Lesson 1: Language of Sets

Sets

• Well-defined collection of distinct objects

• Represented by capital letters
• Objects of set are separated by commas
• Can be represented by listing its element between braces
• It is well-defined if the elements in a set are specifically listed
Examples:
A = {a, e, i, o, u} B {set of figures} C = {Ca, Au, Ag}
• A set is finite if the numbers of elements is countable
Examples: even a number less than 10, days in a week
• A set is infinite if the numbers of elements cannot be counted.
Examples: stars in the sky, odd numbers, even numbers greater than 20

Notation

• If S is a set, the notation:

o 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 - x is an element of S o 𝑥 ∉ 𝑆 - x is not an element of
o S
• A variation of notation is used to describe a very large set
o {1, 2, 3, …, 100} - set of all integers o {1, 2, 3, …} – set of all positive integers
from 1 to 100
• “…” – ellipses and is read as “and so forth”

Set-Roster Notation

• A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by writing all elements between braces
Example:
o Let A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {3, 1, 2} and C = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3}/ What are the element of A, B, and C?
How are A, B, and C, related?
A, B, C, have exactly the same three elements (1, 2, 3). Therefore, A, B, and C are simply
represented in different ways.
o Is {0} = 0?
No. {0} ≠ 0 because {0} is a set with one element, namely 0, whereas 0 is just the symbol that
represents the number zero.
o How many elements are ion the set {1, {1}}?
The set {1, {1}} has two elements: 1 and the set whose only element is 1
o For each nonnegative integer n, let 𝑈𝑛 = {𝑛, −𝑛}. Find 𝑈1, 𝑈2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈0
𝑈1, = {1, −1}
 𝑈2 = {2, −2}
𝑈0 = {0, −0} = {0, 0} = {0}

Cartesian Set of Numbers

• N = {1, 2, 3, …} – natural numbers • Q’ = irrational numbers (non termination,
• W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} – whole numbers non-repeating decimals)
• Z = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …} – integers • R = real numbers
• Q = rational numbers (terminating, • C = complex number
repeating decimals

Set-Builder Notation

• Let S denote and let P(x) be a property that elements of S may or may not satisfy. We define a new
set to be the set of all elements x in S such that P(x) is true. We denote this set as follows:
{x ∈ S | P(x)}
The set of all elements x in S such that P of x is true

Using the Set-Builder Notation

• Given that R the set of all real numbers, Z the set of all integers, and 𝑍 + the set of all positive
integers, describe the following sets:
a) {x ∈ ℝ | -2 < x < 5}
o (Pronunciation): The set of all elements x in real numbers such that x is greater than -2
but less than 5
o It is the open interval of real numbers (strictly between -2 and 5). It is pictured as follows:

b) {x ∈ Z | -2 < x < 5}
o (Pronunciation): The set of all elements x in the set of integers such that x is greater than
-2 but less than 5
o It is the set of all integers (strictly) between -2 and 5. It is equal to the set {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3,
4}
c) {x ∈ 𝑍 + | -2 < x < 5} –
o (Pronunciation): The set of all elements x in positive integer such that x is greater than -2
but less than 5
o Since all integers in 𝑍 +are positive {x ∈ 𝑍 + | -2 < x < 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Technologies in Set
1. Unit Set - a set that contains only one element.
Illustration:
A = {1} B = {c} C = {banana}
2. Empty set or Null set - set that has no element. The symbol Ø (null) or { } (empty)
Illustration 1:
A={} A set of seven yellow carabaos
Illustration 2:
A = {days start with letter L} B = {triangles with 4 sides}
3. Finite set - a set that the elements in a given set is countable.
Illustration:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} B = {a, b, c, d}
4. Infinite set - a set that element in a given set has no end or not countable.
Illustration:
A set of counting numbers A = {…-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
5. Cardinal Number; n - numbers that used to measure the number of elements in a given set. It is just
similar in counting the total number of elements in a set.
Illustration:
A = {2, 4, 6, 8} n = 4 B = {a, c, e} n = 3
6. Equal set - two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if and only if they have equal number of
cardinality (number of elements in a set) and the element/s are identical.
Illustration 1:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {3, 5, 2, 4, 1}
Illustration 2:
A = {c, a, r, e} B = {r, a, c, e}
7. Equivalent set - two sets, say A and B, are said to be equivalent if and only if they have the exact
number of elements.
Illustration 1:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {a, b, c, d, e}
Illustration 2:
A = {a, e, i, o u} B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
8. Universal set - set of all elements under discussion.
Illustration 1:
A set of an English alphabet U = {a, b, c, d, …, z}
 Illustration 2:
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {3, 4, 5, 5}
Then the universal set U is, U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
9. Joint Sets - two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets if and only if they have common
element/s.
Illustration:
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {2, 4, 6}
Here, sets A and B are joint set since they have common element such as 2.
10. Disjoint Sets - two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if and only if they are mutually exclusive
or if they don’t have common element/s.
Illustration:
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {4, 6, 8}

Subsets

• If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if, and only if, every element of A
is also an element of B (ung elements ng A nasa B or vice versa)
o 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵
• A ⊄ B means that – there is at least one element x such that x ∈ A then x ∈ B (may element/s si A na
wala kay B)
o 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵
• If x ∈ A, then x ∈ B. In particular, every set is a subset of itself, A ⊆ A.
Illustration: How many subsets are there in a set?
A = {1, 2, 3}? List down all the subsets of set A. Number of subsets = 2n = 23 = 8 subsets
o With one element - {1}; {2}; {3} o With three elements - {1, 2, 3}
o With two elements - {1, 2}; {1, 3}; {2, o With no elements - { }
3}

Proper Subset
Note: The empty set or { } has no elements and is a subset of every set for every set A, A ⊂ A.
Let A and B sets, A is a proper subset of B, if, and only if, every element of B is in B but there is a least
one element of B that is not in a (ang elements ni A meron kay B, pero, may element/s si B na wala kay
A)

Let A = 𝑍 + , B = {n ∈ Z | 0 ≤ n ≤ 100} (meaning: set of integers where n is greater than or equal to 0 but
less than or equal to 100; nagsisimula sa 0 to 100), and C = {100, 200, 300, 400, 500}.
Evaluate the truth and falsity of each of the following statements.

1. B ⊆ A = FALSE, because 0 is not a positive integer (it is a special number in the integer that is neither
positive nor negative). Thus zero is in B but zero is not in A, and so B ⊄ A
2. C is a proper subset of A = TRUE, because each element in C is a positive integer, and hence, is in A,
but there are elements in A that are not in C. For instance, 1 is in A and not in C
3. C and B have at least one element in common = TRUE, because100 is in both C and B
4. C ⊆ B = FALSE, because 200 is in C but not in B
5. C ⊆ C = TRUE, because every element in C is in C. In general, the definition of subset implies that all
sets are subsets of themselves

Distinction between ∈ and ⊆ whereas only (a), (d), and (f) are true

a. 2 ∈ {1, 2, 3}
b. {2} ∈ {1, 2, 3} = FALSE, because getting the elements does not need braces
c. 2 ⊆ {1, 2, 3} = FALSE, because getting subset must enclose or represent with braces
d. {2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}
e. {2} ⊆ {{1}, {2}} = FALSE, because the braces used in 2 is a part of element; if you are going to get
the subject, it must be enclosed with braces (correct: {{2}}
f. {2} ∈ {{1}, {2}}

Ordered Pair
Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is the second element. Two ordered pairs (a, b) and
(c, d) are equal if, and only if, a = c and b = d. Symbolically:

(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d

Example:

a. Is (1, 2) = (2, 1)? = NO. By the definition of equality of ordered pairs (if two ordered pairs are equal
then their corresponding elements are equal. i.e., if (x₁, y₁) = (x₂, y₂), then x₁ = x₂ and y₁ = y₂
5 1
b. Is (3 10) = √9 2 = YES
c. What is the first element of (1, 1) = In the ordered pair (1, 1), the first and the second elements are 1

Operation of Sets

1. Union of Sets - the union of sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set defined as:

A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

• Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

• Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
 Note that elements are not repeated in a set.

2. Intersection of Sets - the intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set defined as:

A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

• Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} then A ∩ B = {1, 2}

• Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} then A ∩ B = ∅

3. Difference of Sets - the difference of sets A from B, denoted by A - B, is the set defined as

A - B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B}

• Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, then A - B = {3}

• Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then A - B = {1, 2, 3}
• Example: If A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {a, c, e}, then A - B = {b, d}

Note that in general A - B ≠ B – A

4. Compliment of Set – for a set A, the difference U - A, where U is the universe, is called the complement
of A and it is denoted by Ac . Thus, 𝐀𝐜 is the set of everything that is not in A.
• Example: Let U = {a, e, i, o, u} and A = {a, e}, then Ac = {i, o u}

5. Cartesian Product - given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted A x B and read “A
times B,” is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a is in A and b is in B. Note that A x B is not equal
to B x A.

A x B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

• Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}

o Find A x B – A x B = {(1, u), (2, u), (3, u), (1, v), (2, v), (3, v)}
o Find B x A = B x A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}
o Find B x B = B x B = {(u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}
• How many elements are in A x B, B x A, and B x B?
o A x B has six elements, B x A has six elements, and B x B has four elements

Lesson 2: Language of Relations and Functions

Relation

• It is a rule that relates values from a set of values (called the domain), to a second set of values
(called the range)
• The elements of the domain can be imagined as input to a machine that applies a rule to these inputs
to generate one or more outputs
• It is also a set of ordered pair (x, y)
Example:
R = {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10)}
Notation:

• The notation for a relation R may be written symbolically as follows:

o x R y meaning (x, y) ∈ R.
• The notation x R y means that x is not related to y by R:
o x R y meaning (x, y) ∉ R.

Relation as a Subset
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and define a relation R from A to B as follows: Given any (x, y) ∈ A x B
𝑥−𝑦
(x, y) ∈ R means that 2 is an integer

1. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A x B and which are in R

Solution: A x B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}
1−1 0 2−1 1
• (1, 1) ∈ R because = =0 • (2, 1) ∉ R because =
2 2 2 2
1−2 −1 2−2 0
• (1, 2) ∉ R because 2 = 2
• (2, 2) ∈ R because 2 = 2
= 0
1−3 −2 2−3 −1
• (1, 3) ∈ R because = = −1 • (2, 3) ∉ R because 2 = 2
2 2

Thus, R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2)}

2. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
• Yes, 1 R 3 because (1, 3) ∈ R • Yes, 2 R 2 because (2, 2) ∈ R
• No, 2 R 3 because (2, 3) ∉ R

3. What is the domain and range of R?

• The domain of R is (1, 2) and the range is {1, 2, 3}

Properties of Relation
1. Reflexive - a relation R on A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is related to itself. In notation,
a R a for all a ∈ A.

Examples of reflexive relations include:

• "is equal to" (equality) • "is less than or equal to" and "is greater
• "is a subset of" (set inclusion) than or equal to" (inequality)
• "divides" (divisibility).

Example of a non-reflexive relation: relation "is the father of" on a set of people since no person is the
father of themself.

When looking at an arrow diagram, a relation is reflexive if every element of A has an arrow pointing
to itself.
2. Symmetric - A relation R on A is symmetric if given a R b then b R a.
Examples:
• "is married to • " is a symmetric relation
While, "is less than" is not. The relation "is the sister of" is not symmetric on a set that contains a brother
and sister but would be symmetric on a set of females. The arrow
diagram of a symmetric relation has the property that whenever there
is a directed arrow from a to b, there is also a directed arrow from
b to a.

3. Transitive - A relation R on A is transitive if given a R b and b R c then a R c.

Examples of reflexive relations include:
• "is equal to" (equality) • "is less than or equal to" and "is greater
• "is a subset of" (set inclusion) than or equal to" (inequality)
• "divides" (divisibility).

On the other hand, "is the mother of" is not a transitive relation, because if Maria is the mother of Josefa,
and Josefa is the mother of Juana, then Maria is not the mother of Juana.

The arrow diagram of a transitive relation has the property that

whenever there are directed arrows from a to b and from b to c then
there is also a directed arrow from a to c

4. Equivalence - relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive

Examples of equivalence relations include:
• The equality ("=") relation between real • The relation "has the same birthday as"
numbers or sets. on the set of all human beings.
• The relation "is similar to" on the set of
all triangles.
On the other hand, the relation "⊆" is not an equivalence relation on the set of all subsets of a set A
since this relation is not symmetric.

Function

• It is a relation where each element in the domain is related to only one value in the range by some
rule
• The elements of the domain can be imagined as input to a machine that applies a rule so that each input
corresponds to only one output
• A function is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that no two ordered pairs have the same x-value but
different y-values
• It can be represented in different ways:
o Table of values o Graph
o Ordered pairs o Equation
Which of the following relations are functions?

• FUNCTION: f = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 5), (4, 5)}

• NOT FUNCTION: g = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 6)}
• FUNCTION: h = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9),…, (n, 3n),…}

Function Notation
The symbol f(x) means function of x and it is read as “f of x.” Thus, the equation y = 2x + 1 could be written
in a form of f(x) = 2x + 1 meaning y = f(x). It can be stated that y is a function of x.

Let us say we have a function in a form of f(x) = 3x – 1. If we replace x = 1, this could be written as f(1) =
3(1) – 1. The notation f(1) only means that we substitute the value of x = 1 resulting the function value.
Thus

f(x) = 3x – 1; let x = 1

f(1) = 3(1) – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2

Which of the following mapping diagrams represent functions?

Function (one to one) Function (many to one) Not a Function (one to many)

Vertical Line Test

• A graph represents a function if and only if each vertical line intersects the graph at most once

Which of the following represents a function?

1. y = 2x + 1 (FUNCTION, because it is linear equation)

2. y = x 2 − 2x + 2 (FUNCTION, because it is quadratic equation)

3. x 2 + y 2 = 1 (NOT A FUNCTION, because y or range is squared)

4. y = √x + 1 (FUNCTION)
2x+1
5. y = x−1
(FUNCTION)

Types of Functions
1. Constant Function – it is a linear function if f(x) = mx + b where m = 0 and b is any real number.
Thus f(x) = b.
o Example: f(x) = 2
2. Linear Function – it is a linear function if the equation is in form of f(x) = mx + b, where a and b are
real numbers, and m and f (x) are both not equal to zero.
o Example: f(x) = 2x +
3. Quadratic Function – any equation of the form f(x) = 𝐚𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐛𝐱 + 𝐜 where a, b and c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0.
o Example: f(x) = 3x 2 + x − 1
4. Cubic Function – polynomial function that has highest degree of 3.
o Example: f(x) = x 3
5. Rational Function – it is any function which can be as ratio of 2 polynomial functions, where
polynomial in the denominator is not equal to zero.
o Example: f(x) = (x 2 − 3𝑥)𝑜𝑟 (2𝑥 − 2)
6. Square-root Function – it is defined as taking any positive number y as input and return the
positive number x which would have to be squared, to obtain y.
o Example: f(x) = √𝑥
7. Exponential Function – a mathematical function of the form: f(x) = 𝐚𝐱 where x is a variable, and a
is a constant called the base of function.
o Example: f(x) = 2x
8. Logarithmic Function - inverse of exponential functions.
o Example = log a x
9. Identity Function – it is a linear function if f(x) = mx + b where m = 1 and b = 0. Thus, f(x) = x.
o Example: f(x) = x
10. Absolute Value Function – if all real numbers x. Example: f(x) = |−𝑥|
x for x ≥ 0
𝑓(𝑥) = { }
x for x ≤ 0
11. Piecewise Function – compound function that refers to multiple sub function, where each sub
function applies to a certain interval of the main function’s domain

𝑥2, 𝑥<2
𝑓(𝑥) = {
6, 𝑥=2
12. One to One Function – each value of the y in the range, there is just one value x in the domain such
that y = f(x)
 • Horizontal line test – conducted to test if a function is one to one. It is one to one if no horizontal
line intersects its graph more than one.

Evaluating a Function

• A process of determining the value of function at the number assigned to a given variable. It is
replacing or substituting the variable with a given number or expression

Step 1: Write the original function

Step 2: Substitute the given output

Step 3: Evaluate the following using

PEMDAS

Examples:

1. f(x) = 2x + 4 for x = 5 f(5) = 10 + 4

f(x) = 2x + 4 f(5) = 14
f(5) = 2(5) + 4

2. f(x) = 4x2 – 2x + 5 find f(-3) f(-3) = 36 + 6 + 5

f(-3) = 4(-3)2 – 2(-3) + 5 f(-3) = 47
f(-3) = 4 x 9 – 2(-3) + 5

3. h(x) = x2 + 2 for x = -3 and x = 2 h(-3) = 9 + 2

h(x) = x2 + 2 h(-3) = 11
h(-3) = (-3)2 + 2

4. h(x) = x2 + 2 h(2) = 4 + 2
h(2) = 22 + 2 h(2) = 6

5. f(x) = 1 + x for x = a – 4 f(a - 4) = 1 + a - 4

f(x) = 1 + x f(a - 4) = a - 3
f(a - 4) = 1 + (a - 4)

6. f(x) = 4x + 1, find f(h + 1) f(h + 1) = 4h + 4 + 1

f(h + 1) = 4(h + 1) + 1 f(h + 1) = 4h + 5