaters.
Table 21: Impact indicator for toxicity in wastewater
Oxalic acid kg 35 35
Ammonium
kg 61 -
bicarbonate
Ammonium
kg 861 -
sulphates
Sodium sulphates kg - 327
66
12. Life Cycle Interpretation
12.1. Identification of the significant issues
This section aims at identifying the data elements, the assumptions that contribute
the most to the results of the LCI and LCIA. It is also focused on determining whether
there are anomalies in the results or not.
12.1.1. Contribution analysis

12.1.1.1. Model
The process modelling is the keystone of this LCA. This modelling helped
described what are the different stages. As a consequence, the results depend directly on
this model, it represents a significant contributor.
The chemical reactions were described based on a literature review, they play an
essential role in the calculation of results.
The beneficiation process was not described in much detail. As a result it is not
possible to estimate the inputs and outputs necessary to its operations.
Seven impact categories were defined in the LCIA. As a result, only impacts from
these categories were discussed.
12.1.1.2. Data
Throughout the LCA, the 2010 productions of both Bayan Obo and Maoniuping
deposits have been extensively used.
Concerning the data, a significant issue was the very low availability of data
concerning Maoniuping’s deposit contrary to Bayan Obo’s deposit.
12.1.1.3. Assumption
A few assumptions are significant to the results of the LCA:
- it is assumed that the daily mining rate is proportional to the REO output of
a deposit, as a result it is estimated that the daily mining rate was 16,250 tpd
in 2010. This figure is used numerous times throughout the LCA.
- for the energy calculations (for the comminution, beneficiation and
hydrometallurgy operations), it is assumed that the two Chinese mines can
be compared to a Canadian mining project. This represents the most of the
energy requirements.
- the hydrometallurgy and refining operations are assumed to have a 75%
efficiency. Besides, it was assumed that each chemical step had a efficiency
of 94.4%
- the chemical reactions were assumed to take place with stoichiometric
quantities
- it is assumed that the chemicals used are neither recovered nor recycled,
they all end up in wastewater
67
12.2. Completeness, sensitivity and consistency of data
12.2.1. Completeness check
For each mine, the data calculated in the LCI and LCIA are consistent with both the
goal and the scope of the LCA.
The data cover every primary activity identified in the model of the processes.
However, within the primary activities, results are sometimes not complete due to a lack
of data.
12.2.1.1. Raw material

For this matter, the data are as complete as possible.
12.2.1.2. Energy
The following energy requirements were not considered due to a lack of data:
- energy consumed during refining operations (e.g. rare earth oxidation)
- energy consumed during the transport of the ores
As a consequence, it is likely that the energy consumption and the carbon emissions
are higher than calculated.
12.2.1.3. Chemical inputs and outputs
The following chemical inputs and outputs were not considered due to a lack of
data:
- chemicals used during the beneficiation process and notably the froth
flotation and the associated discharge/recovery
- chemicals used for the separation of REEs such as P507
- chemicals used alongside chemical reactions (e.g. solvents, catalysts,
pH regulators)
As a result, their flows are unknown.
12.2.1.4. Water consumption
The water consumption was not estimated for any of the two mines due to a lack of
data on this matter.
12.2.1.5. Environmental releases
The releases that were described and quantified are only those that were
documented in the literature. Therefore, it is likely that other unidentified releases to air or
water happen during these operations.
12.2.2. Sensitivity check
The sensitivity of the assumptions is described in Table 22.
12.2.3. Consistency check

All the assumptions described in section 12.1.1.3 are found to be consistent with the
goal and scope of the study.
On the contrary, the process modelling described in section 12.1.1.1 is found to be
inconsistent with the goal of the study. Leaving the beneficiation process unresolved
68
makes that the results do not describe correctly the necessary flows to achieve REOs. Due
to this inconsistency, it is likely that several different chemical inputs and outputs are
neglected as well as some environmental releases.
12.2.4. Limitations of the study
In this section, the level of confidence in the assumptions is discussed as well as
their sensitivity.
Table 22: Assumptions analysis
Level of confidence

Assumptions Implications and sensitivity
(low/medium/high)13
The results are proportional to the mining

Mining rate
medium rate. So it is not likely that the results will
assumption
change drastically because of this assumption.
This assumption neglects any economy of

Proportionality scales which is likely to be the case in reality.
to Thor Lake low A significant change in this assumption is
project likely to change considerably the global
warming impact assessment.
75% efficiency
This data is based on the literature and is
of the
therefore reliable. If it were to change, it
hydrometallurgy high
would cause the chemical inputs and outputs
and refining to change inverse proportionally.
processes
Recovery rate of

the This data is based on the literature. It is a
beneficiation high sensitive data because it helped to calculate
process in both wastes, radioactive wastes as well as land use.
mines
Full recovery
and perfect This assumption is not very sensitive since a
selectivity of Fe low difference would slightly change the amount
and Nb minerals of waste rock produced.
in Bayan Obo
Full recovery
and perfect This assumption is not very sensitive since a
selectivity of Al, low difference would slightly change the amount
Pb, Mn and Fe of waste rock produced.
in Maoniuping
13
These are personal assessments.
69
Level of confidence
Assumptions Implications and sensitivity
(low/medium/high)13
Same
stripping
This assumption is sensitive since a slight
ratio in
low change is likely to lead to significant
Maoniuping
differences in many categories
as Bayan
Obo
12.3. Conclusions of the life cycle assessment

This life cycle assessment was carried out in order to provide information about the
production of REOs and estimate the energy and material flows necessary to it. The
conclusion of this study is divided into two sections: analysis where the results are
discussed and opinion where the study in itself is discussed.
12.3.1. Analysis
12.3.1.1. Global warming
For both deposits, the CO2 emissions related to the production of a tonne of REO
are about 6 tonnes.
This is a considerable ratio, that has to be taken into account when studying
products that contains REEs.
Finally, the emission of both Maoniuping and Bayan Obo operations in terms of
CO2 appear to be quite similar.
12.3.1.2. Acidification potential
The acidification potential (when producing a tonne of REOs) appears to be
significant since hundreds of kilograms of SO2eq are released both in the atmosphere and
wastewater.
Besides, the operations in Maoniuping and Bayan Obo seem to have a comparable
acidification potential.
12.3.1.3. Eutrophication potential

The eutrophication potential of Maoniuping is nil. This is due to the absence of
monazite in Maoniuping’s ore.
On the contrary, the operations in Bayan Obo generate a significant amount of
phosphate (or phosphate equivalent) since over 400 kg of phosphate equivalent are
generated when producing a tonne of REOs.
12.3.1.4. Radioactive waste generation
Both operations generate significant radioactivity. Although this radioactivity is
already occurring in the virgin ore, the result of these processes is to concentrate
radioactive materials.
Therefore, the radioactive wastes have a higher radioactivity than natural ore.
According to the UK regulation, they can be classified as low level radioactive waste
70
(European Commission 1998). Thus, they need to be disposed of carefully in order to
avoid spilling this radioactive concentrate out.
Although the wastewaters appear to be less radioactive than the waste slag, it is
necessary to build secure impoundment, to prevent radioactive material from percolating
into the soil and polluting ground waters.
12.3.1.5. Land use
Although the volume of waste generated per tonne of REO does not seem too
important, the accumulation of all these wastes through decades of functioning have
created massive stockpiles of waste.
As an example, some figures are given below concerning Bayan Obo deposit:
- surface of the tailing impoundment: 11 km2 (roughly 65 million m3)
(Schüler et al. 2011)
- surface of the open pit mines (including all orebodies): 8.13 km2 (Wu 2010)
- surface of the waste rock storages: 5.6 km2 (estimated from an aerial picture
of Bayan Obo deposit)
12.3.1.6. Discharge of toxic chemicals
Discharge of toxic chemicals is a serious issue in both Maoniuping and Bayan Obo.
Much chemicals end up in wastewater and disposing toxic chemical in a pond may result
in toxicity infiltrating into soils or evaporating in the air.
Both deposits reject oxalic acid which appears to be potentially the most toxic
chemical discharged in the ones that were identified in this study.
A newspaper report by Simon Parry describing the effects of the “lake of toxic
waste” is quoted in Appendix 10.
12.3.2. Discussions on the life cycle assessment

12.3.2.1. Scope definition
The scope was defined in concordance with two ideas:
- the assessment of the environmental impacts of the production of REOs
represents a comprehensive purpose as this is the first step in the production
of every REE of any form
- the scope took into consideration the time available for this study
Consequently, although the study could have encompassed the production of rare
earth metals or even rare earth products, it is estimated that the scope was the best
compromise possible.
12.3.2.2. Assumptions
Several assumptions were made throughout this LCA. Although most of them are
based on literature, some assumptions were identified as critical as they are sensitive and
do not have a high level of confidence:
- the assumption on the stripping ratio in Maoniuping was made in order to
enable further calculations. It has a low level of confidence and a high
sensitivity
71
- the proportionality to the Thor Lake project neglects any economy of scale.
This assumption appears to be critical in the calculation of the global
warming impacts although it does not have a high level of confidence.
12.3.2.3. Process modelling
The results of both Maoniuping and Bayan Obo are really close. This can be
explained with two reasons:
- the model for Maoniuping lacked several data and therefore numerous
assumption were based on Bayan Obo information
- the two deposit are very similar in terms of ore and rare earth content and
composition
The process modelling is likely to be a faulty part of this LCA. It was chosen taking
into account the availability of information and data. Thus they result more from an
obligation than a choice. Besides, the process modelling is the keystone of the whole
LCA. Therefore, if this study is to be improved, it would be interesting to:
- describe the beneficiation operations in more details
- model or find information on the consumption of water throughout the
production of REOs
- find more precise information on Maoniuping’s operations
- describe more meticulously the chemical steps, chemical reactants and
conditions
12.3.2.4. Life cycle inventory

In the life cycle inventory, attention was paid to chemical inputs and outputs, air
emissions and waste generation. These categories were selected based on the available
information.
However, it would have been interesting to also focus on the water consumption
since it is likely to be a significant in beneficiation and hydrometallurgy processes.
Besides, the operation in Bayan Obo takes place in an arid environment. Therefore, the
impacts of abstracting water can be important.
12.3.2.5. Life cycle impact assessment
Only six categories were chosen for the LCIA since it takes into account the
description carried out in the life cycle inventory. However, if it had been possible, this
LCIA could also have focuses on other midpoint impacts:
- soil toxicity (modelling of the infiltrations)
- stream toxicity (modelling of the infiltrations)
- water use (water consumption modelling)
Further studies could get down to assessing these impacts.
12.3.2.6. Acquisition of information

The LCA of this study relies only on information found in literature and
assumptions. It would be certainly useful to have a look at other kinds of information such
as LCA software database, governmental or industrial documentations. Since the latter is
almost exclusively in Chinese, it would be to through it with a native Chinese speaker in
order to collect other primary data.
72
12.3.2.7. Specificity of the life cycle assessment
This study was focused on two Chinese mines that were described in details.
However, general assumptions were made, and only very generic processes were
scrutinised.
As a result, it is likely that the results can be generalised to some extent to other rare
earth projects both in China and abroad.
73
13. Conclusion
The aim of this study was to assess some of the environmental impact of producing
rare earth oxides. More specifically, attention was given to two Chinese mines which
account for 70% of the global rare earth production.
Thus, after a description of the operations in these both mines, it was decided to
carry out a life cycle assessment methodology to these mines in order to evaluate the
environmental impacts related to the following categories: global warming, acidification,
eutrophication, radioactive waste generation, land use and toxicity in waste waters.
This life cycle assessment was composed of several phases: firstly the processes
taking place in the two mines were described in details. Secondly, a life cycle inventory
listed every input and output flows necessary to the operations. Thirdly, the impacts
related to the above categories were assessed and expressed in a same unit. Finally, the
life cycle interpretation helped to analysed the results.
It appeared that the production of rare earth oxides in these two mines is associated
with a high environmental cost. In addition to CO2 emissions, the processes generates
massive amount of waste slag (some of which is radioactive) and wastewater that have to
be dealt with properly. The waste management has to be strict in order to avoid
radioactive or toxic run-offs.
As a result, it emerged that the low economical cost of Chinese rare earth
production goes along a significant environmental cost that should definitely be taken into
consideration when producing and consuming rare earth elements.
The introduction of quotas in Chines exportation is possibly a political sign that
Chinese authorities do not want to bear alone the responsibility of supplying the world
with rare earth elements and try to share that environmental burden with other countries.
74
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80
Appendix
Appendix 1: USGS and Chinese classification
1. Different classifications
a. USGS
USGS defines the reserve as “the part of the reserve base which could be
economically extracted or produced at the time of determination”. The reserve base being
“the part of an identified resource that meets specified minimum physical and chemical
criteria related to current mining and production practices […] The reserve base includes
those resources that are currently economic (reserves), marginally economic (marginal
reserves) and some of those that are currently subeconomic (subeconomic resources)”
(USGS 2011).
b. Chinese classification
According to Tse, “the Chinese reserve classification system best approximates
reserves as defined in the U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey (1980) in
USGS Circular 831”(Tse 2011). In this document, reserves are defined as “that portion of
an identified resource from which a usable mineral or energy commodity can be
economically and legally extracted a the time of determination” (USGS 1980).
81
Appendix 2: Description of the flotation processes
The flotation process consists in mixing the ore with chemicals to make the
bastnaesite/monazite hydrophobic.
Then air is injected through the agitated slurry (mix of ore and water) to produce
froth. Since the rare earth ores is hydrophobic, it is attracted to air bubbles and thus stays
at the surface of the mixture. Waste material sinks to the bottom of the container and can
be removed (EPA 1994).
There are six broad types of flotation reagents (Fuerstenau et al. 2007):
- the frother is added to control bubble size and froth stability
- the collectors are surface-active reagents that impart hydrophobicity to minerals
- the activators enhance collector adsorption onto a specific mineral
- depressants are reagents that prevent collector adsorption to unwanted mineral
surfaces
- modifiers modify the flotation environment
- flocculants are added to assist dewatering of the flotation concentrates
82
Appendix 3: Description of the solvent extraction process
The solvent extraction of REEs in EHEHPA follows a mere observation: the bigger
the atomic number of the REE the more stable the resulting complex.
Figure 22 shows how the separation factor between two REEs matches with that
principle (Hao et al. 1995).
Figure 22: Separation factor of rare earths in the Ln(III)-HCl-EHEHPA system

(Sato 1989)
As a result, the process to separate REEs from each other uses that principle. It is
composed of several steps as described in Figure 23.
Figure 23: Separation flowsheet for bastnasite (Yan et al. 2006)
The machine used for the solvent extraction is a mixer settler extractor (Zhong et al.
2010) (Zhong 1995).
83
Appendix 4: Calculations for the Bayan Obo processes modelling
2. Mining
a. Mining rate
Chinese production of REOs increased by 8.3% between 2006 and 2010 (from 120,000 to
130,000) (USGS 2006 ; USGS 2011), it is assumed that Bayan Obo’s production
increased similarly.
As a result, the mining rate in 2010 is 8.3% bigger than the one in 2006:
15,000 ∗ 1.083 ≈ 16,200 !"#
b. Energy requirement
Calculation of the annual energy consumption for the mining operations:
- daily energy consumption: 16,200 ∗ 7.5 !"ℎ = 121.5 !"ℎ
- annual energy consumption: 121.5 ∗ 365 ≈ 44.3 !"ℎ

c. Explosives input
Calculation of the annual amount of ANFO required:
- daily requirements: 16,200 ∗ 0.2 !" = 3,240 !"
- annual requirements: 365 ∗ 3.24 ≈ 1,180 !"##$%
3. Comminution
Considering that the power requirements of Bayan Obo are proportionally equal to
those estimated for the Thor Lake project, the average power was estimated:
- average power requirement:
16,200
6∗ = 48.6 !"
2,000
- annual amount of energy:
48.6 ∗ 8,760 ≈ 426 !"ℎ
4. Beneficiation
Calculation of the results displayed in Table 8:
- since the annual output is 62,400 t and considering that the concentrate contains
60% of REEs and that the subsequent steps have an overall efficiency of 75%.
The amount of rare earth concentrate produced is:
62,400
≈ 139,000 !"##$%
0.75 ∗ 0.6
- the amount of waste rock generated per tonne of rare earth concentrate is
calculated taking into account that 589 kg of waste rock are generated when
producing 60 kg of rare earth concentrate. As a result, the amount of waste rock
produced per tonne of rare earth concentrate is:
589
∗ 1! = 9.8 ! !" !"#$% !"#$
60
5. Hydrometallurgy and refining
The stoichiometric quantities were calculated directly from the models exposed in
sections 9.1.4 and 9.1.5.
84
6. Stoichiometry
The stoichiometric coefficients are calculated directly from the chemical reactions,
however, the stoichiometric coefficient for O2 in the refining process needs to be
explained.
This calculation is based on the relative proportion of light REEs at this stage. This
proportion is illustrated in Figure 24:
Pr
5% Sm
Nd 2%
18%
La
24%
Ce
51%
Figure 24: Relative proportion of light rare earth elements in Bayan Obo concentrate (Spooner 2005)
As a result, knowing that the stoichiometric coefficient for La, Nd and Sm is 0.75, 1
for Ce and 1.8 for Pr, it is possible to calculate the overage coefficient:
0.24 + 0.18 + 0.02 ∗ 0.75 + 0.51 ∗ 1 + 0.05 ∗ 1.8 = 0.93
85
Appendix 5: Calculations for the Maoniuping processes modelling
1. Beneficiation
Calculation of the results displayed in
Table 10:
- since the annual output is 31,200 t and considering that the concentrate contains
70% of REEs and that the subsequent steps have an overall efficiency of 75%.
The amount of bastnaesite concentrate produced is
31,200
≈ 59,400 !"##$%
0.75 ∗ 0.7
-the amount of waste rock generated per tonne of rare earth concentrate is
calculated taking into account that 619 kg of waste rock are generated when
producing 52.7 kg of bastnaesite concentrate. As a result, the amount of waste
rock produced per tonne of rare earth concentrate is:
619
∗ 1! = 11.7 ! !! !"#$% !"#$
52.7
2. Mining and comminution
a. Mining rate calculation
Since bastnaesite concentrate represents 5.3% of all the rock processed in
beneficiation, it is possible to calculate the amount of rock processed in the beneficiation
from the amount of bastnaesite concentrate produced:
59,400
= 1.12 10! !"##$%
0.053
The stripping ratio being 1.57, it is possible to calculate the annual amount of rock
excavated in the mining operations: 1.12 10! ∗ 1 + 1.57 = 2.88 10! !"##$%
As a result, the mining rate is:
2.88 10!
= 7,900 !"#
365
b. Energy requirements for mining
- Annual energy requirements: 2.88 10! ∗ 7.5 !"ℎ = 21.6 !"ℎ
c. Explosives
Thanks to the annual amount of rock handled and Nilsson’s figure it is possible to
calculate the annual amount of explosive required: 2.88 10! ∗ 0.2 = 576 10! !" = 576 !
3. Comminution
Considering that the power requirements of Maoniuping are proportionally equal to
those estimated for the Thor Lake project, the average power was estimated:
- average power requirement:
7,900
6∗ = 23.7 !"
2,000
- annual amount of energy:
23.7 ∗ 8,760 ℎ!"#$ ≈ 208 !"ℎ
86
- Stoichiometry
The stoichiometric coefficients are calculated directly from the chemical reactions,
however, the stoichiometric coefficient for O2 in the refining process needs to be
explained.
This calculation is based on the relative proportion of light REEs at this stage. This
proportion is illustrated in Figure 25.
La
30%
Pr
5%
Nd
13%
Ce
51%
Sm
1%
Figure 25: Relative proportion of light rare earth elements in Maoniuping concentrate
As a result, knowing that the stoichiometric coefficient for La, Nd and Sm is 0.75, 1
for Ce and 1.8 for Pr, it is possible to calculate the overage coefficient:
0.3 + 0.13 + 0.01 ∗ 0.75 + 0.51 ∗ 1 + 0.05 ∗ 1.8 = 0.93
87
Appendix 6: Calculation of the life cycle inventory data for Bayan Obo
1. Molar quantity
Firstly, the molar quantity contained in one tonne of REOs is calculated.
Considering that one tonne of REOs is composed as in Figure 17.
It is calculated that it contains 4,346 moles of the different REOs.
2. Input of consumed product
a. Chemicals
Thanks to the above molar quantity and the stoichiometric coefficients modelled in
section 9.1. It is possible to calculate the stoichiometric amount for each chemical input,
these results are given in Table 23.
Table 23: Calculation of the chemical inputs for Bayan Obo
Minimum Required mass

Stoichiometric Molar mass required mass (94.4%
Chemical
coefficient (g/mol) (stoichiometric efficiency)
quantities)
H2SO4 1.5 98 639 kg 677 kg
NH4HCO3 3 79 1,030 kg 1,091 kg
HCl 3 36.5 476 kg 504 kg
C2H2O4 1.5 90 587 kg 622 kg
O2 0.93 32 104 kg 111 kg
b. Explosives
To calculate the amount of explosive used per tonne of REOs, the annual amount of
ANFO used (1,180 t) is merely divided by the annual oxide output of Bayan Obo
(62,400t).
c. Energy
The energy requirements for the production of a tonne of REOs are calculated
similarly than for the explosives: with a simple division of the energy inputs described in
section 9.1.
3. Output of wastes and chemicals
a. Wastes
From section 9.1.6, the annual amount of waste rock generated in Bayan Obo can be
calculated: 2.31 10! ∗ 1.57 = 3.63 10! !"##$%
As a result, per tonne of REOs produced, the amount of waste rock generated is
3.63 10! ∗
= 58.2 !"##$%
62,400
88
b. Waste slag
The waste slag is the rock discharged after the beneficiation process. The amount of
rock discharged at this stage is: 2.31 10! ∗ 0.589 = 1.36 10! !"##$%
Hence, the amount of waste slag generated per tonne of REO produced is 21.8
tonnes. Among this waste slag it is possible to distinct between radioactive and non-
radioactive waste slag.
The radioactive waste slag amounts to 1.4 tonnes (Xu and Peng 2009). As a result,
the non radioactive waste slag amounts to 20.4 tonnes.
c. Thorium oxide in wastewater and waste slag
According to Chen, the thorium oxide content in Bayan Obo ore is 0.04%. As a
result, the amount of ThO2 processed each year in the comminution and beneficiation
steps is equal to (Chen et al. 2003):
2.3 10! ∗ 0.04% = 925 !"##$%
According to Figure 20, 95.9% of the processed thorium oxide ends up in waste slag
and 4.1% ends up in rare earth concentrate. As a result, the annual amount of ThO2 that
ends up in waste slag is equal to:
925 ∗ 0.959 = 887 !"##$%
Consequently, the amount of thorium oxide that ends up in waste slag per tonne of
REOs produced is equal to:
887
= 14.2 !"
62,400
Similarly, it is calculated that the amount of ThO2 that ends up in wastewater for
each tonne of REO is equal to 0.6 kg.
d. Chemicals
H2SO4, NH4HCO3, HCl and C2H2O4 outputs result from the fact that each reaction
was considered to have a 94.4% efficiency. Therefore, even if all the rare earth molecules
are processed, some of these chemicals remain in the solution and are discharged in
wastewater. What remains in solution is the amount of chemical that is in excess so that
all the rare earth molecules are transformed.
The other chemical outputs are calculated similarly than for the chemical inputs (see
Table 23).
Table 24: Calculation of the chemical outputs for Bayan Obo
Stoichiometric Stoichiometric
Chemical Molar mass (g/mol)
coefficient output
CO2 2.21 44 423 kg
H2O 2.21 18 173 kg
H2CO3 1.5 53 346 kg
89
coefficient output
H3PO4 0.29 98 124 kg
(NH4)2SO4 1.5 132 861 kg
HF 0.71 20 62 kg
CO2 3 44 574 kg
HCl 3 36.5 476 kg
90
Appendix 7: Calculation of the life cycle inventory data for Maoniuping
1. Molar quantity
Firstly, the molar quantity contained in one tonne of REOs is calculated.
Considering that one tonne of REOs is composed as in Figure 18.
It is calculated that it contains 4,353 moles of the different REOs.
2. Input of consumed product
a. Chemicals
Thanks to the above molar quantity and the stoichiometric coefficients modelled in
section 9.2. It is possible to calculate the stoichiometric amount for each chemical input,
these results are given in Table 25.
Table 25: Calculation of the chemical inputs for Maoniuping
Minimum Required mass

Stoichiometric Molar mass required mass (94.4%
Chemical
coefficient (g/mol) (stoichiometric efficiency)
quantities)
H2SO4 1.5 98 640 kg 678 kg
Na2SO4 0.5 142 309 kg 327 kg
HCl 3 36.5 477 kg 505 kg
C2H2O4 1.5 90 587 kg 623 kg
O2 0.93 32 104 kg 111 kg
b. Explosives
To calculate the amount of explosive used per tonne of REOs, the annual amount of
ANFO used (576 t) is merely divided by the annual oxide output of Maoniuping
(31,200t).
c. Energy
The energy requirements for the production of a tonne of REOs are calculated
similarly than for the explosives: with a simple division of the energy inputs described in
section 9.2.
3. Output of wastes and chemicals
a. Wastes
From section 9.2, the annual amount of waste rock generated in Bayan Obo can be
calculated.
The annual amount of rock handled is 365 ∗ 7,900 !"# = 2.88 10! !"##$% (see
Appendix 5 for the mining rate calculation).
The annual amount of bastnaesite concentrate is 59,400 tonnes (see 9.2.1).
91
Since the mining ratio is 1.57, the amount of waste rock generated is:
1.57
2.88 10! ∗ = 1.76 10! !"##$%
1.57 + 1
As a result, per tonne of REOs produced, the amount of waste rock generated is:
1.76 10!
= 56 !"##$%
31,200
b. Waste slag
The waste slag is the rock discharged after the beneficiation process. The amount of
rock discharged at this stage is: 1.12 10! ∗ 0.616 = 6.91 10! !"##$% (1.12 106 tonnes
being the amount of rock processed).
Hence, the amount of waste slag generated per tonne of REO produced is 22.1
tonnes. Among this waste slag it is possible to distinct between radioactive and non-
radioactive waste slag.
The radioactive waste slag amounts to 300 kg (Xu and Peng 2009). As a result, the
non radioactive waste slag amounts to 21.8 tonnes.
c. Thorium oxide in wastewater and waste slag
According to Xu and Peng, the amount of thorium oxide that ends up in waste slag
per tonne of REOs produced is 10 kg (Xu and Peng 2009).
From Figure 21, it is calculated that 97.5% of the ThO2 goes into waste slag and
2.5% into rare earth concentrate (and then in wastewater). As a result, the amount of
ThO2 in wastewater is estimated to be 0.26 kg per tonne of REOs produced.
d. Chemicals
H2SO4 and C2H2O4 outputs result from the fact that each reaction was considered to
have a 94.4% efficiency. Therefore, even if all the rare earth molecules are processed,
some of these chemicals remain in the solution and are discharged in wastewater. What
remains in solution is the amount of chemical that is in excess so that all the rare earth
molecules are transformed.
The other chemical outputs are calculated similarly than for the chemical inputs (see
Table 23).
Table 26: Calculation of the chemical outputs for Maoniuping
coefficient output
CO2 1 44 192 kg
H2O 1 18 78 kg
H2SO4 1.5 98 640 kg
Na2SO4 0.5 142 327 kg
HF 1 20 87 kg
92
coefficient output
CO2 3 44 575 kg
HCl 3 36.5 505 kg
93
Appendix 8: Calculation of the life cycle impact assessment data
1. Global warming
a. Emissions from chemical reactions
These data come directly from the life cycle inventory in section 10.
b. Emissions from fuel burning in the mining operations
Firstly, the amount of energy necessary for the mining phase is into a volume of
gasoline. This is done based on gasoline energy density (35 MJ/L) (Tribal Energy and
Environmental Information 2011).
Then, the emission of CO2 is calculated considering that the combustion of gasoline
generates 2.38 kg CO2 per litre (EPA 2005).
Results are displayed in Table 27.
Table 27: CO2 emissions for mining operations
Baotou Maoniuping
Mining energy (kWh) 710 kWh 692 kWh
Equivalent amount of

73 71
gasoline (L)
Emissions of CO2 (kg) 174 169
c. Emissions from electricity use

Assuming that the processes of comminution, beneficiation and hydrometallurgy are
completely powered with Chinese electricity, it is possible to calculate the amount of CO2
generated during theses stages.
In average, the Chinese electricity produces 745 g of CO2 per kWh (International
Energy Agency 2010).
Results are displayed in Table 28.
Table 28: CO2 emissions from electricity use
Baotou Maoniuping
Required energy (MWh) 6.83 6.67
Emissions of CO2 (tonne) 5.1 5.0
2. Acidification
a. SO2 calculation
The sulphur dioxide is produced during the acidic roasting where the following
reaction takes place:
2 H2SO4  2 SO2 + 2 H2O + O2
94
Assuming that all the sulphuric acid that is not consumed during the acidic roasting
produces sulphur dioxide, it is possible to estimate the quantity of SO2 is rejected. The
calculations are exposed in Table 29.
Table 29: Calculation of the SO2 emissions
Baotou Maoniuping
Excess of H2SO4 (kg) 38 640
Quantity of moles 388 6531
SO2 emitted (kg) 25 418
b. Characterisation factor
In order to express both HCl, HF and NH3 in a same unit, the characterisation factor
developed by Azapagic was used (Azapagic 2011). It helped to convert these chemicals
into SO2eq. The characterisation factors are described in Table 30.
Table 30: Acidification potential characterisation factors (Azapagic 2011)
Chemical Acidification Potential (vs. SO2)
SO2 (sulphur dioxide) 1
HCl (hydrogen chloride) 0.88
HF (hydrogen fluoride) 1.6
NH3 (ammonia) 1.88
Thus, it is possible to express the data calculated in the LCI into SO2eq regarding
their acidification potential. The results are exposed in Table 31.
Table 31: Acidification potential of different chemicals
Baotou Maoniuping
HCl discharge (kg) 504 505
HCl acidification potential

444 444
(kgSO2eq)
HF discharge (kg) 62 87
HF acidification potential
99 139
(kgSO2eq)
NH3/NH4+ discharge (kg) 61 -
95
Baotou Maoniuping
NH3 acidification potential

115 -
(kgSO2eq)
3. Eutrophication
a. Characterisation factor
In order to express ammonia and phosphate in a same unit, the characterisation
factor developed by Azapagic was used (Azapagic 2011). It helped to convert these
chemicals into H3PO4eq. The characterisation factors are described in Table 32.
Table 32: Eutrophication potential characterisation factors (Azapagic 2011)
Chemical Acidification Potential (vs. SO2)
Phosphate 1
Ammonia 0.33
Nitrates 0.42
Thus, it is possible to express the data calculated in the LCI into H3PO4eq regarding
their eutrophication potential. The results are exposed in Table 33.
Table 33: Eutrophication potential of different chemicals
Baotou Maoniuping
Phosphate discharge (kg) 124 -
Phosphate eutrophication
124 -
potential (kgH3PO4eq)
Ammonia discharge (kg) 922 -
Ammonia eutrophication
304 -
potential (kgH3PO4eq
4. Radioactive waste generation

a. Radioactive waste slag
The radioactivity is calculated from the following formula:
!" (2)
!"#$%"&'$($') = !!"#$% ∗
!!
!
where:
- Natoms is the number of radioactive atoms
- t1/2 is the half life (14.05 billion years for ThO2)
96
Calculations are exposed in Table 34.
Table 34: Activity in waste slag
Baotou Maoniuping
Radioactive waste slag

1.4 t 300 kg
discharge
Amount of ThO2 in waste

14.2 kg 10 kg
slag (kg)
Activity (Bq) 5.1 107 3.6 107
Specific activity (Bq/kg) 3.6 104 1.25 105
b. Radioactive in wastewater
Similarly as for the previous section, the quantity of thorium in wastewater was
estimated. The calculations are displayed in Table 35.
Table 35: Activity in wastewater
Baotou Maoniuping
Amount of ThO2 in

0.6 0.26
wastewater (kg)
Activity (Bq) 2.1 106 9.3 105
Specific activity (Bq/m3) 2.9 104 -
5. Land use
The data are given in Table 15.
97
Appendix 9: Toxic chemicals in wastewater
1. Oxalic acid
According to Cindy Hurst in a report for the Institute for the Analysis of Global
Security (Hurst 2010):
“Oxalic acid is poisonous and potentially fatal if swallowed. It is also corrosive and
causes severe irritation and burns to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract, is harmful if
inhaled or absorbed through the skin, and can cause kidney damage.”
2. Ammonium bicarbonates
In the same report, Hurst writes that (Hurst 2010):
“The potential health hazards of ammonium bicarbonate include: Irritation to the
respiratory tract if inhaled, irritation to the gastrointestinal tract if ingested, redness and
pain if it comes in contact with the eyes, and redness, itching, and pain if it comes in
contact with the skin.”
3. Ammonium sulphates
The company DSM reports that (DSM 2010):
“Ammonium sulphate has a low hazard profile. […] Ammonium sulphate has been
tested for several toxicological endpoints (for example, acute toxicity, irritation,
repeated dose toxicity). Based on experimental data for analogue substances, no
additional adverse health effects are anticipated for the ammonium sulphate. […]
Ammonium sulphate has a low bioaccumulating potential. It has been tested for
ecotoxicity. Based on these tests there is no need to classify this substance.”
4. Sodium sulphates
According to the International Programme on Chemical Safety of the World Health
Organisation (International Programme on Chemical Safety 2000):
“The Committee considered that the results of the published studies in experimental
animals do not raise concern about the toxicity of sodium sulfate. The compound has a
laxative action, which is the basis for its clinical use. The minor adverse effects reported
after use of ingested purgative preparations containing sodium sulfate may not be due to
the sodium sulfate itself.”
98
Appendix 10: Report on the lake of toxic waste in Baotou (Parry 2011)
“When we finally break through the cordon and climb sand dunes to reach its brim,
an apocalyptic sight greets us: a giant, secret toxic dump, made bigger by every wind
turbine we build.
The lake instantly assaults your senses. Stand on the black crust for just seconds
and your eyes water and a powerful, acrid stench fills your lungs.
For hours after our visit, my stomach lurched and my head throbbed. We were there
for only one hour, but those who live in Mr Yan’s village of Dalahai, and other villages
around, breathe in the same poison every day.
Retired farmer Su Bairen, 69, who led us to the lake, says it was initially a novelty –
a multi-coloured pond set in farmland as early rare earth factories run by the state-owned
Baogang group of companies began work in the Sixties.
‘At first it was just a hole in the ground,’ he says. ‘When it dried in the winter and
summer, it turned into a black crust and children would play on it. Then one or two of
them fell through and drowned in the sludge below. Since then, children have stayed
away.’
As more factories sprang up, the banks grew higher, the lake grew larger and the
stench and fumes grew more overwhelming.
‘It turned into a mountain that towered over us,’ says Mr Su. ‘Anything we planted
just withered, then our animals started to sicken and die.’
People too began to suffer. Dalahai villagers say their teeth began to fall out, their
hair turned white at unusually young ages, and they suffered from severe skin and
respiratory diseases. Children were born with soft bones and cancer rates rocketed.
Official studies carried out five years ago in Dalahai village confirmed there were
unusually high rates of cancer along with high rates of osteoporosis and skin and
respiratory diseases. The lake’s radiation levels are ten times higher than in the
surrounding countryside, the studies found.
Since then, maybe because of pressure from the companies operating around the
lake, which pump out waste 24 hours a day, the results of ongoing radiation and toxicity
tests carried out on the lake have been kept secret and officials have refused to publicly
acknowledge health risks to nearby villages.”
99

Production of Rare Earth Oxides-Assessment of The Environmental Impacts in Two Chinese Mines by Aländj I BOUORAKIMA

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Production of Rare Earth Oxides-Assessment of The Environmental Impacts in Two Chinese Mines by Aländj I BOUORAKIMA

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Production of rare earth oxides

Assessment of the environmental impacts in two Chinese mines

Dissertation for the Master of Science in

University College London

The recent interest in environmental friendly technologies has created a significant

Table 1: Categorisation of rare earth elements (Hedrick 2010) ........................................... 15

GWh gigawatt-hour (109 Wh)

Chemical element Abbreviation Atomic Number Category

1.2. Aim of the study

Concentration in the Earth's crust (ppm) 60

2.2. Description of the main rare earth minerals

China, Baiyun Obo

Lahat Perak, Malaysia

2.4. Historical production of rare earth oxide

Figure 8: Global production of rare earth oxide (USGS 2010)

Figure 9 illustrates the great periods of REE exploitation from 1950.

Figure 10: Global rare earth consumption in 2006 (Roskill 2007)

2.5.3. Glass, polishing, ceramics

3.2. Chinese production of rare earths

3.2.4. Summary of Chinese rare earth production

Figure 15: Distribution of the Chinese production of rare earths in 2010

3.3. Prospective other productions

3.3.1. Mount Weld, Australia

3.3.2. Mountain Pass, USA

5. Bayan Obo deposit

5.2. Composition of the original ore

5.3. Description of the beneficiation process

Stage Purpose Process description Reference

o Schüler et al. 2011

• Removal of the surplus paraffin - o Hout, et al. 1991

5.5. Processing of the mixed rare earth concentrate

5.6. Obtaining of rare earth oxides

Stage Purpose Process description Reference

o Todorovsky, et al. 1993

• Rinsing of rare earth sulphates with bicarbonates o Nguyen, et al. 2002

• Transformation of rare • Rinsing with hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Step Purpose Process description Reference

Rare earths H2O

6.3. Description of the beneficiation process

Step Purpose Process description Reference

Gravity • Separation and o Schüler, et al. 2011

Selective rare • Separation of rare - o Schüler, et al. 2011

6.4.2. Separation and refining operations

6.5. Obtaining of rare earth oxides

Step Purpose Process description Reference

• The mixture is decanted to remove the solid o Todorovsky, et al. 1993

7. Life cycle assessment methodology

8. Goal definition and scope

8.3. Display of results

8.4. Scope of the life cycle assessment

8.5. Guideline to life cycle assessment methodology

9.1. Bayan Obo deposit

9.1.1.3. Explosives input

Stage Type Quantity Assumptions

o proportionality to REO output

Energy requirement 44.3 GWh per year o mining rate assumption

Explosives 1,180 tonnes per year o mining rate assumption

Comminution, Beneficiation and o proportionality to Thor Lake

Table 8: Summary of the beneficiation modelling

Stage Type Quantity Assumptions

o 75% efficiency of the

o Full recovery and perfect