THE JOURNAL FOR COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT BUSINESS • ISSUE 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
THE JOURNAL FOR COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT BUSINESS
www.aircraft-commerce.com
www.aircraft-commerce.com

FRESH AIR
A220-100 & -300 FUEL BURN &
OPERATING PERFORMANCE
Post-pandemic airline capacity and activity I A220 family fuel burn & operating performance
The paths to industry sustainability I Engine MRO market activity
Parts management in digital systems I 757-200 & medium widebody freight replacements
ISSUE 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

www.aircraft-commerce.com
We’re the people
to keep you flying
Shannon Engine Support has the world’s largest leasing
portfolio of CFM56 and LEAP engines strategically
located across the globe. Short or long-term leases,
our tailored solutions are created by people with
unrivalled knowledge and expertise, who understand
your business and the strength of partnership.
In challenging times, that’s good to know.

SES. The CFM Specialist Lessor.

www.ses.ie

Julie Dickerson
Julie Dickerson
Chief Executive Officer
 www.aircraft-commerce.com
Editor’s Comment
JUNE/JULY 2022

EDITOR
CHARLES WILLIAMS (+44 1403 230 302)
charles@aircraft-commerce.com The unprecedented downturn the aviation industry experienced as a result of the Covid-19
STAFF WRITER pandemic has resulted in similarly unprecedented problems with its recovery. Never before
ROB HALL (+44 1403 213 112)
rob@aircraft-commerce.com has the industry had to reduce activity to such a huge extent as it did in the Spring of 2020,
PRODUCTION EDITOR and for most of the remainder of that year.
GEORGIA BIRRI

SUBSCRIPTIONS
ANNE AHIER (+44 1403 213 110) Many airlines laid off large numbers of staff of all types. These included flight and cabin
anne@aircraft-commerce.com
crew, ground operations, flight operations, aircraft and flight dispatch, and a variety of
DISTRIBUTION
ANNE AHIER (+44 1403 213 110)
technical roles. The same applies to many of the industry’s technical and material
anne@aircraft-commerce.com
suppliers, as well as airports.
PHOTOGRAPHY
AIRTEAMIMAGES
www.airteamimages.com The overall effect of this has been an inability to cope with the increased passenger
AVIATION IMAGES volumes since last winter’s wave of the Omicron Covid variant.
www.aviation-images.com

Despite the inevitable chaos and delays that have been the visible result of airlines’ and
airports’ struggles over the last six months, passenger demand has continued to rise.

It appears, unfortunately, that the industry’s staff and supply problems are not going to
disappear fast. Many predict it lasting until at least the spring of 2023 until enough staff
have been recruited, and gained sufficient experience to be competent.
Aircraft Commerce (ISSN 1463-1873, USPS No: 023-
327) is published bi-monthly by Nimrod Publications
Ltd and distributed in the USA by Asendia USA, 17B
South Middlesex Avenue, Monroe, NJ and additional Particular problems are the lack of experienced (and highly qualified) technical staff in
mailing offices. Periodicals postage paid New
Brunswick, NJ. engine MRO shops, and the related restricted supply of engine components and materials,
POSTMASTER: send address changes to Aircraft which again are caused mainly by the lack of suitable staff.
Commerce, 17B South Middlesex Avenue, Monroe,
NJ, 08831, USA.

Nimrod Publications Ltd All of these issues are compounding to cause airlines problems in increasing operating
2nd Floor, West Point
Springfield Road, Horsham schedules and overall capacity. There are long waiting times for engine shop visits, airframe
West Sussex
United Kingdom, RH12 2PD checks, and aircraft components. Several airlines have reported pilot shortages, and some
Subscriptions are attempting to recruit.
Subscription enquiries should be directed to:
sales@aircraft-commerce.com or to the offices of the
publisher above.
phone +44 (0) 1403 230 110 These problems are also compounded by a sharp rise in the price of crude oil, and
facsimile +44 (0) 1403 230 525
A one-year subscription to Aircraft Commerce is £197 consequently Jet A-1, in the first half of this year, although this has been tempered by a
including postage within the UK, Euro 290 for
countries in the Eurozone, and US$325 for all other drop of about 25% in the spot price of crude oil.
countries.

Publication
Aircraft Commerce is a trade publication published Paradoxically these multiple capacity constraints may help airlines indirectly bolster their
every two months and distributed globally. The next
publication date is 15th September 2022. much weakened balance sheets. The tight supply of seats and overall capacity in many
Copyright markets are keeping load factors and passenger yields high. These conditions are likely to
Aircraft Commerce is the copyright of Nimrod
Publications Limited. This magazine may not be remain until at least the spring of 2023.
reproduced, transmitted or stored by any means in
whole or in part without written permission from the
publisher.
Readers should make independent enquiries before
entering into any financial arrangement on the basis of
information found in this magazine. All care is taken
Charles Williams
with facts and figures, but no responsibility can be
taken for information contained in Aircraft Editor
Commerce.
Contents
MAIN FEATURES
Airline post-pandemic activity
DEVELOPMENTS Airline capacity data for Asia Pacific, Europe and the US
during April 2022 is compared against April 2019. The
3 Deutsche Aircraft reveals D328eco
5I results illustrate the status of the recovery.

AIRCRAFT ANALYSIS
5 Post-pandemic airline activity &
capacity. A220-100/-300 fuel burn analysis
The A220-100 and -300 have impressed many with its
passenger appeal, and operating efficiency. The

AIRLINE OPERATIONS
11 I A220-100’s and -300’s fuel burn performance is
analysed and compared with competing aircraft types
11 A220-100 & -300 fuel burn and on nine routes between 200nm and 900nm.
performance analysis

17 The paths to industry sustainability Engine MRO market activity

The engine MRO market experienced a sudden and
deep downturn at the start of the Covid-19 pandemic.
The number of engine shop visits has now begun to
25 I increase, but the market faces several problems, as
well as airlines still using assets with green time to
MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING avoid shop visit inputs.
25 Engine MRO market

31 Parts management in a digital

system. Parts management systems
The road to digitisation and fully electronic maintenance
execution requires a large number of developments. The
management of parts is perhaps one of the most
FREIGHT BUSINESS
31 I comprehensive and complex functionalities to complete.
There are many areas of an M&E system involved, and
the system structure and process is examined here.
40 Avensis Aviation’s Class E and full
freighter programmes.

42 Vallair launches A330 Class E

freighter programme.
Replacing medium freighters
Medium size freighters are the backbone of the express
freighter fleet. Yet many of these aircraft are based on
A300/757/767 platforms. New A330 and A321
43 Replacements for medium freighters
43 I passenger to freighter (P-to-F) are ready to serve as
replacements.
 3 I DEVELOPMENTS

T
he D328eco is a next generation
turboprop developed by
Deutsche Aircraft, scheduled for
entry into service (EIS) in 2026.
The aircraft is a stretched and derivative
Deutsche Aircraft
version of the legacy Dornier Do328 33-
seat turboprop that was produced from
1991 to 2000. More than 200 were built,
including a jet version that totalled 110
units.
D328eco
The D328eco can be configured to The Deutsche Aircraft D328eco is a new 38-40 seat turboprop based
accommodate 38 or 40 passengers, on the Do328 platform. Now, sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)
depending on the chosen interior layout.
It also features advanced PW127XT-S
compatible and economical PW127XT-S engines equate to low cash
conventional turboprop engines with operating costs and meaningful green credentials. For operators
better performance and maintenance developing new route networks, its size and performance mitigate
goals, and a flightdeck designed for against risk, meaning the turboprop is good for the balance books.
potential single pilot operations (SPO).
Operating a stage length of 200nm,
the D328eco has lower cash operating
costs (COC) than regional jets (RJ). A According to Buchholz, profitability High altitude and speed mean the
typical 75-seat turboprop will yield up to can still be achieved earlier with a smaller D328eco is an ideal replacement for
a 20% reduction in fuel burn compared aircraft. The D328eco’s trip cost is many ageing RJs. The type can also be
to a 75-seat RJ. This benefit increases to estimated to be the lowest of any in- operated from short runways and
40% in favour of the turboprop, with production aircraft, while it mitigates perform at lower flight levels (FL).
improvements in new technology. against risk with the lowest breakeven The original 30-seat Do328 had an
“There are no small turboprops or load-factor. With a 38- and 40-seat excellent reputation for the low level of
RJs with 40 seats currently in configuration operators do not need to noise in the passenger cabin that
production,” explains chief commercial discount fares to fill seats or cater to compared favourably to a RJ. It is
officer at Deutsche Aircraft, Nico declining yields. At 20% bigger, the next- expected that the contemporary design
Buchholz. “The D328eco will have a size aircraft increases economic risk. will inherit the previous aircraft’s low
state-of-the-art cockpit and passenger At 100% load factor, the D328eco noise characteristics.
cabin. The aircraft is good for passengers, can cover 98% of existing turboprop The D328eco has an operating empty
the environment and the operator’s services. 95% of all RJs are operated by weight (OEW) of 22,377lbs, a maximum
balance sheet. The small advance aircraft aircraft with fewer than 75 seats. The zero fuel weight (MZFW) of 31,636lbs,
theme will be like when other types such D328eco is therefore an economic and a maximum take-off weight
as the 787 and A350 were released to the alternative. (MTOW) 34,525lbs (see table, page 4).
market. You know what happened to The D328eco has a maximum cruise With a maximum payload of 9,260lbs the
other types when the A220 came along.” speed of 324kTas, translating to a 7.3% D328eco has a range of 400nm. Loaded
Other aircraft in this category size increase in speed compared to in-service with 40 passengers weighing 214lbs each,
include the Saab 340, Saab 2000, and the turboprops; and a 3.8-17.5% higher the aircraft will have a range of 560nm.
Dash 8-100/-200/-300. In 2022 none of speed compared to common, out-of- Operating out of Berlin or London at
these aircraft are being produced despite production turboprops that include the a load factor of 75%, the aircraft has a
sizable fleet numbers. Dash 8-300 and Fokker 50. 1,150nm range, sufficient to reach most
There are about 200 active Saab 340
aircraft and about 28 Saab 2000 aircraft
in service. Other aircraft active in this
category include the Dash 8-100/-200/
-300 family of aircraft totalling about
320 in-service examples.
The ATR 42 has a seating capacity of
40-52 passengers, and is currently
manufactured by Airbus and Leonardo
S.p.A. The high-wing turboprop is
powered by the Pratt and Whitney
Canada PW120 family of engines. The
ATR 42 has been described by some as
the D328eco’s closest competitor, despite
the aircraft having more seats.

With its D328eco program, Deutsche Aircraft is

working on an aircraft in the under 40-seat
market, that will achieve near carbon neutrality.
The aircraft that is scheduled to be certified in
2026 will be able to use 100% H2-SAF (PtL) on
top of any other certified sustainable aviation
fuel and regular kerosene.

ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022 AIRCRAFT COMMERCE

4 I DEVELOPMENTS
D328 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Specification parameter
Operational empty weight (OEW)
Maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW)
Maximum take off weight (MTOW)
Maximum landing weight (MLW)
Maximum payload at typical OEW
Fuel capacity (fuel density 0.80 kg/l)
Fuel Consumpton
200nm block fuel (40 passengers)
300nm block fuel (40 passengers)
500nm block fule (40 passengers)
Maximium cruise speed
parts of Europe. The aircraft is suited to
point to point (P-to-P) routes and can
also be operated on feeder-networks.
The ability to operate above 25,000
feet is unique among all in-production
turboprops. The D328eco has a 30,000 ft
high-altitude capability that improves
access to shorter routings and reduces
trip energy requirements. Further
reduction of energy consumption
compared to lower-level operations yields
an extra 4-8% in fuel savings.
Deutsche Aircraft will also update the
flightdeck avionics, making it ready for a
possible transition into SOP. The cockpit
design reduces pilot workload and
increases efficiency.
PW127XT-S
Deutsche Aircraft selected the
PW127XT-S to power the D328eco. The
engine will be an additional model in the
XT series, delivering a significant
improvement in operating costs and
sustainability. The PW127XT-S will be
developed according to the D328eco
timeline.
“We have worked closely with the
D328eco team over a number of years to
develop the best engine option for the
aircraft,” says Maria Della Posta,
president of Pratt & Whitney Canada.
“The PW127XT-S provides airlines with
40% more time on-wing, a 20%
reduction in maintenance costs with only
two scheduled events over 10 years, and a
3% improvement in specific fuel
consumption. We support Deutsche
Aircraft’s vision of building a green
aviation company, and we are confident
that the PW127XT-S is the ideal match
for the D328eco.”
Pratt and Whitney Canada have
developed a customised engine
maintenance programme for the
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
22,377lbs/10,150Kg
31,636lbs/14,350Kg
34,525lbs/15,660Kg
33,420lbs/15,160Kg
9,260lbs/4,200Kg
7,970lbs/3,615Kg
1,089lbs/494Kg
1,468lbs/666Kg
2,237lbs/1,015Kg
600 km/h/324 kTas
PW127XT family of engines. The
programme can be tailored for every
environment, mission type, including
operator experience level. The
personalised Fleet Management
Programme (FMP) for the PW127XT
family enable customers to maximise
engine on-wing time.
Under international standard
atmospheric (ISA) conditions, nil winds
and including reserves, fuel flow is
1,100lb per hour; assuming 95% MTOW
at FL270. Block fuel for a 200nm flight,
and carrying 40 passengers is 1,089lbs.
Assuming the same criteria, block fuel for
300nm will total 1,468lbs and 2,237lbs
for a 500nm flight.
ECO
The D328eco will be compatible for
certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)
usage. Deutsche Aircraft and South
African chemical and energy company
Sasol ecoFT, recently signed a
memorandum of understanding (MoU) to
advance the power-to-liquid (PtL) process
for producing PtL-SAF for aviation.
PtL-SAF is a scalable and long-term
solution to minimize the carbon dioxide
(CO2) footprint of aviation. The process
uses CO2 captured from the atmosphere,
and hydrogen, produced with green
energy, to produce a synthetic fuel. PtL-
SAF will have similar characteristics to
regular kerosene. PtL-SAF fuel contains
fewer aromatics and sulphur, improving
local air quality.
“The D328eco is more efficient than a
jet. This means whatever we burn, for
example SAF or PtL-SAF, the D328eco
burns less,” says Buchholz.
Deutsche Aircraft and Sasol will not
only work on technology and production
aspects of H2-SAF (PtL), but also aim at
a certification for this type of fuel to be
used as drop-in or non-drop-in jet fuel.
As a first step of their partnership
Sasol ecoFT and Deutsche Aircraft will
explore the compatibility of materials and
system components with blended
synthetic fuels produced through Sasol’s
FT technology currently applied in its
existing coal to liquid (CtL) process. The
priority of this aspect of the project is to
expedite the certification of more
sustainable PtL-SAF options.
Markets
In 2022 the turboprop fleet totalled
1,950 examples. By 2041 there will be a
requirement for 2,450 new aircraft
including 1,500 replacements and 710 to
match growth.
It is thought that over the next 20
years 35% of new turboprops will be
needed to service new routes. Most of the
new routes will be located in the Asia
Pacific region, including China. Large
cities within China are connected by a
high-speed train network. However, once
outside the major conurbations large
areas of the country will be reliant on
small turboprop aircraft. Over the next
10 years it is estimated that 150 new
airports will be built. Turboprops are
replacing boats in many other Asia Pacific
regions. Improving economies will also
increase the demand for air travel.
North America will be another key
market because connectivity has declined
as many small regional aircraft fleets have
been retired. Domestic traffic has declined
by more than 30% in the past 20 years.
There are about 900 small jets in the
region and many are more than15 years
old. Turboprops with improved
economics and reduced fuel burn are
therefore expected to be needed as
replacements.
SOP operations will improve airline
profits, and help relieve the acute pilot
shortage in the area.
Reducing CO2 emissions is a key
requirement in Europe. Research suggests
that CO2 emissions can be reduced by
33% if turboprops replaced RJs. For
200nm-300nm sectors, 325,000 tonnes of
CO2 could be saved annually by
immediately switching types. There is
significant potental in new P-to-P routes
from Eastern Europe to Central Asia.
Some of the busiest turboprop routes
in the world are located in Latin America
and the Caribbean. Under 500nm, 45%
of Brazilian domestic routes are operated
by turboprops, and it is likely the type
will be significant for new route
development. In Colombia 34% of
airports are only served by turboprop
aircraft.
To download more than 1,200
articles like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

North America, Europe and Asia Pacific airline capacity data for April 2019
and April 2022 is compared. The results illustrate the recovery status of
each region and the performance differential between the major airlines
and low-cost carriers (LCC). Plus how staff shortages are influencing the
recovery process in terms of flight cancellations and fares.
North America, Europe &
Asia Pacific major and LCC
post pandemic markets
A
irline capacity data for April
2019 and April 2022 for the
three largest continental markets
are compared to examine the
rate of industry recovery post-pandemic.
These are the US domestic, intra-Europe
and intra-Asia Pacific markets.
According to capacity data, airlines in
these three markets operated 2.3 million
flights and provided a total of 333 million
seats in April 2019. The number of flights
and seat capacity data in April 2022 was
down 21.4% and 22.3% compared with
April 2019.
The most established and best known
low-cost carriers (LCCs) in these three
markets accounted for 27.4% of the pre-
pandemic market. By 2022 this share had
increased to 67.9%.
After initial signs of post-pandemic
growth, European and North American
operators have been forced to pull back
capacity in the first half of 2022 as staff
shortages have forced flight cancellations.
Southwest Airlines’ chief executive officer
Robert Jordan reported constraints while
hiring pilots, and the Omicron wave of the
pandemic kept the carrier in the red during
the first quarter of 2022.
Beginning in March 2022, Southwest
Airlines has seen an uptick in demand, and
forecasts further improvements. Despite
high demand and increasing fares, staff
shortages are the biggest factor prohibiting
airline growth. 15% of Southwest Airlines’
staff are new post-pandemic, resulting in
inefficiencies.
The Asia Pacific is starting to show
significant signs of recovery. For example,
VietJet is exceeding pre-pandemic seating
capacity as it resumes services between
Vietnam and Thailand. Yet in April 2022,
AirAsia Thailand and Thai International
were showing signs that they are struggling
to recover, and are operating at 60% lower
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
5 I AIRCRAFT ANALYSIS & FLEET PLANNING
utilisation compared to April 2019.
Yet current airline forecasts point
towards strong travel demand, and
passengers’ willingness to ‘pay up’ for
seats, despite increasing fares. In terms of
competitive ticket pricing and increasing
diversity within their route networks,
LCCs are taking on the majors and
increasing market share.
Domestic US
In April 2019 82.7 million domestic
US seats were available (see table, page 6),
but by April 2022, this number was 76.9
million; 8.1% lower than pre-pandemic
levels.
Regional feeder carriers such as
Horizon Air, American Eagle, Delta
Connection and United Express accounted
for 16.4 million (20%) of available seats in
April 2019, while US major carriers
accounted for 65.4 million (80%) of
available seats in the US domestic market
(see table, page 7).
By 2022 the number of available seats
provided by regionals for the month of
April totalled 13.1 million and 3.3 million
and 20% lower than April 2019. US major
capacity on the other hand totalled 65.4
million available seats in April 2019, and
by 2022 had recovered to 62.7 million; just
4.2% lower.
In 2019, American (18%), Delta
Airlines (20%), United (13%), and
Southwest (27%), represented 78% of all
seats available to major US airlines. By
April 2022, this number had fallen by three
percentage points after LCCs Allegiant Air,
Frontier Airlines, jetBlue Airways and
Spirit Airlines had collectively increased
capacity and market share.
Frontier Airlines increased its pre-
pandemic US domestic market share of 3%
to 4%, and its number of available seats by
21.1% from 1.85 million to 2.35 million
over three years (see table, page 7). Part of
Frontier’s growth is credited to its
withdrawal of its A319s, and the
introduction of A321neo aircraft to boost
average seat capacity across its whole
network from 189 seats to 192 seats.
According to Frontier Airlines chief
executive officer Barry Biffle, the airline is
experiencing significant demand and is
exceeding 2019 ticket sales, despite
international travel still being held back.
Despite year on year (YoY) increases in
capacity, Biffle says the airline is operating
at about 90% of its current potential and
will keep capacity at this level until the
market stabilises. Frontier aims to return to
maximum utilisation in 2023.
Allegiant Air’s seat capacity in April
2022 was 21.3% higher than in April
2019; rising from 1.57 million to 1.9
million, while the number of flights
increased by 16.1% to 10,800 (see table,
page 7). The capacity hike has been
achieved by increasing aircraft size from
169 seats to 176 seats after it reduced its
A319 capacity by 24%, and increased its
A320 capacity by 46.4%. Allegiant Air has
also axed its A321 fleet, which accounted
for 123 flights in April 2019.
There have been incremental
improvements in the number of flights
across the Nevada-based carrier’s network.
Assuming a fuel cost per gallon of
$2.18, according to Allegiant, operating
cost per seat per departure is $72.20 for an
A319, and $60.70 for a 737 MAX 7. The
higher capacity A320ceo compares
favourably with a $64.70 seat-cost per
departure. In 2023 Allegiant will receive its
first 737 MAX 8-200s, which will have an
estimated departure cost per seat of
$54.90; the lowest in Allegiant fleet.
According to Allegiant Travel
Company chief executive officer, Maurice J
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
6 I AIRCRAFT ANALYSIS & FLEET PLANNING
SUMMARY OF NETWORK CAPACITY FOR DOMESTIC US, TRANS-EUROPEAN
AND TRANS-ASIA PACIFIC MARKETS APRIL 2019 & APRIL 2022
Region
Seats Flights
Domestic US 82,716,200 713,087
Trans-Europe 98,085,235 649,236
Trans-Asia Pacific 151,864,911 906,595
Total for three markets 332,666,346 2,268,918
Gallagher: “We have adjusted our growth
rate for the second quarter to better align
with the high fuel cost environment, and
prioritise operational performance. We
now expect capacity to increase by 12%
year-over-year.”
According to Gallagher, the airline
remains bullish, as it sees substantial
opportunities for new routes and
continued growth.
Spirit Airlines increased available seats
by 11.8% from 3.09 million in 2019 to 3.5
million in April 2022, while its number of
flights increased from 16,808 to 18,754
and 11.6% (see table, page 7). The LCC
has a 6% market share, and is in talks with
Frontier Airlines and jetBlue regarding a
merger that will give the new airline the
power to compete aggressively against US
majors. The transaction is set to close in
the second half of 2022, and will mitigate
against rising costs that have increased by
20%, before factoring fuel duty.
Spirit Airlines said it has postponed a
shareholder vote on its $2.4 billion sale to
Frontier Group Holdings so that its board
can continue discussions with both
Frontier and jetBlue Airways. Over the
past few months, jetBlue and Frontier have
sweetened their bids for Spirit, seeking to
create the fifth largest US airline.
From April 2019 to April 2022, Spirit
Airlines reduced its A319 and A321
operations by 11% and 0.5% respectively,
using A320s for 12,448 (66.4%) of its
flights in April 2022. As a result, average
aircraft size has remained static at 184-185
seats.
“Since mid-February 2022, we’ve seen
a dramatic improvement in demand trends,
with total revenue per passenger segment
up nearly 10% in March 2022, compared
to March 2019. Our non-ticket production
has been strong, driven by enhanced
revenue management and merchandising
of products that enable our guests to
customise their travel experience. As a
result, we achieved record-high non-ticket
revenue per passenger segment of $64.53
for the first quarter 2022, an increase of
14.8% compared to the first quarter of
2019. We anticipate beating that record
again in the second quarter 2022,” says
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
2019
size ASMs - M Seats Flights
116 73,548 76,935,823 619,326
151 66,923 81,773,690 509,633
168 116,365 102,852,480 634,873
147 256,836 261,561,993 1,763,832
Ted Christie, president and chief executive
officer at Spirit.
JetBlue has increased its average seat
capacity from 138 seats to 146 as the New
York-based carrier expands its A321neo
fleet. Since the start of the pandemic the
carrier has seen a 0.6% change in seats and
a 5% reduction in flights. JetBlue forecasts
that it will return to profitability in the
second half of 2022.
Southwest Airlines’ US domestic
market share declined by two percentage
points to 25%, as available seat numbers
fell from 17.4 million seats in April 2019
to 15.9 million in April 2022 (see table,
page 7). Average aircraft seat capacity
increased from 151 to 155 after the carrier
reduced 737-700 operations by 28% and
increased 737-MAX 8 operations by
756%. Likewise, the number of 737-800
missions increased by 18.4%.
The Dallas-based carrier has a 737-
MAX order book topping 349 firm orders
for 200 MAX 7 and 149 MAX 8 aircraft
up to 2031. Amid criticism of Boeing
MAX 7 certification delays, the airline says
it has flexibility in its order book plus the
ability to substitute MAX 7 deliveries for
MAX 8 aircraft.
Southwest Airlines’ annual revenue for
2019 was $22.43 billion, a 2.11% increase
from 2018. In 2019 revenue dropped by
56.6% to $9.04 billion, before a 74.5%
increase to $15.8 billion in 2021. The
carrier posted a net loss in the first quarter
of 2022, yet it expects second quarter
revenue to exceed 2019 levels, even though
it is flying less. Early forecasts predict
operating revenues to pick up by 8-10%
for the second quarter, despite a 7% cull in
capacity.
The airline reports revenue growth
attributed to higher ticket fares,
However, the Southwest chief
operating officer insists the carrier has only
made a ‘modest fare increase’ of $5, while
maintaining that its typical fare structures
have not moved.
The carrier’s highest monthly
departures in 2019 were out of Chicago-
Midway (6,740), Las Vegas (6,223) and
Baltimore (5,950). In 2022 the biggest
three were Denver (6,256), Las Vegas
2022 Change Change
size ASMs - M seats Flights
124 70,406 -7% -13.1%
160 58,347 -16.6% -21.5%
162 67,548 -32.3% -30%
148 196,301 -21.4% -22.3%
(5,777), and Chicago-Midway (5,273).
Flight frequency across much of the
Southwest network is down in April 2022
versus April 2019, yet Austin recorded a
43% increase in operations to 2,911
flights, Burbank a 17.8% increase to 1,969
flights, and Orange County a 10%
improvement.
Delta Airlines’ US domestic market
share fell one percentage point to 19% by
2022, as total available seats dropped from
13 million to 12 million (7.9%) and the
number of flights fell by 10.8% (see table,
page 7). Average aircraft size increased
from 159 seats to 164, after the number of
717 and MD-80 family of operations
plummeted by 69% flights per month in
April 2022. Between this period 737-700
operations were axed, and A319
operations declined, while A320/A321
departures improved by 44%.
The US major has reduced the number
of departure airports by eight to 135. Pre-
pandemic 25% of its departures operated
out of Atlanta, but by April 2022 this had
fallen to 23.7%.
In April 2022 American Airlines
operated 67,177 flights; 9.2% fewer than
in April 2019. Average aircraft size
increased from 161 to 167 seats over the
period.
American Airlines supplied a total of
11.2 million seats in April 2022; and 5.4%
fewer than in April 2019. The number of
flights fell by 9.2% from 73,947 to 67,177,
while average seat capacity increased from
161 to 167.
The carrier reports demand for
domestic business travel has steadily
improved as offices have reopened and
travel restrictions have been lifted. Revenue
from small- to medium-size businesses and
customers travelling for a mix of business
and leisure remains very strong and is
approaching a full recovery. Corporate
bookings are the highest they have been
since the start of the pandemic.
United Airlines’ capacity in April 2022
was 8.2 million seats; 5.8% lower than
2019. In April 2022, United Airlines
operated 49,248 flights; 7% fewer than in
2019.
United Airlines’ Pratt & Whitney-
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
 7 I AIRCRAFT ANALYSIS & FLEET PLANNING
US AIRLINES DOMESTIC NETWORK CAPACITY FOR APRIL 2019 & APRIL 2022

2019 2022 Change Change

Airline Seats Flights size ASMs - M Seats Flights size ASMs - M seats Flights

Alaska Airlines 3,370,402 21,293 158 4,612 3,190,145 19,413 164 4,502 -5.3% -8.8%

Allegiant Air 1,568,613 9,301 169 1,413 1,902,144 10,800 176 1,742 21.3% 16.1%

American Airlines 11,875,113 73,947 161 12,200 11,228,100 67,177 167 11,508 -5.4% -9.2%

Delta Air Lines 13,024,367 81,951 159 12,198 11,997,048 73,070 164 11,930 -7.9% -10.8%

Frontier Airlines 1,850,326 9,791 189 1,956 2,345,320 12,203 192 2,278 21.1% 24.6%

Hawaiian Airlines 1,103,119 7,623 145 1,182 985,309 6,016 164 1,291 -10.7% -21%

Jetblue Airways 3,490,750 25,292 138, 4,195 3,511,594 24,051 146 4,416 0.6% -5%

Southwest 17,389,014 115,402 151 13,231 15,999,852 102,932 155 11,759 -8% -10.8%

Spirit Airlines 3,094,686 16,808 184 3,122 3,461,359, 18,754 185 3,577 11.8% 11.6%

United Airlines 8,676,224 52,982 166 10,909 8,172,507 49,248 166 10,355 -5.8% -7%

powered 777 aircraft are expected to
gradually return to service, after being
grounded because of reliability concerns in
2021. According to United Airlines’ CEO
Scott Kirby current demand is the strongest
it has been in 30 years within the industry.
Moving forward the airline is set to
launch its largest transatlantic expansion in
its history with 10 new routes. The US
major anticipates the economy will slow in
the near to medium term. Yet continuing
pandemic recovery is more than offsetting
economic downturn.
In April 2019 Alaska Airlines operated
3.4 million seats, that fell by 5.3% to 3.2
million by April 2022 (see table, page 7).
However average seat capacity increased
from 158 to 164, after flight numbers
dropped by 8.8%.
Hawaiian Airlines recorded a 10.7%
reduction in seats from 2019, and a 21%
reduction in flights. The airline expects
traffic to increase after Australia and
Hawaii authorities loosen travel
restrictions.
Intra-Europe
The number of flights in April 2022
within the trans-European market was
21.5% lower than three years earlier. The
number of available seats was 16.6%
fewer, falling from 98.1 million to 81.8
million (see table, page 6). Average aircraft
size increased from 151 to 160 seats.
Collectively, the main LCCs have
recovered best when comparing April 2022
with April 2019; with seats down by
2.8%, and flights down by 5.9%. Average
aircraft capacity across collective airline
networks changed from 178 to 184. In
April 2022 LCCs accounted for 45 million
seats, and 55% of the European market.
By the start of 2022 Ryanair was in full
recovery mode after it posted a 15.3%
increase in the number of monthly seats,
and a 14.2% hike in flights compared to
April 2019 (see table, page 8). Average
aircraft size has increased slightly by two
seats to 191, as its 737 MAX 8-200 fleet is
growing in number after 210 orders.
According to Ryanair CEO Michael
O’Leary, its low fares are driving demand
and accelerating recovery. Despite annual
loss reports of €355 million, the airline
expects to return to profitability in its
current fiscal year. In the last fiscal year,
the Ryanair group added 15 new operating
bases, and added 770 new routes. The
airline reports strong market gains in Italy
(40%), Poland (35%) and Ireland (56%).
LCC Corendon Airlines has increased
its available seat numbers by 120.3%, and
its number of flights by 119.2%. The
Turkish carrier boosted seats from
161,703 to 356,175 and flights from 860
to 1,885 from April 2019 to April 2022. In
the first quarter of 2022, the leisure airline
increased its presence in Denmark after
introducing departures from Copenhagen
and Billund to the Mediterranean including
Turkey, Greece and Spain.
Air France-KLM’s LCC subsidiary
Transavia increased its number of available
seats by 24.1% from 13.2 million to 1.65
million when comparing over the same two
months (see table, page 8). Typical aircraft
size changed from 184 to 186 during this
period, as the carrier boosted total
departure destinations to 90 for this
summer season. In the first quarter of 2022
the airline recorded a +443% YoY
capacity increase; the highest in the Air
France-KLM group. First quarter
passenger revenues totalled €249 million
% and a YoY increase of +572.7%.
Volotea saw a 27.9% jump in the
number of available seats from 671,155 to
858,588. In 2021 the airline replaced its
717s with A319s and A320s, helping to
boost typical aircraft seats from 139 to
166. Furthermore, the airline expects to
add six more A320s as it prepares to
exceed 11 million seats by the end of the
year, 40% more than 2019. The Spanish
LCC has also made gains in the number of
flights performed per month, with a 6%
increase from 4,841 in April 2019 to 5,175
in April 2022.
By the end of its 2022 fiscal year Wizz
Air recorded its highest number of daily
flights. In April 2022, the number of flights
were up by 17.2% compared to 2019, and
available seats increased by 24.3% (see
table, page 8). Average aircraft size went
up from 208 to 220 as the operator added
to its 153-strong A321 fleet, while still
having 280 outstanding orders for the type.
In April 2022, the carrier provided 4.2
million seats; the second highest compared
to other European LCCs.
In 2022 Wizz Air announced that its
load factors have improved by 14.1
percentage points to total 78.1%.
According to József Váradi, Wizz Air
Group CEO: “At the start of fiscal year
2023, we stand ready to deliver our largest
ever summer flying programme and the
fastest growth in the industry, enabled by
more than 6,000 colleagues across the
business. Planned capacity growth for its
first two quarters will be above 30% and
40% respectively.”
Supplying 12.3% fewer seats and 15%
fewer flights, UK LCC easyJet had a
capacity deficit in April 2022. During April
2019, the carrier operated 52,660 flights
and 9.11 million seats; second only to
Ryanair in this region. In April 2022
easyJet operated 44,759 flights and
provided 8.0 million seats (see table, page
8). Load factors in the first quarter of 2022
were 77%, and had been driven down by
the Omicron wave of Covid-19.
Within its leisure and domestic

ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022 AIRCRAFT COMMERCE

8 I AIRCRAFT ANALYSIS & FLEET PLANNING
EUROPEAN AIRLINES TRANS-EUROPEAN NETWORK CAPACITY FOR APRIL 2019 & APRIL 2022

2019 2022 Change Change

Airline Seats Flights size ASMs - M Seats Flights size ASMs - M seats Flights

AirBaltic 55,712 5,178 106 334 432,680 2,984 145 304 -21.4% -42.4%

Air France 3,006,476 21,658 139 1,447 2,358,711 16,752 141 1,134 -21.5% -22.7%

British Airways 3,062,368 18,246 168 1,975 2,762,385 17,336 159 1,808 -9.8% -5%

Corendon Airlines 161,703 860 188 235 356,175 1,885 189 534 120.3% 119.2%

Jet2.com 1,005,540 5,332 189 1,378 1,220,032 6,406 190 1,782 21.3% 20.1%

Lufthansa 6,015,478 39,593 152 3,030 4,588,902 29,832 154 2,502 -23.7% -24.7%

Olympic Air 653,550 4,718 139 161 118,764 1,483 83 24 -81.8% -69.5%

Ryanair 13,049,694 69,046 189 10,273 15,042 78,832 191 11,472 15.3% 14.2%

Transavia 1,326,624 7,208 184 1,283 1,646,726 8,860 186 1,480 24.1% 22.9%

Wizz Air 3,361,416 16,916 208 2,949 4,179,182 19,822 220 3,637 24.3% 17.2%

markets, the LCC has seen its April 2022
capacity recover to 113% and 104% of
April 2019 levels, while business traffic
continues to recover, but is still below
2019 levels. At the beginning of April
2022, the carrier announced that forward
bookings for 3Q22 are 76% sold and 36%
sold for 4Q22. Load factors of 90% are
expected by the end of the year.
Czech LCC Smartwings supplied
59,788 seats in April 2022; 37.5% less
than in 2019. On the other hand, Jet2.com
increased its available seats by 21.3% and
number of flights by 20.1% compared to
the same month in 2019, while it reported
average load factors of 69.2%. In late
2021 the carrier had 57 firm orders for
A321neo aircraft, as it transitions from
737-300s and 757-200s.
During April 2022, SAS had a 35%
decrease in flights, Pegasus 19.3% and
Vueling 3.7%.
European majors
Flight numbers by European majors in
April 2022 were down by 25.2% to
184,252, compared to April 2019, while
network seats were down by 21.8% to 28
million in April 2022. Average aircraft size
dropped from a pre-pandemic level of 146
in April 2019 to 144 by April 2022.
Air France reports that European
leisure traffic has been significant to its
recovery, despite a 21.5% shortfall in
seats. According to Fahmi Mahjoub,
general manager Air France-KLM, rising
airport and fuel costs mean that increasing
fares will be unavoidable, noting there has
been a 40% increase in the cost of flying
out of London Heathrow (LHR).
Regardless of the challenging market, the
carrier noticed a significant uptick in UK
bookings after changes to Covid testing
requirements.
Despite strong demand experienced by
most airlines, Air France’s number of intra-
European flights in April 2022 were 22.7%
lower than pre-pandemic levels, and
totalled 16,752.
KLM had 18.9% fewer seats and
18.4% fewer flights in April 2022
compared to three years before, and
average aircraft size remained at 130 seats.
The total number of network seats came
close to 2 million in April 2022 as the
airline completed almost 15,000 flights.
To improve efficiency amid ground
handler shortages, KLM has limited
aircraft belly compartments to
containerised cargo only by restricting bulk
and loose freight. To alleviate the elevated
level of disruption at Schiphol Airport,
Icelandair made the decision to carry two
baggage handlers from its own base on
each of its flights to the airport to help
improve aircraft turnaround times.
British Airways (BA) faces a total
capacity cap of 100,000 passengers per day
at its LHR hub lasting up to September
2022 due to a 30% shortfall in baggage
handlers. Assuming 83% load factors, in
April 2019 BA’s departures from LHR to
regional and European destinations
totalled 42,500 seats, and 35,200
passengers per day.
LHR reports current traffic to be 80-
85% pre-pandemic levels, yet passenger
numbers are exceeding ground-handling
capacity. According to LHR airport chief
executive officer John Holland-Kaye,
despite the amnesty, daily departing seats
this summer will average 104,000 per day,
equating to an excess differential of 4,000
seats. Holland-Kaye suggests that on
average only about 1,500 of the 4,000
daily surplus seats have been sold to
passengers, and that airlines should stop
selling summer tickets.
Luis Gallego, IAG chief executive
officer, said: “Demand is recovering
strongly in line with our previous
expectations. We expect to be profitable
from the second quarter onwards and for
the full year. Premium leisure continues to
be the strongest performing segment, and
business travel is at its highest level since
the start of the pandemic. As a result of the
increasing demand, forward bookings
remain encouraging. We expect to achieve
80% of 2019 capacity in the second
quarter and 85% in the third quarter.
North Atlantic capacity will be close to
fully restored in the third quarter.”
Since the pandemic, BA’s average
aircraft size across its intra-European
network dropped from 168 to 159 seats,
and the number of monthly flights in April
2022 were 5% lower than 2019. In April
2022, BA supplied 2.8 million seats,
operated across 17,336 flights, equal to a
9.8% decline compared to 2019 (see table,
this page).
After significant gains in 2021,
Lufthansa had a 23.7% deficit in capacity
in April 2022 versus 2019. Trans-
European capacity for April 2022 totalled
4.59 million seats and is the second highest
after Turkish Airlines with 4.7 million
seats. During the month, the German
airline operated 29,832 flights, 24.7%
fewer than the same period in 2019 (see
table, this page). Aircraft size has remained
static, increasing by two seats to 154.
The German flag carrier forecast a
dramatic increase in traffic for 2022 yet
received criticism about operating 18,000
almost empty flights during the winter
season to meet its airport slot obligations.
Recent operational challenges and staff
shortages mean the airline must cancel
3,000 flights this summer, including

AIRCRAFT COMMERCE ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

 9 I AIRCRAFT ANALYSIS & FLEET PLANNING
ASIA PACIFIC AIRLINES TRANS-ASIAN NETWORK CAPACITY FOR APRIL 2019 & APRIL 2022

2019 2022 Change Change

Airline Seats Flights size ASMs Seats Flights size ASMs - M seats Flights

AirAsia Group 7,818,184 41,708 185 6,286 2,441,523 13,538 185 1,177 -68.8% -67.5%

ANA 6,742,840 35,835 188 4,369 4,928,183 29,438 167 2,748 -26.9% -17.9%

Cathay Pacific 1,577,629 4,916 321 2,057 494,168 1,873 264 436 -68.7% -61.9%

EVA Air 997,084 3,939 253 1,053 110,363 355 311 131 -88.9% -91%

Hong Kong Airlines 716,270 3,366 213 917 12,562 74 170 112 -98.2% -97.8%

Jetstar Japan 560,520 3,114 180 363 6,44,040 3,578 180 389 14.9% 14.9%

Korean Air 2,164,409 10,249 211 1,886 768,449 4,073 189 416 -64.5% -60.3%

Lion Air 3,311,160 15,948 208 1,933 2,811,974 13,739 205 1,538 -15.1% -13.9%

Malaysian 1,607,787 11,436 141 1,543 753,715 6,383 118 5878 -53.1% -44.2%

Scoot 914,229 4,222 217 1,309 430,294 1,914 225 481 -52.9% -54.7%

Singapore Airlines 1,882,839 7,930 237 2,951 903,785 3,614 250 1,294 -52% -54.4%

Thai International 1,573,351 4,859 324 2,159 315,912 1,013 312 501 -79.9% -79.2%

VietJet 1,823,686 10,084 181 1,272 1,844,705 8,590 215 1,008 1.2% -14.8%

Vietnam Airlines 2,271,482 12,054 188 1,806 1,884,462 10,355 182 991 -17% -14.1%

departures from its Frankfurt and Munich
hubs. Axing the sale of low-cost tickets will
allow passengers affected by cancellations
to re-book, while helping to avoid
overloading ground processes during peak
hours.
Notwithstanding the impact of
Omicron, from January to March 2022
Lufthansa’s passenger load factors
increased from 59% to 72%, and its
corporate bookings rose to 50% of 2019
levels. The carrier expected short-haul
ASMs to reach 90% of 2019 levels, and
transatlantic ASMs to reach 75%.
Intra-Asia Pacific
The intra-Asia Pacific market area
totalled 151.9 million seats in April 2019.
The Chinese domestic market accounted
for 58.88 million and 38.9% of the
market.
By April 2022 the total number of seats
in the region had slipped by 32.3% to
102.85 million, with the Chinese domestic
network 23.2% lower at 45.22 million.
During this period, domestic Indian
seat capacity increased by 10%, as both
the number of flights and average aircraft
sized improved. The number of flights and
seats in the China-Hong Kong and China-
Macau markets were 92.6% lower in April
2022. Once restrictions are lifted, the
recovery is expected to be swift.
LCCs in April 2019 had a 9.4%
market share in the region, rising to 10.5%
in April 2022. Despite marginal gains,
LCCs had 24.4% fewer seats and 50%
fewer flights than in April 2019.
The AirAsia Aviation Group describes
itself as having the biggest and youngest
fleet among LCCs in the region, with a
4.6% market share in terms of flights in
2019. Despite inducting an increasing
number of A321neos within its fleet, the
Air Asia Aviation Group had 68.8% fewer
seats and 67.5% fewer flights than in April
2019 (see table, this page).
The hardest hit airline in the group was
Malaysian-based AirAsia. It had 72%
fewer seats, from a pre-pandemic level of
3.9 million in April 2019 to 1.09 million in
April 2022.
AirAsia Thailand has witnessed a
decline in seats from 2.4 million to
777,240 seats, and a drop in the number of
flights from 13,034 to 4,318.
In its 2021 fiscal year, AirAsia’s
revenue totalled 1,836RM compared to
11,860RM in 2019. Average fares fell
from 178RM to 160RM. Cost per ASK
increased from 15.02 sen to 69.62 sen (3.3
cents to 15.5 cents per ASK) by 2021, as
aircraft utilisation fell from 13 hours per
day to 6.2 by the end of the fiscal year.
Singapore LCC Jetstar Asia had a
75.8% decline in both available seats and
flights from April 2019 to April 2022,
while Jetstar Japan had a 14.9% increase
to 644,040 seats and 3,578 flights during
April 2022 compared to April 2019 (see
table, this page).
Singaporean LCC Scoot recorded gains
in average aircraft size from 217 seats to
225. Despite a difficult 2021 and load
factors as low as 8.4%, Scoot is noticing
improvements in 2022. Load factors
reached 51.4% in April, and 62.9% in
May. Best performing regions in terms of
load factors for the Singaporean LCC in
April include West Asia (60.6%), Rest of
World (51.1%), and East Asia (47.2%).
Indonesia’s Lion Air reactivated stored
narrowbody and widebody aircraft in time
for the Eid holiday season in May 2022.
During April 2022, the LLC operated
13,739 flights; 13.9% fewer than 2019
levels. At the time seat numbers totalled
2.81 million, down by 15.1% compared to
2019 (see table, this page). Average aircraft
size shrank from 208 seats to 205. Lion Air
announced that its fleet will be deployed
across 12 major hubs in the region
including Subrabaya, Balikpapan and
Makassar.
Hanoi-based VietJet had experienced a
positive seat change increase of 1.2% in
April 2022 versus 2019. In 2019 the LCC
supplied 1.82 million seats, and 1.84
million in 2022 (see table, this page).
VietJet is optimistic and is eyeing profit in
2022, after it increased its route network
during 2021. Seat size increased from 181
to 215, and in this fiscal year the carrier
wants to increase its fleet from 76 in-
service aircraft, to 82.
VietJet expects the number of
international flights to recover to 70% in
2022; international flights accounted for
50% of its total pre-pandemic revenue.
Indonesian’s Sriwijaya Air supplied
0.76 million seats and operated 4,292
flights during April 2022, 41.2% and
44.2% lower than in April 2019. Thai

ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022 AIRCRAFT COMMERCE

10 I AIRCRAFT ANALYSIS & FLEET PLANNING
Smile supplied 0.47 million seats and
operated 2,910 flights, 14.6% and 13.5%
fewer than in the same month in 2019.
Asia Pacific majors
In April 2019, 19 of the largest Asia
Pacific majors operated 187,564 flights and
provided 39.22 million network seats,
accounting for 26% of the total seats in
this market. By April 2022, the number of
flights operated by these same airlines had
fallen to 117,317 which is 37.5% lower
than pre-pandemic levels. The number of
available seats provided by these services
was 50% lower, so average aircraft size
was also smaller than in April 2019. This
clearly indicates that recovery in airline
activity in the Asia Pacific lags behind that
in the US domestic, intra-Europe and
Chinese domestic markets.
Despite a 52% reduction in seats
during the pandemic, Singapore Airlines
fared better than its LCC Scoot, after the
major posted typical load factors of 77.4%
in April 2022. Its routes to Europe
(82.6%), Southwest Pacific (80.6%) and
West Asia and Africa (79.8%) were its best
performers.
Singapore further relaxed border
restrictions in April 2022, removing the
need for quarantine, including pre-
departure and on-arrival Covid-19 tests for
fully vaccinated travellers. Singapore
International Airlines (SIA) reports that
forward sales, measured as a percentage of
the total number of seats available, are
approaching 2019 levels. In April 2022
Singapore Airlines operated 3,614 flights
and 54.4% fewer than in April 2019.
With quarantine still in force in Hong
Kong, Hong Kong Airlines operated
98.2% fewer flights and provided 97.8%
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
fewer seats in April 2022 than it did in
April 2019. In May 2022 the carrier
announced it will resume flights to Seoul
and Hanoi, for the first time in two years,
starting in June. Yet all inbound travellers
to Hong Kong must submit a health
declaration form and undergo a PCR test.
In April 2019 Cathay Pacific operated
4,916 flights and supplied 1.57 million
seats. In 2022 it operated just 1,873 flights
and supplied 494,168 seats, representing a
61.9% and 68.7% drop (see table, page 9).
The carrier blames lacklustre load factors
in 1Q22 on limited capacity, exacerbated
due to tightened aircrew quarantine
restrictions at the time. Year-to-date (YTD)
load factors for May 2022 were 51.9%
and 34 percentage points better than 2021,
while average aircraft size across the
network fell from 321 to 264. The airline
states that Covid-19 continues to disrupt
passenger traffic, although it is optimistic
that recent government adjustments to
travel restrictions will mean it can add
more flight capacity in 2Q22. As of May
2022, Cathay Pacific had 69 aircraft in
storage out of its 228-strong fleet.
According to chief customer and
commercial officer, Cathay Pacific, Ronald
Lam, during April 2022 the airline noticed
increased demand among Hong Kong
residents wishing to return home to the
city, especially from the UK. As a response,
the carrier increased its capacity by 25%
month-on-month, and launched additional
frequencies to provide better connections
for transit passengers. It also reported
improvements from traffic going to and
from other destinations in the Asia Pacific
region. However, the operator reduced
frequencies into the Chinese mainland in
view of the Covid-19 situation in Shanghai.
Thai Airways has cut average aircraft
Overall total number of flights in the Asia Pacific
market during April 2022 was 30% lower than
April 2019. LCC VietJet is well on the way to
recovery, and recorded a 1.2% increase in
available seats compared to 2019. On the other
hand, Hong Kong Airlines provided 98.2% fewer
seats and 97.7% fewer flights in April 2022 than
it did in April 2019. Rival Cathay Pacific is
planning a ramp-up in operations scheduled
later in 2022 as some restrictions are lifted.
size from 324 to 312 seats, as it provided
79.9% fewer seats and operated 79.2%
fewer flights than in 2019. During April
2022, the Bangkok-based airline provided
315,912 seats compared to 1.57 million in
April 2019 and operated just over 1,000
flights versus 4,859 in 2019. Thai Airways’
YoY aircraft utilisation rates improved by
1.3 FH per day from 6.4FH hours per day
in 1Q21 to 7.7FH per day in 1Q22.
Passenger load factors increased from
7.5% to 27.7% over the same period.
Despite strong improvements in the
Indonesian market during April 2022,
national flag carrier Garuda Indonesia
posted a 76.2% deficit in seats and
operated 79.4% fewer flights than in April
2019. The operator is reportedly due to go
into administration and has cut long-haul
international capacity. In April 2019
Garuda supplied over 2 million seats, but
three years later the number was fewer
than 500,000.
EVA Air reported that during 2021
71% of its passenger revenue was
attributed to the US, Hong Kong, Macau
and China. Southeast Asia drew 10% of
passenger revenues, followed by Europe
and Northeast Asia with 3% each.
In April 2019 EVA AIR supplied 0.99
million seats across 3,939 flights, yet in
2022 this number dropped by 88.9% and
91%, totalling just 110,363 seats and 355
flights (see table, page 9). By the end of
2021, the carrier had 82 passenger aircraft
in operation out of 88. Aircraft seat size
changed from 253 to 311 as its long-haul
fleet was better utilised.
Between fiscal year 1Q19 and 1Q22,
Korean Air recorded a 21 percentage point
increase in traffic to the Americas (47%),
compared to 26% in 2019. Domestic
traffic increased from 6% to 20%, while
traffic to Japan decreased from 11% to
2%. Southeast Asia sales by route changed
from 25% to 20%.
In April 2022, Korean Air operated
4,073 flights, 60.3% fewer than in 2019.
The Korean major recorded a 64.5% drop
in the number of seats to 0.768 million,
compared to 2.2 million during April 2022
(see table, page 9).
To download more than 1,200
articles like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

The A220-100 and -300 series have impressed industry observers with
their cabin appeal and operating efficiency. The fuel burn and operating
performance of the A220-100 and -300 are analysed and compared with
competing types on routes between 200nm and 900nm.
A220-100/-300 fuel burn
& operating performance
T
he A220-100 and -300 have
impressed many with their quiet
and comfortable cabin, and
reputation for efficiency and low
cash operating costs. A main contributing
factor is the A220’s fuel burn performance,
aided by the ultra-high bypass ratio of its
Pratt & Whitney PW1524G engines. The
CAE Flight Plan Manager has been used to
assess the fuel burn and operating
performance of the A220-100 and -300
against six of their closest competitors on
nine routes with tracked distances between
218 nautical miles (nm) and 889nm over
an annual period. CAE used the flight
planning system that was acquired as the
Sabre Flight Planning System in this
analysis.
Aircraft types
The A220-100 falls between large
regional jets (RJs) and the smallest
narrowbodies, while the larger A220-300
is similar in size and capacity to the
smallest narrowbody jetliner.
The A220-300’s seating configuration
for most operators makes it closest to the
737-300, 737-700 and A319. Seating
configurations and passenger cabin layouts
for many short-haul operations have
changed in recent years. In Europe and the
Asia Pacific narrowbodies are generally
configured with three to six rows of
business-class seats and an economy cabin.
Many US carriers configure their aircraft
with two or three rows of first-class seats,
and an economy cabin.
Some airlines have changed to an all-
economy-class layout, while others have a
three-class layout. American, Delta Airlines
and United Airlines have split the economy
cabin into traditional economy and
economy plus with increased seat pitch.
Other airlines have a single-class
arrangement to maximise seat numbers.
Each aircraft type in this analysis has
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
been examined with an 85% passenger
load factor when operated in a two-class
arrangement that is representative of most
operators. This makes it difficult to clearly
compare seat capacities between the two
main A220 variants and other types.
The A220 has a standard five-abreast
arrangement and a wider aisle and seat
width than the A320 and 737 families,
which have six-abreast seating in economy.
A220-100 & competitors
Only two operators have the shorter
A220-100 in service with a two-class
arrangement: Swiss and Air Vanuatu. Both
have a total of 117 seats, although Swiss
has 12 in business class with four rows of
three abreast, with two of the five-abreast
seats closed off; and Air Vanuatu has eight,
with two rows of four abreast. A seat
count of 117 has been used in this analysis.
The A220-100 comes closest to the
Embraer E-190 and -195 types. These are
operated by mainline carriers, secondary
airlines and regional subsidiaries.
The E-190/-195 has a narrower
fuselage with a standard four-abreast
cabin, which makes it harder for airlines to
vary cabin layouts and seating
arrangements. The only difference that can
be made in business class is having a three-
abreast design.
The E-190’s and -195’s fuselages are
longer than the A220-100’s, so the E-190
has two more seat rows and the E-195 four
more seat rows than the A220-100. This
means the E-190 overall would have 16-20
fewer seats than the A220-100, while the
E-195 would have seven to eight fewer.
The E-190 is examined here with a seat
count of 100, which is close to an average
for most of its operators, which have a
business cabin with six to 16 seats, and an
average of 10-12. The E-190 E2 has been
included with the same number of seats to
analyse the fuel burn performance of
11 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
younger generation aircraft.
The E-195 has been examined with a
111-seat configuration. This is an average
of its main operators, whose business class
averages 12 seats.
A220-300 & competitors
The A220-300 is 3.71 metres or just
over 12 feet longer than the -100 series, so
the A220-300 can be configured with three
or four more rows of seats, giving it up to
15-20 more seats.
The A220-300 will always be operated
in a mainline service, with a suitably-sized
premium cabin. In some cases this could be
configured in four-abreast seating.
The A220-300 is now operated by
more than eight airlines, and its six largest
operators are Breeze Airways, Air Austral,
Air Vanuatu, Air France, Air Canada and
Swiss. Average seat numbers are 133, with
18 in business class and 114 in economy.
This is close to Swiss Airlines’
arrangement, which has 18 business- and
115 economy-class seats.
The A220-300 is closest in size to the
A319 current engine option (ceo) and new
engine option (neo), the two having the
same fuselage length, and the 737-700.
The A319 and 737-700 are almost
identical in fuselage and cabin length.
While they are both about five metres
shorter than the A220-300, the A319 and
737-600 have one more seat per row, so
the overall seating configurations of the
A220-300, A319ceo/neo and 737-700
should be similar. Few airlines have placed
orders for the A319neo, so it is not
included in this analysis.
Average seat counts for A319
operators are 131, just two fewer than the
A220-100, with 16 seats in business class
and 115 in economy.
The 737-700 is operated by only four
carriers, with just WestJet operating in a
two-class layout with 12 business-class
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
12 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS & WEIGHTS

Aircraft E-190LR E-190 E2 E-195 A220-100 737-700 A319ceo A319ceo A220-300

types

Engine CF34-10E5 PW1919G CF34-10E7 PW15194G/ CFM56-7B24 CFM56-5B6 -V2524-A5 PW1521G/

PW1524G-3 PW1524G
Engine bypass ratio 5.4:1 12:1 5.4:1 12:1 12:1
Take-off thrust rating - lbs 18,820 20,860 20,360 19,775/ 24,200 23,500 24,480 21,970/

24,400 24,400
MTXW - lbs 111,245 124,700 112,326 141,500 154,998 167,331 167,331 150,000
MTOW - lbs 114,199 124,300 111,973 140,500 154,500 166,450 166,450 149,000
MLW - lbs 97,003 108,140 99,208 120,500 127,998 137,789 137,789 129,500
MZFW - lbs 90,169 102,960 93,696 116,000 120,500 128,970 128,970 123,000
OEW/DOW - lbs 63,459 74,490 64,900 81,151 87,956 92,951 92,379 84,306

Max payload - lbs 26,710 28,470 28,796 34,849 32,544 36,019 36,591 38,694
Fuel capacity - USG 4,234 5,000 4,234 5,756 6,875 6,303 6,303 5,901
Dual-class seat configuration 100 100 111 117 129 131 131 133
Passengers carried 85 85 94 99 110 111 111 113
Passenger payload - lbs 19,635 19,635 21,795 22,973 25,410 25,722 25,722 26,115
Range with full 2,400 2,850 2,000 2,250 2,400 3,000 3,000 2,800
passenger payload - nm

ROUTE CHARACTERISTICS FOR ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Route ORD-DTW ORD-CLE ORD-PIT ORD-YYZ ORD-ATL ORD-PHL ORD-BDL ORD-BOS ORD-MCO

Tracked distance - nm 218 310 400 433 551 612 723 799 889
Average wind component - kts 22-27 30-32 31-33 27-29 4-6 40-42 39-41 41-43 11-13
ESAD - nm 200-202 282-285 363-366 398-401 543-551 547-548 647-655 718-723 860-863
Average flight time - mins 40-45 50-56 62-71 68-77 84-93 90-99 103-114 110-120 129-140
Alternate airport CMH PIT CLE SYR BHM BWI BOS BDL TPA

seats in three rows of four abreast, and 118
economy-class seats, totalling 129. As the
737-700 may have marginally less cabin
floor area than the A319, the 737-700
would have two seats fewer than the A319
for both to provide an equal amount of
space for toilets, wardrobes, and galleys.
Passenger payloads
The aircraft types have been analysed
with a number of passengers equal to an
85% load factor. The weight of each
passenger includes an assumed baggage
weight, and a weight of 231lbs. This is a
conservative assumption, which allows for
hand luggage and checked luggage for
every passenger.
This affects payload carried, and
therefore trip fuel burn.
The A220-100 at 117 seats is analysed
with 99 passengers (see table, this page).
The E-190 and -190 E2 have 100 seats,
and 85 carried passengers. The larger E-
195 is examined with 111 seats and 94
passengers (see table, this page).
The A220-300 is analysed with 133
seats, and 113 passengers carried, and the
A319 and 737-700 with total seats of 131
and 129 respectively, and 111 and 110
passengers carried (see table, this page).
Aircraft specifications
The important specifications for the
aircraft examined are those with the
biggest effect on aircraft performance:
weights, fuel capacity and engine type.
These are summarised (see table, this
page).
Each of the seven main types has a
range of weight specifications available.
Engine variant, maximum take-off weight
(MTOW), and fuel capacity are the three
main criteria that affect fuel burn. Variants
with higher gross weights and larger fuel
capacities have fewer performance
restrictions. The aircraft have been
analysed on nine city-pairs in the US,
originating from Chicago O’Hare (ORD).
These have tracked distances of 204nm to
873nm (see table, this page), representative
of typical route lengths across the network.
The payload carried by the A220-100
is therefore 22,973lbs (see table, this page).
The payload used for the E-190/-190 E2 is
19,635lbs, and 21,795lbs for the E-195.
The larger A220-300 has a passenger
payload of 26,115lbs (see table, this page),
while the A319ceo’s is 25,772lbs, and the
737-700’s is 25,410lbs.
The aircraft have also been analysed
with a typical operating empty weight
(OEW) that represents an aircraft prepared
for service (APS) weight. This is the basic
empty weight of the aircraft, plus the
weight of two flightcrew; and three cabin
crew for the E-190 and E-195, or four
cabin crew for the five larger types. Crew
weights used are 187lbs for each flightcrew
and 165lbs for each cabin crew member.
There is also a standard weight of
200lbs for on-board catering to provide a
simple service level for all types. The OEW
for each aircraft is summarised (see table,
this page). The OEW is highly dependent
on the basic empty weight of the aircraft.
The aircraft’s available gross payload is
the difference between MZFW and OEW.
This will be higher than the payload of a
full load of passengers and weight of

AIRCRAFT COMMERCE ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022


The A220-100’s fuel burn per seat is 30-34%
lower than the E-190, and 22-37% per seat lower
than the E-195. Comparing the A220-100 and
E-190 E2 shows the two to be closer in
performance, although the A220-100 still has a
6-8% lower fuel burn per seat.
carried passengers, and so provides some
capacity for additional freight payload.
A220-100
The A220-100 examined here has an
MTOW of 140,500lbs; the highest of all
the different weight variants. This is with
the PW1524G engine, rated at 24,400lbs
(see table, page 12). The aircraft has an
MZFW of 116,000lbs and OEW of
81,151lbs. This allows a gross payload of
34,849lbs (see table, page 12).
The aircraft has a fuel capacity of
5,756 US Gallons (USG). With this
specification, a full load of passengers at
231lbs each would utilise all of its payload
capacity. Range would be about 2,250nm
(see table, page 12).
E-190 & E-190 E2
The E-190 variant used in this analysis
is the -190LR, which has long-range
performance.
The -190LR has an MTOW of
114,199lbs, maximum landing weight
(MLW) of 97,003lbs, and a MZFW of
90,169lbs. It is equipped with the CF34-
10E5 engine rated at 18,820lbs. Fuel
capacity used is 4,234USG. With this
specification, the aircraft could carry a full
passenger payload up to 2,400nm.
The OEW of 63,459lbs allows a gross
payload of 26,710lbs (see table, page 12).
A passenger payload of 100 and 23,100lbs
leaves a remaining payload of 3,610lbs.
The E-190 E2 used in this analysis has
an MTOW of 124,300lbs, and is equipped
with the PW1519G engine rated at
20,860lbs (see table, page 12). The aircraft
also has an MLW of 108,140lbs, and an
MZFW of 102,960lbs.
Fuel capacity is 5,000USG, and the
OEW used is 74,490lbs. This allows a
gross available payload of 28,470lbs. The
aircraft is capable of carrying a full
passenger payload of 100 up to 2,850nm.
E-195
The E-195 variant used in the analysis
is the LR version that has a longer-range
performance than the standard E-195. The
-195LR is therefore less likely to
experience take-off weight and payload
restrictions on typical route networks.
The E-195 LR has an MTOW of
111,973lbs, and is powered by the CF34-
10E7 engine rated at 20,360lbs (see table,
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
page 12). Other weights are MLW at
99,208lbs, MZFW at 93,695lbs and OEW
at 64,900lbs. This allows a gross payload
of 28,796lbs (see table, page 12).
The aircraft has a fuel capacity of
4,234USG, the same as the -190LR. This
allows the aircraft to carry a full passenger
payload of 111 up to 2,000nm.
A220-300
The A220-300 is lighter than the 737-
700 and A319ceo, and this is expected to
give the A220-300 a further advantage in
fuel burn performance.
The A220-300 variant used here has an
MTOW of 149,000lbs, and is powered
with a PW1524G-3 engine rated at
24,400lbs thrust (see table, page 12).
The aircraft’s MLW and MZFW are
129,500lbs and 123,000lbs. It has a fuel
capacity of 5,901USG, and can carry a full
passenger load of 133 about 2,800nm.
The OEW used is 84,306lbs, so the
aircraft has a gross payload of 38,694lbs.
A319ceo
The A319ceo has a large number of
weight variants, and also has two main
engine choices: the CFM56-5B and V2500-
A5. There are several modification or build
standards for both these engine types.
The variant used in this analysis has the
second highest possible MTOW of
166,450lbs, the highest possible MLW of
137,789lbs, and the highest possible
MZFW of 128,970lbs (see table, page 12).
The aircraft has a standard fuel capacity of
6,303USG for all weight variants.
The CFM56-5B6 or -5B7 used is rated
at 23,500lbs and 27,000lbs, and the
V2524-A5 is rated at 24,400lbs.
The OEW for the two variants differs
13 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
by 572lbs, with the CFM56-5B-powered
aircraft being the heavier type. The aircraft
with the CFM56-5B engines therefore has
an OEW of 92,951lbs, while that with the
V2524-A5 has an OEW of 92,379lbs.
This leaves a gross payload of
36,019lbs for the CFM56-equipped
aircraft, and a gross payload of 36,591lbs
for the V2500-equipped aircraft.
A full passenger payload would be
30,261lbs, which would give the two
variants a range of 3,000nm.
737-700
Like the A319, the 737-700 has several
weight specification variants. The variant
used has a MTOW of 154,500lbs, and a
fuel capacity of 6,875USG. The aircraft is
equipped with the CFM56-7B24 rated at
24,200lbs.
The MZFW of 120,500lbs and the
used OEW of 87,956lbs allows a gross
payload of 32,544lbs. A full passenger
payload of 29,799lbs would allow the
aircraft to operate up to 2,400nm.
Evaluation route networks
The eight aircraft types analysed here,
in two groups of four, have been tested
across nine US routes from ORD. These
routes have been chosen to reflect a range
of typical route lengths.
The nine US routes operated from
ORD include the shortest with a tracked
distance of 218nm to Detroit (DTW), and
the longest to Orlando (MCO) at 889nm.
The other seven routes are to Cleveland
(CLE), Pittsburgh (PI), Toronto (YYZ),
Atlanta (ATL), Philadelphia (PHL),
Bradley (BDL) and Boston (BOS) (see
table, page 12). A suitable alternate is used
on each route.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
14 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
BLOCK FUEL PERFORMANCE OF

City-pair Aircraft Engine Seats Payload ESAD Flight time Trip fuel USG per Diff % diff Trip fuel/
variant variant carried - lbs - nm - mins - USG seat USG USG ASM

ORD-DTW E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 200 45 468 4.68 1.18 33.6% 0.021
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 202 45 377 3.77 0.27 7.6% 0.017
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 200 45 486 4.38 0.87 24.9% 0.020
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 200 43 410 3.50 0.016

ORD-CLE E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 283 56 570 5.70 1.34 30.8% 0.018
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 283 56 595 5.95 1.59 36.5% 0.019
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 282 54 460 4.14 -0.021 -4.9% 0.013
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 283 53 510 4.36 0.014

ORD-PIT E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 365 71 703 7.03 1.60 29.5% 0.018
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 365 69 576 5.76 0.33 6.1% 0.014
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 365 71 736 6.63 1.20 22.2% 0.017
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 363 68 635 5.43 0.014

ORD-YYZ E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 400 77 769 7.69 1.77 29.8% 0.018
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 399 75 631 6.31 0.39 6.5% 0.015
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 399 77 803 7.23 1.31 22.1% 0.017
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 398 74 693 5.92 0.014

ORD-ATL E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 544 92 917 9.17 2.20 31.5% 0.017
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 544 90 751 7.51 0.54 7.7% 0.014
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 544 93 961 8.66 1.68 24.1% 0.016
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 543 90 816 6.97 0.013

ORD-PHL E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 548 99 966 9.66 2.29 31.1% 0.016
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 547 97 795 7.95 0.58 7.9% 0.013
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 548 99 1,011 10.11 2.74 37.2% 0.017
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 547 96 862 7.37 0.012

ORD-BDL E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 650 114 1,091 10.91 2.64 31.9% 0.015
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 649 111 890 8.90 0.63 7.6% 0.012
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 655 108 1,161 10.46 2.19 26.4% 0.014
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 647 111 968 8.27 0.011

ORD-BOS E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 719 119 1,165 11.65 2.86 32.6% 0.015
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 719 117 950 9.50 0.71 8.1% 0.012
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 720 120 1,228 11.06 2.28 25.9% 0.014
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 718 117 1,028 8.79 0.011

ORD-MCO E-190 CF34-10E6 100 19,635 861 139 1,349 13.49 3.24 31.6% 0.015
E-190 E2 PW1919G 100 19,635 863 137 1,102 11.02 0.77 7.5% 0.012
E-195 CF34-10E7 111 21,795 862 140 1,421 12.80 2.55 24.9% 0.014
A220-100 PW1524G 117 22,973 860 138 1,199 10.25 0.012

Source: CAE Flight Plan Manager

A main issue affecting aircraft
performance is the wind component en
route. This is generally from a westerly
direction. All eight routes generally operate
in an easterly and south-easterly direction
from ORD, and so will experience a
tailwind component. This will make the
equivalent still air distance (ESAD) shorter
that the tracked distance.
To representatively demonstrate each
aircraft’s performance, flight plans were
generated by the CAE Flight Plan Manager
on the same day for 52 weeks. This
provides an average wind component, and
therefore the ESAD and subsequent flight
time and fuel burn, across a full year of
operations for each aircraft type. From this
a reliable average can be extracted.
The average wind component for each
route resulted in an average ESAD across
the year. These averages were all a tailwind
component, and in the case of most routes
were 22-40 knots of tailwind (see table,
page 12). This made the ESAD shorter
than the tracked distance. A 50-knot
tailwind will reduce the tracked distance by
about 12.4% in the case of jetliners
operating typical flight profiles.
The variances in aircraft speed and
operating performance factors, including
rate of climb, affect the flight profile of
each aircraft, which leads to differences in
flight times between each type.
The eight routes with their tracked
distances, average wind components,
ESADs, and average flight times are
summarised (see table, page 12).
All nine routes are within the range
capability of the eight aircraft types when
carrying a maximum passenger payload in
standard temperature conditions. That is,
the longest tracked distance is 889nm.
All eight types are capable of carrying
an 85% passenger payload on all nine
routes throughout the year, without any
payload limitations.
Operating assumptions
The analysis of the eight types on these
nine routes evaluates several factors. The
first is the actual average fuel burn over 52
flight plans over an annual period for each
aircraft on each of the nine routes. From
this fuel burn per available seat, per
passenger carried, and per available seat-
mile can all be examined. The cost per seat
can also be examined if a representative
fuel price per USG is applied.
Operating assumptions affect the fuel

AIRCRAFT COMMERCE ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

 15 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
BLOCK FUEL PERFORMANCE OF

City-pair Aircraft Engine Seats Payload ESAD Flight time Trip fuel USG per Diff % diff Trip fuel/
variant variant carried - lbs - nm - mins - USG seat USG USG ASM

ORD-DTW 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 201 40 505 3.91 0.58 17.3% 0.018
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 201 40 517 3.95 0.61 18.2% 0.018
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 201 41 496 3.79 0.45 13.4% 0.017
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 200 42 444 3.34 0.015

ORD-CLE 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 284 51 634 4.91 0.76 18.4% 0.016
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 285 50 647 4.94 0.79 19.0% 0.016
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 284 53 619 4.73 0.57 13.8% 0.015
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 283 52 552 4.15 0.013

ORD-PIT 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 366 62 780 6.05 0.93 18.3% 0.015
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 366 63 804 6.14 1.02 20.0% 0.015
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 365 65 775 5.92 0.80 15.7% 0.015
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 364 65 680 5.11 0.013

ORD-YYZ 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 400 68 857 6.64 0.95 16.7% 0.015
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 401 70 885 6.76 1.06 18.7% 0.016
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 401 71 857 6.54 0.85 14.9% 0.015
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 399 73 757 5.69 0.013

ORD-ATL 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 545 85 1,028 7.97 1.30 19.5% 0.014
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 543 84 1,059 8.08 1.41 21.2% 0.015
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 544 87 1,031 7.87 1.20 18.0% 0.014
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 543 87 887 6.67 0.012

ORD-PHL 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 550 91 1,081 8.38 1.37 19.6% 0.014
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 551 90 1,108 8.46 1.45 20.7% 0.014
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 549 92 1,079 8.24 1.23 17.5% 0.013
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 548 92 932 7.01 0.011

ORD-BDL 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 652 104 1,205 9.34 1.39 17.5% 0.013
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 652 103 1,247 9.52 1.57 19.8% 0.013
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 652 106 1,216 9.28 1.34 16.8% 0.013
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 649 108 1,057 7.95 0.011

ORD-BOS 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 723 111 1,305 10.12 1.66 19.6% 0.013
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 723 110 1,348 10.29 1.83 21.7% 0.013
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 722 113 1,320 10.08 1.62 19.1% 0.013
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 719 114 1,125 8.46 0.011

ORD-MCO 737-700 CFM56-7B24 129 25,410 862 131 1,504 11.66 1.79 18.1% 0.013
A319 CFM56-5B7 131 25,722 861 129 1,557 11.89 2.01 20.4% 0.013
A319 V2524-A5 131 25,722 861 130 1,530 11.68 1.81 18.3% 0.013
A220-300 PW1524G-3 133 26,115 861 133 1,313 9.87 0.011

Source: CAE Flight Plan Manager

burn of each aircraft. In addition to the
tracked distance and ESAD described, the
main factors are the flight rules used, cruise
speed, and altitude or flight level. These
have been determined by the CAE Flight
Plan Manager.
There is also the reserve fuel policy, the
taxi-in and -out times, and any time spent
in holding patterns, delays or diversions.
The flight rules used are IFR, US
domestic rules for route optimisation. The
flight profile was optimised by the CAE
Flight Plan Manager, and included an
altitude or FL for the shortest ORD-DTW
route of 250, or 25,000 feet. This avoids a
ballistic flight profile being used, and
allows a cruise portion for the flight. The
FL for the other eight routes was optimised
as part of the flight profile for the route
being optimised by the Flight Plan
Manager.
The speed used was a minimum range
cruise (MRC) Mach number, according to
the FL flown, to achieve the best fuel
economy.
The taxi times used were 15 minutes
for taxi-out and eight minutes for taxi-in.
This would affect total fuel carried.
Reserve fuel policy was 5%, and it was
assumed that no diversions or in-flight
delays were experienced. Sufficient fuel for
diversion to the alternate was also carried.
Fuel consumption was produced in lbs,
and a fuel density of 6.7lbs per US Gallon
(USG) was used to convert fuel burn in to
volume.
Fuel burn performance
The eight aircraft types were split into
two groups: the A220-100 plus three
Embraer large RJs; and the A220-300 and
three A320 and 737NG family members.
The results for these two groups are shown
(see tables, pages 14 & 15).
The main parameter is fuel burn per
seat, since this is an element of fuel cost per
seat. This cost can be adjusted by
passenger load factor to show the
contribution that fuel makes to total
operating cost per fare paying passenger,
and what is the difference between aircraft
types on this basis if required.
A220-100 & large RJs
This analysis shows the A220-100 to
be significantly more fuel-efficient than the
first generation Embraer E-190 and E-195
E Jets (see table, page 14).
Fuel burn per seat reduces as route and
mission length increase, and with increased
aircraft size and seat numbers. Despite the

ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022 AIRCRAFT COMMERCE

16 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
increasing route lengths, the A220-100’s
fuel consumption per seat is 29.5-33.6%
lower than the E-190’s. While the E-195 is
11 seats larger than the -190 and only six
seats smaller than the A220-100, the
A220-100 still has a burn rate per seat that
is 22.1-37.2% lower than the E-195.
These percentage differences translate
to the E-190 having a higher fuel burn per
seat of 1.18USG for the shortest ORD-
DTW route of 200nm, and up to 3.24USG
per seat on the longest ORD-MCO route
of 861nm (see table, page 14).
The E-195’s fuel burn per seat is 0.87-
2.55USG higher than the A220-100’s on
the nine routes.
The cost of fuel has varied widely over
the past year, from $1.75 per USG in July
2021, to a peak of $4.10 per USG in June
2022. A median fuel price of $2.50 per
USG translates into a higher fuel cost per
seat difference of $2.95-8.10 for the E-190
compared to the A220-100. The E-195’s
higher fuel cost per seat is $2.18-6.38 on
the same basis. These differences are high
when typical profit margins per seat or per
carried passenger are taken into
consideration.
The main factor in the A220-100’s fuel
efficiency compared to the E-190 and E-
195 is the difference in bypass ratios of the
PW1524G and the CF34-10E5/7. The
PW1524G has a bypass ratio of 12.0:1,
while the CF34-10E’s ratio is considerably
smaller at 5.4:1.
The next generation E-190 E2 is much
closer to the A220-100, as would be
expected. The E-190 E2 is powered by the
PW1919G, which has the same bypass
ratio as the PW1524G of 12.0:1.
The E-190 E2 has the same number of
seats as the first generation E-190, so it is
14% smaller than the A220-100 and thus
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
has a higher fuel consumption per seat on
the same routes and missions.
Across the nine routes of 200-862nm,
the A220-100 has a 6.1-8.1% lower burn
per seat than the E-190 E2 (see table, page
14). This is from actual fuel consumption
per seat for the E-190 E2 being 0.27-0.77
USG higher than the A220-100. This
translates to a higher cost per seat of
$0.67-1.93 for the E-190 E2, when using
the median fuel price. This is considerably
closer to the A220-100 than the first
generation E-Jets.
The E-195 E2 is 10 feet longer than the
first generation E-195. The E-195 E2 can
therefore accommodate about four rows of
economy-class seats. This would add 16
seats over the E-195, giving the -195 E2 a
seat capacity of about 127, making it nine
or 10 seats larger than the A220-100. The
E-195 E2 is therefore likely to have a lower
fuel burn per seat than the A220-100.
Unfortunately the E-195 E2 was not
available for this analysis.
A220-300 versus 737-700 & A319
The A220-300 has a significantly lower
fuel burn than the 737-700 and A319ceo.
The A220-300 has 17-18% lower burn
per seat than the 737-700 across the nine
routes (see table, page 15). This translates
to 0.58-1.79USG per seat more for the
737-700 than the A220-300. At a median
fuel price of $2.50 per USG, the A220-300
has a fuel cost per seat advantage of $1.45-
$4.50 across the route lengths of 200-
862nm.
The CFM56-powered A319ceo has 2-
4% higher burn than the V2524-powered
version. The difference in the A220-300’s
fuel burn per seat performance compared
to the A319ceo is similar to the 737-700.
The A220-300 has a 17-18% lower fuel burn per
seat than the older generation and similarly-
sized 737-700 and A319ceo. At a fuel cost of
$2..50 per USG, this can translate into a cost
advantage of $1-5 per seat for the A220-300.
Compared to the CFM56-powered
A319ceo, the A220-200 has 18.2-20.4%
lower burn per seat on the nine routes,
equal to a difference of 0.61-2.01USG per
seat (see table, page 15). This translates to
an advantage of $1.52-5.02 per seat for the
A220-300.
When looking at the V2524-powered
A319ceo, the A220-300 has a smaller
advantage of 0.45-1.81USG per seat (see
table, page 15). This translates to a
difference in fuel cost per seat of $1.12-
4.52.
The differences in fuel cost per seat
between the A220-300 and its older
generation alternatives are significant when
typical profit margins per available seat are
considered. The cost per seat differences
can be changed to cost per passenger by
adjusting for passenger load factor.
The A220-300 is a new generation
aircraft that is a direct replacement
candidate for the 737-700 and A319ceo.
The other two replacement candidates are
the A319 new engine option (neo) and the
737 MAX 7.
The A319neo has the same fuselage
size as the A319ceo, and the 737 MAX 7
has the same fuselage size as the 737-700.
The A319neo and 737 MAX 7 would
therefore have the same seat numbers
when their cabins are configured in the
same way as the A319ceo and 737-700.
The A319neo can be powered by either
the CFM LEAP-1A26 or the PW1127G.
These engines have bypass ratios of 11:1
and 12:1, and so should have a fuel burn
efficiency similar to the PW1524G
powering the A220-300. To date, Airbus
has secured fewer than 100 orders for the
A319neo, and only three aircraft are in
airline service. The A319neo has therefore
not been included in this analysis.
The 737 MAX 7 is equipped with the
CFM LEAP-1B25. The aircraft has secured
more than 280 firm orders from airlines,
including 234 from Southwest and 22 from
WestJet. To date, more than 60 have been
delivered to Southwest and WestJet. The
737 MAX 7 has, however, been in service
for only a short period, so it has not been
possible to include it in this analysis.
On a weight-for-weight basis, the
A220-300 has both a lower MTOW and
OEW than the A319neo and 737 MAX 7.
The A220-300 may therefore have a small
fuel burn per seat advantage.
To download more than 1,200
articles like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

Air transport is under constant pressure to improve its environmental
image and credentials, and overall sustainability. Techniques and methods
to improve and achieve sustainability for the industry vary between
short-term projects and long-term developments.
The industry’s techniques
to improve sustainability
T
he air transport industry has so
far been responsible for about
2.5% of global anthropogenic
CO2 emissions, yet the public
perception is that it is responsible for a far
higher percentage. Under the 2016 Paris
Agreement on climate change, the air
transport sector must meet an ambitious
target for reduction in CO2 emissions.
In total, the industry has produced
almost 900 million tons (megatons) of
CO2 or 0.9 billion tons (gigatons), out of a
total of 39 gigatons of anthropogenic
CO2. To meet the Paris Agreement goals,
the aviation industry must reduce net CO2
emissions to 170 megatons by 2050. This
compares with the 96 billion US gallons
(USG) or 307 million tons of kerosene fuel
consumed by commercial aircraft in 2019.
Reduction target
The first challenge to meeting this goal
is to consider the industry’s likely size of
operation by 2050 if growth in passenger
numbers and aircraft fleets continues at
historical rates. The number of boarded
passengers in 2019 was about 4.5 billion.
If the average rate of passenger number
growth continues at the previous 20-year
average of 3.1% then passenger numbers
will reach about 11.6 billion in 2050. This
is an overall increase by a factor of 2.6.
If all airline and aircraft operations
continue at the same rate of efficiency in
terms of fuel consumed per passenger, and
per revenue passenger mile (RPM) and
kilometre (RPK), then the industry will
consume 250 billion USG or 800 million
tons of kerosene. CO2 emissions from this
quantity of fuel would reach 2.35 gigatons.
The current operational fleet will have
retired by 2050, so all aircraft then in
operation will include latest generation
types, and future generation aircraft types
that are not yet built or launched.
Historically, aerospace manufacturers have
reduced fuel burn per seat-mile for similar-
or equivalent-sized aircraft by 12-15% for
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
every generation. A new generation of
aircraft and engines is released about once
every 20 years.
Assuming the industry continues along
the same development path over the next
28 years, the narrowbody fleet in 2050 will
include the last A320neos and 737 MAXs
to be built, a larger number of a new
generation of narrowbodies that could be
introduced from the early 2030s, and
possibly the first of an all-new generation
of aircraft.
Fuel consumption per RPM/RPK has
clearly reduced each year as the fleet profile
modernises. Taking this into account, it is
estimated that total industry fuel
consumption would actually reach 620
megatons by 2050, with CO2 emissions of
1.86, rather than 2.35, gigatons.
This level of CO2 emissions is still 450
megatons higher than the target specified
by the Paris Agreement, which is 50% of
the level of the industry’s emissions in
2005, which was 340 megatons of CO2.
The target for 2050 is therefore 170
megatons, equal to just 19% of global
airliner fleet emissions in 2019. This would
be equivalent to consuming about 18
million USG of kerosene.
The reduction levels are therefore
ambitious compared to the likely volume
of 1.86 gigatons of CO2 that would be
produced in 2050 if traffic growth were
permitted to continue unrestricted, and no
new fuels or propulsion systems were
introduced. The industry therefore faces
the huge challenge of achieving CO2
emissions that are 89% lower than would
otherwise be reached without any new fuel
types or aircraft propulsion systems being
introduced.
Paths to target
Achieving this target of CO2 reduction
requires the long-term development of a
completely new fuel, possibly combined
with an all-new aircraft propulsion system.
Different approaches are therefore
17 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
required to reduce the consumption of
conventional kerosene fuel in the short to
medium term. These include improving the
operating efficiency of aircraft, and
reducing carbon emissions that are not
directly related to operating the aircraft.
Improving operational efficiency
focuses on reducing fuel consumption by
reducing an aircraft’s all up weight (AUW),
to reduce the rate of fuel burn; and using
operational techniques to reduce fuel
consumption during different phases of the
flight, including during the engine start and
taxi phase, the initial climb and climb-out
phases, the cruise phase and the descent.
The effect of reducing an aircraft’s
AUW is well documented. Lower AUW
will require a lower engine throttle setting
to maintain the same cruise speed. Fuel
burn rate per hour in the cruise generally
decreases by 3% per hour as the aircraft’s
AUW decreases due to the constant
consumption of fuel. This can be several
tons per hour for widebodies, and 1.5 tons
per hour for 737 and A320 family types.
Reducing an aircraft’s take-off weight will
therefore have the same effect.
Reductions in take-off weight can be
achieved by reducing the aircraft’s
operating empty weight (OEW) and
prepared for service (APS) weight, and
reducing the fuel load carried while still
carrying the legal minimum required.
Reducing OEW
Airlines have relatively few options to
reduce an aircraft’s OEW, and therefore
fuel burn, since all structures and
components are required for its safe
operation.
However, some internal furnishings in
the passenger cabin, such as seating, in-
flight entertainment (IFE) systems, and
galleys and lavatories, can add unnecessary
weight to the aircraft. Many airlines have
offered simplified service levels over the
past decade, and so may have been able to
reduce an aircraft’s OEW in the process.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
18 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
Swapping embedded IFE systems for
portable systems that transmit content to
passengers’ personal devices is one
example.
One weight that does increase with
aircraft operation is the accumulation of
water in the insulation blankets located
between the fuselage outer wall and the
sidewall panel on the inside of the aircraft’s
cabin.
The problem is caused by the moisture
in passengers’ breath forming into
condensation when at a few degrees below
zero. The air temperature between the
sidewall panels and the fuselage skin is
lower than in the cabin. The condensation
in the air is absorbed in the insulation
blankets and other structures, and freezes
when the aircraft is in the cruise phase at
altitude.
This frozen condensation melts when
the aircraft descends into warmer air, and
drips of water find their way into parts of
the aircraft’s structure, especially towards
the bottom of the fuselage lower lobe.
As the aircraft continues in operation,
more condensation is absorbed, which
increases the aircraft’s OEW, while
structures are affected by the long-term
presence of moisture, which can lead to
corrosion. The high moisture content of
the air in various parts of the aircraft can
also affect the functioning and reliability of
its electrical and avionic components.
The amount of water accumulated in a
narrowbody can be as much as 200Kg
(440lbs), and 1,000Kg in a widebody.
CTT Systems provides its Zonal
Drying System to absorb the condensation
in the aircraft cabin, and thereby minimise
the amount of water accumulated in the
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
aircraft’s insulation blankets.
The Zonal Dryer has a relatively simple
configuration and construction, and is
located above the ceiling panels in the
passenger cabin. It uses silica gel to absorb
moisture in the air, and pumps out dry air
to reduce the relative humidity of air in the
cabin. This prevents the formation of
condensation as the drier air passes down
the inner wall of the aircraft where the
temperature is low.
The Zonal Drying system has a list
price of about $70,000. It can be installed
in the aircraft during a base check, using
about 100 man-hours (MH). In return, the
aircraft’s fuel burn is reduced by about
2.3USG per flight hour (FH) for 737 and
A320 family aircraft through the reduction
in AUW. At typical annual utilisation rates
of 3,000FH, the Zonal Dryer can reduce
fuel burn by 7,000USG per aircraft per
year. Current fuel prices in excess of $3 per
USG translate into a fuel cost saving of
$21,000 per aircraft per year, so an airline
can realise a return on capital in three to
four years.
Airlines are able to realise further
savings since reduced condensation has a
positive effect on structural maintenance
and component reliability.
Operational techniques
There are more than 40 operational
techniques that airlines can use to reduce
fuel burn. Examples are single-engine taxi,
continuous descent profiles, and re-
routeing. There are also new systems
available to aid the reduction of fuel burn.
The first example is self-taxi systems.
The main objective of these is to dispense
The condensation from passengers’ breath
accumulates in insulation blankets behind cabin
sidewall panels. The added weight increases fuel
burn. The CTT Zonal Drying System prevents this
moisture build-up, and so aids in aircraft weight
and fuel burn reduction.
with the process of using a pushback tug at
departure from the airport terminal, and
starting all engines during the pushback
process.
Wheeltug is a self-taxi system which
uses an electrical motor housed in the
nosewheel hub. The motor can be used to
reverse the aircraft out from the terminal.
The pilot can operate autonomously by
using a system of cameras on various
positions on the aircraft and a display on
the flightdeck. The aircraft can then drive
along the taxi way. The flightcrew can
determine when to commence the engine
start procedure depending on the number
of aircraft waiting for take-off.
The electrical power for the system is
generated by the aircraft’s auxiliary power
unit (APU), which is required to operate
during taxi. Both engines can, however, be
started later compared to conventional
pushback, start and taxi procedure.
In the case of a 737NG, the rate of
APU fuel burn is 1.8-2.0Kg or 0.6-0.7 USG
per minute. This compares to about 6Kg
per minute for single-engine taxi, and 9-
10Kg or 3.0-3.3USG per minute for taxi
with both engines running. Using the APU
to power the WheelTug system saves 2.4-
2.6USG per minute.
Both engines need to have been
running for about three minutes before
take-off. There are fuel burn savings to be
realised when aircraft operate at major
airports that frequently experience long
queues and waiting times before departure,
because of the difference in fuel burn rate
of the APU versus one or both engines.
The Wheeltug system can also be used
on taxi-in. With the APU already running
after leaving the runway, both engines can
be extinguished. When using WheelTug for
10 minutes per flight, it is possible to save
about 25USG per flight. The system can
therefore save about 40,000USG of fuel
per year when completing about 1,600FC.
Another self-taxi system is being
offered by US company Green Taxi. This is
a system originally developed by Safran,
Honeywell and L3, but is now under the
control of Green Taxi. Like WheelTug,
Green Taxi’s system is a motor based in
the aircraft’s nosewheel, and is electrically
powered by the aircraft’s APU.
The system has already been
demonstrated on the A320 by Safran, and
Green Taxi is testing and certifying the
system on the A220. David Valaer, chief
executive officer at Green Taxi, says the
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
EVERY KILO
COUNTS.

CTT’s proven Anti-

Condensation system can save
Airlines 250kgs or more
by removing trapped water
due to fusalage condensation.
Beside the weight saving,
unschedule repair is reduced
significantly.
20 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
supplemental type certification (STC) for
the A220 should be possible about 12
months after prototype completion.
Valaer says that self-taxi systems
contribute to a large reduction in emissions
because the emission rates of CO2 per
USG or Kg of fuel from engines are several
times higher when at idle thrust in the
ground, compared to high thrust settings at
the take-off or cruise phases of flight.
To illustrate this point, the fuel burn
rates and CO2 emissions rates for the take-
off, climb, approach and idle thrust
settings can be compared for narrowbody
engines. In the case of the PW1525G, the
fuel flow rate at take-off is 2.44 USG per
second at take-off, and 2.009 USG per
second at climb. In contrast it is just 0.247
USG per second at idle, about 10% of the
level at take-off power.
Trajectory-based operations
One operational technique that could
reduce emissions, as well as aircraft fuel
consumption and time-related costs, is the
adoption of trajectory-based operations
(TBO). TBO globally manages aircraft
traffic operations with the aim of
eliminating the inherent inefficiencies of the
current system. This results in the creation
of inefficient and lengthy flight profiles,
including expensive and fuel-consuming
holding procedures, that increase the
industry’s total CO2 emissions.
To manage air traffic, airline flight
planners or flight dispatchers plan a flight
profile and route, taking account of the
scheduled departure time, expected
payload, aged weather forecast, and the
aircraft and its weights.
The track of a traditional flight plan
includes standard instrument departure
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
(SID), a route linking a series of waypoints,
a standard terminal arrival route (STAR),
and a final approach.
The tracks used by aircraft overland
are fixed permanently and marked by
radio navigation beacons. Those over
water or remote areas are marked by
waypoints that can be periodically
repositioned. All aircraft are required to
adhere to these tracks, and fly between
these waypoints.
Radar has been used for decades for
aircraft surveillance in the case of overland
operations, while pilots make position
reports via high frequency (HF) radio for
operations over water. This requires long
lateral separation distances between
aircraft along tracks at the same altitude,
and for aircraft to operate at the same
speed along the track. A vertical separation
of 2,000 feet is required for aircraft along
the same track and in the same direction,
but at different altitudes, and aircraft are
required to maintain the same altitude
along the length of the track.
Surveillance of aircraft over water and
remote areas has been improved by the
development of the future air navigation
system (FANS), which uses controller-pilot
datalink communication (CPDLC)
messages and automatic dependent
surveillance (ADS) -C equipment. CPDLC
avoids voice congestion over airwaves, and
errors between pilots and controllers. ADS-
C allows aircraft surveillance and tracking
via satellite. It provides accurate position
data, among other useful information.
The adoption of FANS has allowed the
lateral and vertical separation minima to
be reduced on tracks over water and
remote areas, reducing congestion.
The current system still has many
inherent inefficiencies. Despite the
The concept of trajectory-based operations
(TBO) is ultimately to allow aircraft to
individually fly optimised flight profiles. This
would dispose of the ATM system of flying
aircraft along airways or tracks at fixed altitude
intervals, and having to enter holding patterns
and long arrival paths with the aircraft at
inefficient configurations.
availability of ADS-C, aircraft are still
required to fly level at specific altitudes or
flight levels (FLs) along the tracks, and in
most cases at a fixed speed and Mach
number to maintain procedural separation
with other aircraft.
Aircraft can increase altitude in step
climbs to achieve better fuel efficiency or a
faster speed, but only if there is sufficient
separation from other aircraft along the
requested track at the required altitude.
This entire system has to be managed
by air navigation service providers
(ANSPs). Even though airlines operate
most of their services to each destination at
the same time each day, the track, FL and
speed used vary. The flightplan is filed by
the flight planner, and includes estimates of
the time the aircraft enters each FIR and
arrives at each waypoint, as well as the
altitude and speed. This helps the ANSPs
coordinate all the predicted routes aircraft
take within their airspace via a
computerised system. As the aircraft
progresses along the route, its control is
handed from one FIR to another.
Inherent inefficiencies
“Operating this system is inherently
inefficient,” says Henk Hof, head of the
International Civil Aviation Organisation
(ICAO) and concept unit at Eurocontrol.
“One issue is that the timing of the
aircraft’s arrival in each FIR along the
route can only be approximated. Delays
mean that the actual timings are often out
by more than 10 minutes, and as many as
30.
“The biggest cause of delay is the
actual take-off time differing from the plan,
usually because of late passenger boarding
and on-ground congestion along taxi-
ways,” continues Hof. “Delays are also
caused by en-route changes in flight times
between each waypoint, and the aircraft
flying a revised track different to the path
of the chosen SID, usually due to
instructions issued by air traffic control
(ATC); and changes to the planned FL,
since flightcrew will ask for higher altitudes
and changes to planned speed.
“Delays and changes have a knock-on
effect on every FIR along the route, and
there can be substantial differences in the
arrival time of an aircraft entering the FIR
for the final destination in the case of long-
distance flights,” continues Hof. “All these
factors combine to cause aircraft to enter,
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

pass through, and exit each FIR along its
planned route at times and lead to FLs that
differ widely from the plan.”
It is because of these unpredictable FIR
entry times, speeds and altitudes that
controllers within each one are required to
simplify the coordination of aircraft along
airways and between waypoints to
maintain safe operation through sufficient
aircraft separation. The frequent arrival of
relatively large numbers of aircraft into
particular blocks of airspace, and at times
that differ to those planned, means arriving
aircraft must fly along airways, follow the
tracks of STARS, and enter into holding
patterns. London Heathrow (LHR) is a
case in point where aircraft can land on the
same runway at intervals of as short as 60
seconds. Aircraft arriving in UK airspace,
and heading for arrival at LHR, will enter
Scottish FIR if arriving from the more
northerly transatlantic routes, and into
London FIR if arriving from most other
parts of the world.
Airways that route aircraft to landing
at LHR ultimately lead to four stacking
points over the northwest, northeast,
southwest and southeast corners of
London. From two of these points, aircraft
must fly convoluted, S-shaped tracks; and
U-shaped tracks from the other two
holding points, to intercept the ILS.
This arrival process via particular
holding points, the time spent at relatively
low speed and inefficient configurations of
Faster Ground
Ops →
Better Fleet Utilization
www.wheeltug.com
exec@wheeltug.com
+44 (0)20 7993 4293
+1 (410) 419
-0082
+420 724 276 506
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
lowered flaps at low to medium altitudes,
together with the long and convoluted
tracks from the holding points to the ILS
all result in a substantial increase in flying
time and distance. Moreover, descent
profiles in these last segments of the flight
can involve several steps in altitude (‘step’
descents), rather than following an
optimum continuous descent profile. All
these issues can substantially increase
aircraft fuel burn and flight time.
These issues are ultimately caused by
each FIR operating autonomously, or semi-
autonomously. The air traffic controllers in
each FIR have to react to the situation by
intervening tactically. This is a main reason
for the need for airways and specific tracks
and FLs, and fixed speeds. All combine to
produce relatively inefficient flight profiles.
Moreover, there is an overall lack of
coordination between the airline’s flight
dispatch department, and all affected FIRs
along the route. There are several updates
to the flight plan as it is executed, yet only
estimated times at waypoints are shared
between the FIRs that are consecutively
flown through along a route.
The three main inherent problems with
the current ATM system are: poor and
non-timely communications; lack of
coordination between FIRs along an
aircraft’s route and track; and the system
of using airways. These lead to congestion
and systemic delays, for which airlines
blame ATC.
WheelTug electricbenefits:
taxi
• Better OTP
• No more tugs
• Improved safety
• Lower emissions
21 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
Another problem is that flight plans are
based on airline timetables, while airlines
have wide margins of several minutes from
scheduled times before flights are regarded
as being delayed. Primary causes of delays
include late passenger boarding, which can
be due to an airline management issue,
technical problems, ATC delays en route
and on the ground, and the weather. The
average primary delay per flight across the
industry is 3.55 minutes per flight.
Primary delays result in further knock-
on or reactionary delays to flights operated
by the same aircraft later in the day. The
global average for reactionary delays is 6.7
minutes per flight.
The total cost of these delays, including
additional fuel consumption and flight
time-related costs due to the inefficiencies
of the current ATM system, is estimated to
be $66 billion. This compares to the
industry’s profit of $28 billion in 2019.
TBO is designed to remove most or all
of these inefficiencies.
TBO concept
TBO operations aims to avoid these
inherent inefficiencies of the system by
constantly updating the flight plan and
sharing data with all parties affected along
the flight route to operate a flight and
ATM system that is fully coordinated
between all relevant FIRs, the airline’s
flight dispatch or operations control
Watch
WheelTug
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
22 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
department, and the flightdeck of each
aircraft before and throughout the flight.
“Unlike the current ATM system, the
concept of TBO is that the flight plan data
would be shared in real time between all
FIRs and ANSPs,” says Hof. “Each time
the plan is updated, all FIRs would have
time to coordinate the flight profiles of all
the aircraft that are expected to arrive in
their block of airspace via the use of a
computerised system.
“With accurate and timely information
relating to an aircraft’s progress, flights
would no longer have to route along fixed
airways and over waypoints, and use fixed
FLs, or be routed along SIDs and STARs,
and be placed into holding patterns,”
continues Hof. “With a coordinated ATM
system and the appropriate technology,
aircraft could be flown on optimised
trajectories. FLs, speeds, arrival paths and
profiles could therefore all be optimised, so
stacking at holding points could be avoided
or minimised. This would effectively be a
four-dimensional flight trajectory, the
fourth dimension being time in relation to
the aircraft’s flight path and altitude.”
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
The overall effect would be that each
aircraft’s flown track is much closer to the
optimum, when taking wind strength and
direction into account, and to considerably
reduce the time and distance spent flying
departure and arrival routeing. Each airline
would therefore benefit from reduced fuel
consumption and flight times, and all time-
related costs.
Implementing TBO will involve several
industry organisations, including the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
ICAO and Eurocontrol. The technology
required to make this operable is CPDLC,
ADS-C and aircraft communications
addressing and reporting system (ACARS)
equipment on the aircraft. “This is so that
aircraft can communicate between the
relevant ANSP and its flight dispatch or
flightwatch group within its operations
control department,” says Michael Bryan,
founding principal of Closed Loop
Consulting. “The flightwatch department
becomes more significant with TBO
because the airline’s dispatch department
will have an increasing role in managing
the flight and coordinating more
information to and from the aircraft and
the ANSPs along the route. This
information will include en-route weather,
timing forecasts for the arrival and
contingency airports, and the acceptability
of rerouting options. Communications
between flightdeck, dispatch or flightwatch
and the ANSPs will be crucial to making
TBO work.”
The aircraft also needs to be able to
produce an extended projected flight
profile (EPP). Later-built 787s and A350s
have flight management computers
(FMCs) with this data, but it can also be
done using an app on an electronic
flightbag (EFB). “The EPP generates an
accurate projection of the entire flight path
with current data,” explains Bryan. “It is
constantly updated with information fed to
the ANSPs’ computer systems.”
TBO means that flight profiles could be
optimised, and therefore shortened, to
consume less fuel for thousands of flights
every day. “It could therefore save the
industry several billion USG of fuel and
reduce the industry’s CO2 emissions by
several megatons each year. TBO would
therefore contribute to a large reduction in
the industry’s CO2 emissions,” explains
Bryan. “An additional benefit of TBO is
that it could greatly reduce or even
eliminate contrails of frozen water vapour,
which form in super-saturated air and at
low temperatures. Contrails have the dual
effect of reflecting sunlight up towards the
sun, and trapping heat underneath. The
greenhouse effect of this is referred to by
some as the industry’s dirty little secret.”
The altitudes that are conducive to
contrail formation can be predicted at the
flight planning stage, so alternative
altitudes can be selected. “Avoiding the
creation of contrails can halve CO2
emissions. Using TBO would eliminate a
high percentage of contrails, and
contribute to an increase in the industry’s
sustainability credentials,” says Bryan.
Alternative fuels & propulsion
The reduction in CO2 emissions
required means the industry will have to
use alternative fuels and aircraft propulsion
systems that have either considerably lower
or even zero rates of CO2 emissions than
kerosene Jet A-1 fuel.
Several possible new propulsion
systems have emerged over the past 10
years. Each has its disadvantages, however,
so each is more suited to a particular group
of aircraft types and a range of missions.
One system is electrically-powered
propulsion. The principal configuration
uses battery power to power an electrical
motor that will turn either a propeller, or a
ducted fan to generate propulsive power.
This has appeal from the requirement of
lowering CO2 emissions, since there are
several methods to generate electricity
sustainably. An example is the large
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

quantities of electricity now being
generated by solar panels and wind farms.
The advantage of such a system is that
it uses simple components. If it can provide
sufficient propulsive power, then it will not
have any of the high cost components of
conventional gas turbine engines, such as
blades and vanes in the high pressure
turbine section. These have high rates of
deterioration, and high capital costs. An
electrical propulsion system will therefore
have lower capital and maintenance costs
than conventional turboprop and jet
engines.
The main component of this system is
the battery, whose size, weight and energy
density determine its ability to generate
sufficient power. The amount of energy
that can be stored will also affect the
aircraft’s endurance and operating range.
Few electrically-powered commercial
aircraft projects are under development,
and they are all based on aircraft that are
used as testbeds, powered with
conventional piston or turboprop engines.
Some all-new aircraft are being developed,
typically with 10 seats, making them the
smallest aircraft used for short commercial
operations such as island-hopping.
The main limitation of electrically-
powered aircraft is the size and weight of
the battery, the possible energy density, the
frequent need to recharge and/or change
the batteries between almost every flight,
and the limited number of times the battery
can be used before it has to be replaced.
This has implications for the practicalities
of swapping batteries between flights, the
number of spare units that must be held,
and the necessary airport infrastructure.
The main limitation is the current
energy density of batteries. Coupled with
the likelihood that it may be several
decades before a new generation of
batteries with a significantly higher energy
density is produced, this means that such a
propulsion system is likely to be limited to
the smaller regional aircraft types that are
operated on the shortest routes.
Hybrid electric and fuel cell is another
future aircraft propulsion system.
A hybrid electrical system will use
electricity to provide supplemental power
to turn a propeller or ducted fan for the
phases of flight where a higher rate of
engine thrust is required. Conventional
power will be used as the sole propulsion
during the cruise phase of the flight.
The generation of electrical power will
come from a battery, so it will be limited
by battery energy density, and only achieve
a small reduction in fuel consumption and
23 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
CO2 emissions. This system would serve as
a temporary solution while other
propulsion systems with lower CO2
emissions are developed.
Fuel cell technology systems are based
on electrical power being generated by the
electrolysis of conventional kerosene or
liquid hydrogen fuel. The electrolysis and
electrical power generating system is
referred to as a powertrain, and is used to
turn a propeller or a ducted fan. These
engine systems are conceptual, and
research programmes are in progress for
commercial turboprop aircraft to serve as
testbeds.
Fuel cell technology has the potential to
provide sufficient propulsive power for
aircraft larger than the smallest commercial
types, so they can carry out typical regional
and short-haul missions.
SAFs
A consensus across the industry is that
electrical, hybrid and fuel cell systems are
only ever likely to be suitable for aircraft
up to 150-seat capacity, and operating
missions for up to 120 minutes. These
aircraft and missions account for about
27% of CO2 emissions across the industry.
It is accepted that the propulsion

Decide your future today

Aviation Consulting
Closed Loop has been at the forefront of aviation
operational strategy and its implementation since
Closed Loop
2009. At the centre of Aviation Ecosystem Strategy since 200
Recognised globally for successful outcomes with In the dynamic world of aviation now is the time for actio
flight operations programs, Closed Loop is also an
industry leader in strategic insight and its often
Closed Loop has the strategic frameworks ready to suppo
overlooked implementation planning and execution. airlines and the emerging AAM industry. Get in touch with u
Over the past five years, Closed Loop has invested significantly in exploring every today for an obligation-free appointment to discuss yo
facet of TBO, the most critical development in aviation for decades, This has forward strategy and how it fits into the new normal of glob
resulted in the development of several strategic pathways and program
frameworks to guide airline readiness.
aviation.
Get in touch: We're ready to help you deliver your airline’s strategic edge.

Airline Boards and Senior Management cannot afford not

to have the Closed Loop ADVANTAGE, providing Board
and Senior Management a personal, confidential and
industry-leading insight into internal program portfolios,
the fit with organisational strategy and crucially, how
these integrate with external forces like TBO, AAM and
other systemic airline and aviation issues.
ADVANTAGE is a premium service enjoyed only by a
few. ADVANTAGE is an assurance service ensuring
the Board and Senior Management remain
informed about relevant industry developments,
providing greater assurance around governance and
risk in their operational environment. To become an
ADVANTAGE member, or learn more about this
bespoke service, contact us in confidence today at
info@loopclosed.com.au. or
AAM, UAM, and drones have become the focus of
much attention within and outside traditional
aviation.
Most of the focus so far is on technology. Exciting as
that may be, a pragmatic lens on the holistic system
within which these vehicles will exist is crucial to
their eventual success. ‘Metrops’ is a wholly owned
subsidiary of Closed Loop, providing consulting,
integration systems and data consolidation services
across the AAM ecosystem, including data from the
cities over which AAM systems will operate,
regulations, and vertiports and the OEMs and
operators. To learn more, get in touch at
info@metrops.aero.

Closed Loop ADVANTAGE metrops

loopclosed.com.au
info@loopclosed.com.au

ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022 AIRCRAFT COMMERCE

24 I AIRLINE & AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
system most likely to achieve the required
reduction in CO2 emissions will use
sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) by most
aircraft and on most routes.
The main advantages of SAFs are that
the hydrocarbons produced are similar to
kerosene, and so can be used as a drop-in
fuel to initially be mixed with kerosene
fuel. SAFs are manufactured from several
feedstock sources.
Given the possibility of electrical and
fuel cell systems being used on smaller
aircraft and the shortest missions, the
quantity of SAFs that will have to be
produced by 2050 is estimated to be up to
445 million tons. The actual quantity
required will depend on the efficiency gains
made in aircraft operations, and aircraft
and engine fuel burn efficiency.
Many SAFs have been under
development for the past 15 years, and the
number of programmes continues to grow.
They all generate liquid hydrocarbons that
have a low net production of CO2, either
by capturing it from the atmosphere and
generating the fuel using a physical or
chemical process, or by using a biological
waste material to manufacture the
hydrocarbon fuel. A similar amount of
CO2 is released to the atmosphere when
combusting the fuel.
Several feedstock materials can be used
with two or three main techniques to
generate SAFs. These are timber and
forestry waste material, waste and used
cooking oils, agricultural wastes and
residues, and municipal waste.
The quantities of these materials varies
widely. Agricultural waste and used
cooking oils, for example, are limited.
Moreover, care must be taken to develop a
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
SAF production system that has long-term
viability, and does not ultimately cause
food price inflation by using or competing
for agricultural land.
The quantity of waste fats and oils
available from the catering industry is
limited. The main production process uses
the hydroprocess esters and fatty acids
(HEFA) pathway. This technique could be
used to produce sufficient volumes of fuel
for smaller regional airports, for example.
The limited quantity of source material
adds to the issue of the relative cost
inefficiency of material collection.
Timber and forestry, and agricultural
and municipal waste are all used to
produce SAFs using the Alcohol-to-jet (AtJ)
and Fischer Tropsch (FT) processes. The
largest quantity of material that can be
used is municipal waste. The supply of the
source material is also concentrated in
large conurbations, and has economies of
scale.
Using municipal waste will require the
development of systems to separate waste
food from packaging. The production of
SAFs for aviation from municipal waste
has already begun in the US.
All of these systems are based around
the use of biological feedstocks that have
absorbed CO2 from the atmosphere
during their growth.
The largest probable source of SAFs
will be produced using power-to-liquid
(PtL) methods. The main process captures
CO2 from the atmosphere, uses water and
chemical reactions to split the CO2 and
H2O molecules, and uses catalysts to
produce hydrocarbons and O2.
Two particular examples in Europe
have been developed by Finnish company
A bonus of TBO operations is that the formation
of contrails from most aircraft could be avoided.
This would be by planning flight profiles to
avoid blocks of airspace with atmospheric
conditions that result in contrails. Aircraft
contrails reflect sunlight upwards, and trap heat
underneath. Their elimination would contribute
to reducing the greenhouse effect.
Neste, and Swiss company Synhelion.
Neste uses renewable electricity generated
using hydroelectric plants, while the
Synhelion process uses concentrated
sunlight.
Not only can the carbon capture PtL
systems absorb CO2 from the atmosphere
and so produce a net zero CO2 fuel, it may
also be possible to develop techniques to
sequester additional CO2, and so actually
produce a carbon-negative fuel.
The main advantage of the PtL
techniques and the conversion of municipal
waste is that there is an unlimited supply of
source material. A further advantage of
converting municipal waste to SAF is that
it would reduce the methane production
that normally occurs as decaying food
material putrefies in waste dumps.
The large-scale production of SAFs that
would eventually be required will
necessitate a large increase in production
capacity. Unlike the production of
kerosene from fossil fuels, the production
of SAFs will not be concentrated among a
relatively small number of plants, where
each one produces large volumes of fuel.
It is estimated that by 2050 5,000-
7,000 SAF refineries will be required all
over the world, with several in each
country. This would minimise transport
costs of taking source material to the
refinery, and carrying the fuel to local
airports. It would also give each country a
degree of independence for fuel supply.
The average refinery would produce only
about 32 million USG per year to be used
by commercial aviation.
The investment required over the next
30 years to build these refineries and all
associated infrastructure is about $1.4
trillion. Despite the large cost, it is only a
small fraction of the amount invested in all
fossil fuel infrastructure globally to date.
The development of this infrastructure
would also create an estimated 13.7
million jobs.
Overall, depending on the rate of
infrastructure development using the three
main production techniques, it is estimated
that the HEFA process would produce
about 8% of total SAFs by 2040,
agricultural, forestry and municipal waste
would produce up to 43%, and more than
50% of SAFs would be manufactured
using PtL processes and CO2 capture.
To download more than 1,200
articles like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

The engine MRO market suffered a large and rapid decline during the
pandemic. All possible techniques to avoid engine maintenance events
were used. With passenger numbers climbing and fleets being reactivated,
engine shops are experiencing staff shortages and supply chain problems.
The Engine MRO
market struggles to
return to normal
T
he engine shop visit (SV) market
is one of the industry sectors that
was hit hardest by the Covid-19
pandemic. The rapid fall in
passenger numbers, followed by the decline
in the active fleet of passenger jets of more
than 50% in the spring of 2020, caused the
number of engine SVs to fall significantly.
Jetliner fleet from 2020
The active fleet of jet-powered
passenger aircraft in January 2020
included 1,318 large regional jets (RJs) and
100-seat aircraft, 15,250 narrowbodies
and 4,536 widebodies. This was a total of
21,101 passenger jetliner aircraft. By May
2020 this total had fallen by 57% to 9,134
aircraft, including 595 large RJs and 100-
seaters, 6,460 narrowbodies, and 2,079
widebodies (see Active jetliner passenger
fleet increases by 71,00 to 16,200, Aircraft
Commerce, August/September 2020, page
4). Moreover, the rate of utilisation of the
active aircraft was less than half that of
pre-pandemic levels.
Total global jetliner fleet activity was
therefore only about 25% of the pre-
pandemic level. This had a marked effect
on demand for engine SV maintenance.
Airlines adopted various coping
strategies for dealing with the pandemic
and drop in aircraft activity. The first was
to place some of their fleets into long-term
storage. Reactivating aircraft requires
significant maintenance, the cost of which
rises as time spent in storage is extended.
Airlines also parked some of their
fleets. A parked aircraft can be reactivated
for operation relatively quickly, but can
only be in this state for a short period of
time before the airline must decide between
putting it back into operation, or placing it
in long-term storage. A lot of airlines
swapped aircraft between an active and
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
parked state during the pandemic.
Many active aircraft were operated at
lower than pre-pandemic rates of
utilisation, but many widebodies were
converted to the temporary status of
‘preighter’, so they could carry freight
secured to their floor following the removal
of seats. Aviation authorities allowed this
until July 2022.
The drop in aircraft operations
therefore caused a large fall in engine shop
maintenance activity. Engine maintenance
is broadly divided into two categories:
engines under power-by-the-hour (PBH) or
fixed-cost-per-hour maintenance contracts.
Many of these contracts were with original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs). This
included many current generation
widebody engines, and some older
generation widebody engines.
Engines under PBH-style contracts had
removals for SVs delayed by the drop in
utilisation, while rates per engine flight
hour (EFH) were unaffected.
The drop in aircraft activity with
engines under these contracts resulted in
EFH savings for their operators, but
severely affected OEM-operated engine
shops, which laid off shop-floor staff, as
did facilities that manufacture engine
airfoils and other components.
Other engines are maintained either in
independent or airline-related engine
shops. Most are paid for on a time-and-
material, fixed-price or not-to-exceed basis,
so a drop in engine SV activity would
provide significant savings for airlines.
Achieving these savings was a main
priority for airlines as they grappled with
the sudden drop in passenger revenues.
Airlines could avoid the outflow of tens or
hundreds of millions of dollars by doing
everything possible to keep the number of
SVs to an absolute and necessary
minimum. In the case of most types, this
25 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
included having just hospital-type SVs to
keep the engine operational for a few more
thousand EFH, so as to delay expensive
SVs. “Many shops re-positioned
themselves to do light, hospital-type engine
workscopes during the pandemic,” says
Alexander Trapp, senior vice president of
business development, at Standard Aero.
“There was high demand for hospital-type
SVs, and for many shops they were the
only or major source of revenue.”
To further exploit this potential saving,
airlines took advantage of the large surplus
of aircraft and engines on the market by
swapping engines and engine modules that
were mounted on aircraft in storage with
an appreciable amount of maintenance life
or ‘green time’ with those requiring SV
maintenance.
This practice of using green-time
engines and modules was used extensively
across the industry, and generated large
and necessary savings for airlines. It also
caused a large drop in engine SV numbers
from early 2020.
“There is also the availability of used
serviceable material (USM), sourced from
disassembled engines, to consider,” says
James Bennett, commercial director at
Aerfin. “USM can be used to reduce the
cost of SVs, although it does not achieve
such large savings as using green-time
assets. In recent months we have seen a rise
in the number of piece parts we are selling,
as the market gets more active.”
The engine maintenance repair and
overhaul (MRO) market has yet to recover
to pre-pandemic activity. “There were
some older types that had little change in
SV activity,” says Trapp. “The RB211-535
in particular is a popular engine because of
its role with the 757-200 freighter. SV
activity for this engine did not change
during the pandemic, and in fact some
engines had heavier workscopes.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
26 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
Recovery
The recovery in passenger numbers,
and the resulting increase in aircraft fleet
activity, has varied around the world. The
Chinese domestic market was the first to
recover.
Passenger numbers on Chinese
domestic routes and the overall market
started to recover as early as March 2020,
after reaching a low of 13.3% of peak
levels in February 2020. By August 2020
domestic Chinese passenger numbers were
85% of August 2019 levels. The number of
passengers in the domestic Chinese market
had fully recovered by October 2020, so
the fleet and its rate of utilisation to
accommodate this volume of traffic was
back to 2019 levels after just one year,
accounting for several thousand
narrowbodies and a few hundred
widebodies.
In January 2020 there were 2,763
737NG and A320 family passenger aircraft
in active service with Chinese airlines. This
number had increased by 3% to 2,849
aircraft by the end of September 2020.
The recovery in the US domestic
market gradually increased from the
middle of 2020, but speeded up during
early 2021. The US domestic market and
corresponding fleet and activity was about
85% of pre-pandemic levels by late 2021.
Trans-European traffic started to make
a significant recovery in late 2021 and the
first half of 2022. The last major short-
haul market to recover has been the Asia
Pacific outside of the Chinese domestic
market, where a recovery of passenger
volumes and fleet activity only started to
get under way in May or June 2022.
The active fleet of passenger-configured
jetliners had reached 18,904 units in
March 2022, compared with 21,101 in
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
January 2020. There were 14,242 active
narrowbodies in March 2022 compared to
15,247 in January 2020, while there were
3,473 widebodies in March 2022
compared to 4,526 in January 2020.
A main factor in the engine market is
how many older types that were operated
in December 2019 or January 2020 will
still be operational when the market has
fully recovered. Clearly new aircraft were
scheduled for delivery before the pandemic
started. These will have been placed into
storage, and airlines’ priority will be to
reactivate them and get them into service,
since there are financial commitments to
these aircraft. The oldest aircraft in storage
are the least likely to be reactivated, and
airlines will use reactivations to maintain
control over the capacity they offer across
their route networks.
The longer it takes for traffic levels to
reach pre-pandemic levels, and the slower
and weaker the recovery, the fewer aircraft
and engines will be returned to service.
These unused aircraft will serve as a source
of green-time engines and engine modules,
and airframe rotables that can feed to users
of older types that are back in operation.
The ratio of aircraft that have not been
reactivated since the pandemic to those
that have been activated is the main
influence on the supply of green-time
material, and how long it will be available.
Engine MRO activity
While different markets around the
world recover at different rates, more
aircraft get reactivated. This is followed by
an increase in aircraft utilisation, and so
increases the volume of engine SVs.
Long-haul markets will be the last to
recover, especially those from Europe and
North America serving the Asia Pacific.
Many engine shops are busy, but this is mainly
due to shop visit turn times taking almost twice
as long as pre-pandemic performance. Many are
experiencing a shortage of skilled and
experienced labour, and delays in the supply of
material and parts.
Overall the widebody engine MRO market
will recover later than the narrowbody
engine market.
The relatively quick recovery of
Chinese and US narrowbody fleets means
that the first level of engine MRO recovery
has been experienced by shops with
CFM56-5B/-7B and V2500-A5 capability.
Market complications
Despite the general upswing in fleet
activity, one factor that has limited the
number of engine SVs, has been the high
supply of green-time engines and modules
in all of the older engine types.
The engine types that are unaffected
and almost immune to this effect are those
that power modern widebodies. The
MROs for the vast majority of these
engines are controlled by the OEMs, so the
engines are rarely swapped with other
engines or modules. These types include
the Trent family, with the exception of
some Trent 700s, a large portion of the
GE90-110/-115 fleet, and the GEnx.
The swapping of green-time engines
and modules will be used extensively for all
older engine types, plus the main type
powering the current generation
narrowbodies. The three main engine types
that this activity affected were the CFM56-
5B, CFM56-7B and V2500-A5 powering
the A320ceo and 737NG families. It is the
extent of the use of green-time assets that
has had the biggest effect on the engine
MRO market during and since the
pandemic.
The number of 737NGs in active
passenger service from January to May
2020 fell by 2,569 aircraft, while there
were nearly 5,000 fewer A320 family types
in service in May 2020 compared to four
months before.
This fall in the number of active
aircraft was equal to the number that had
been retired or put into storage in the first
five months of 2020. Clearly these aircraft
were a source of many time-continued and
green-time engines and modules.
Most airlines also operated at lower
than usual rates of aircraft utilisation,
which compounded the drop in engine
MRO activity. The large supply of green-
time engines meant airlines could virtually
eliminate any need for full engine SVs, and
minimise cashflow, but this has had
consequences for most engine shops. The
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

first was the very large drop in revenues
and the large amount of engine SV
capacity that became available.
The negative effect of this was that
engine shops laid off staff, and made large
cuts in the quantity of engine material and
airfoils that were being purchased. This
was compounded by the large availability
of surplus material available from
disassembled modules and engines. Some
material could be used without any repair,
while others could be repaired. Either way,
the use of USM also provided another way
for airlines to achieve savings.
The large number of retired and stored
aircraft and engines meant that the use of
green-time assets could be prolonged
throughout the pandemic, as a result of
which engine shops were forced to lose
many skilled and experienced staff.
Engine shop bottlenecks
It is not clear how much of the green-
time asset pool available in the Spring of
2020, as the pandemic was getting under
way, remains more than two years later.
With most green-time assets being used up,
airlines will need to commit to larger and
more expensive SVs, involving at least
performance restorations for core modules,
to provide engines with enough
performance and maintenance life to
remain on-wing for several years.
Higher costs can be incurred if life-
limited parts (LLPs) of disks and shafts
need replacing in core modules, hence the
interest in using green-time assets wherever
possible while passenger revenues were
depressed.
Some engine types, in particular the
CFM56-5B and -7B, have low pressure
(LP) modules that have LLPs with longer
lives of 25,000 engine flight cycles (EFC)
and 30,000EFC. This compares to lives of
20,000EFC for the core modules. This
makes it possible for airlines and operators
to prolong the use of cash-saving
techniques, so not all modules will require
high-cost SVs simultaneously.
This is helped by the fact that some
A320ceo and 737NG family aircraft will
be retired, and so will provide a large
number of engines for disassembly and
parts salvage.
In contrast, the V2500-A5 has uniform
LLP lives of 20,000 EFC throughout the
engine, so they all come due for
replacement at the same time. The 2022
list price for a shipset is close to $5 million,
which means a large cash outflow for
engines with expired LLPs, plus the cost of
a full overhaul. This is bound to raise the
question of whether an airline or lessor will
consider it worthwhile to put the engine
through such an extensive SV, especially
27 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
when a new A320neo or 737 MAX could
be acquired at an attractive lease rate.
“The high cost of overhauling each
engine usually comes at an age that closely
coincides with the heavy airframe check in
the base check cycle, and the landing gear
overhaul,” says Thomas Garbaccio, chief
executive officer at Fortress Investments.
“This cash outlay for the large
maintenance events that fall due at a
similar time are considered against the
aircraft’s depreciated book value, and its
likely market value and lease rental. Many
airlines and investors may choose to retire
the aircraft, and salvage components and
parts from the airframe.”
While it may be impossible for industry
observers to estimate the supply of green-
time material left, most of what was
available in the spring of 2020 is bound to
have been consumed, and engine SV
activity will increase as a result. This has
led to a recent increase in the number of
SV inputs that include normal level
workscopes. “Demand for engine
maintenance is getting back to normal,”
says Trapp. “Engine shops, however, are
having difficulty coping with the sudden
rise in demand. There are several factors
behind this. There were, however, supply
chain problems before the pandemic, so it
is not just a single issue that is affecting a
lot of shops. One issue can get solved, but

unequivocal precision
assured engine performance

Aero Norway is an independent engine MRO

delivering high performance CFM56-3C/5B/7B
series engines, recognised globally for flexibility
and quality.

It’s precisely why operators

choose Aero Norway.

aeronorway.no

ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022 AIRCRAFT COMMERCE

28 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
HISTORIC & FORECAST ENGINE SHOP VISIT VOLUMES NARROWBODY & to normal levels quickly. Airlines and
lessors are being warned to make quick
WIDEBODY ENGINE TYPES 2019 - 2025
decisions in relation to booking SVs, as
Year 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
well as large airframe checks and other
major maintenance events.
Engine type “More engines are going to shops for
full SVs, partly because lessors have
JT8D 119 51 85 67 41 51 53 stopped proposing module swaps to save
CFM56-3B/-3C 368 184 168 130 76 136 196
money, and instead are looking for full
RB211-535 106 22 16 28 24 24 30 workscopes,” says Mermod. “The
PW2000 72 58 36 62 56 60 78 problems shops are facing are making it
hard for them to reach pre-pandemic levels
CFM56-5A 821 72 68 60 16 0 16
and get turn times back to where they
CFM56-5B 932 506 581 608 719 722 696
CFM56-7B 1,654 1,270 1,409 1,486 1,613 1,652 1,528 were. Many shops are full, not because
they are performing the same number of
CFM56-5C 104 20 29 64 20 36 20 SVs as before the pandemic, but because
they are taking longer to complete each
V2500-A1/A5/D5 1,058 671 748 854 784 864 918
workscope.”
Total narrowbody engines 4,709 2,984 3,341 3,518 3,469 3,640 3,669 These issues will clearly take time to be
resolved, and it could be a year or more
RB211-524 42 12 12 8 4 4 22 before engine shops and other elements of
PW4000-94 146 103 113 83 100 76 54
the overall technical support infrastructure,
CF6-80C2 466 354 320 381 338 387 320
are able to perform at pre-pandemic levels.
Trent 700 306 222 276 240 212 352 328 “These bottlenecks in engine shops are just
PW4000-100 74 52 42 50 82 60 72 another delay to the industry getting back
CF6-80E1 64 62 88 90 64 78 90 to normal, which some expect to take until
Trent 800 66 0 40 60 60 18 32
2024,” says Bennett. “A particular issue is
PW4000-122 54 26 0 28 26 16 30 that component repair shops are taking up
GE90 62 26 28 56 32 44 16 to 120 days to return parts, because of
both staff and material shortages.”
Trent 500 44 0 12 12 16 4 28
This will therefore limit airlines’ ability
GE90-110/-115 504 404 410 386 458 496 444
to provide capacity, and will also favour
Trent 900 20 8 8 52 100 56 20 newly-delivered and younger aircraft and
GEnx-2B 88 32 64 108 120 80 68 engines over older types. This will limit
overall industry capacity in most markets,
GEnx-1B 144 166 186 264 336 358 280
Trent 1000 88 148 134 166 130 170 186
and keep capacity restricted, so that
Trent XWB 98 112 138 238 202 300 326 passenger fares and yields will remain high
for an extended period.
Total widebody engines 2,266 1,727 1,871 2,222 2,281 2,507 2,402

Source: ICF CAMRO

often another arises.”
The first is the lack of trained and
experienced shop-floor staff, as described.
The second issue is the overall supply
chain, which has been disrupted by the
pandemic. The lack of new engine
deliveries and engine SV activity led to
engine OEMs reducing the production of
new airfoils and other major parts. Like
others in the sector, the OEMs also laid off
production staff. “One difficulty is the low
rate of production in casting and forging
facilities that produce new airfoils and
other parts for the engine,” says Trapp.
“These activities have been outsourced by
the OEMs, and the lack of airfoil and
component production has been
exacerbated by these outsourced providers
cutting their workforces.”
The consequences have of course
meant a reduced supply of new material
for installation into engines that are now
requiring full SV workscopes. “It is clear
that the OEMs have been diverting the
supply of all newly-manufactured airfoils
to new-build engines, rather than to the
engine shops. The problem has actually got
worse since the pandemic,” says Trapp.
This is also compounded by the limited
number of staff employed by specialist
parts repair shops, which could previously
be relied on to provide USM as a cheaper
alternative to new parts from the OEMs.
These issues have compounded to
create bottlenecks in the engine SV process.
“Airlines and lessors are finding that many
engine shops are full, not because the
market for full workscope maintenance has
returned, but because engine shops are
requiring 120-day turn times, or even
longer, to complete engine SVs,” says
Simon Mermod, director at Jet Engine
Management. “This compares to turn
times of 60-90 days that were typical in the
past, or 55-65 days for a CFM56-5B for
example. Turn times have increased for
most shops to almost double pre-pandemic
levels mainly because of supply chain
issues. This is resulting in backlogs, and
some engines are having to wait in queues
to get into shops, while others under
contract are free to go to alternative shops
because of the unusual situation in the
market.”
These extended backlogs will not
disappear fast, so turn times will not return
Shop visit forecast
The market, divided into narrowbody
and widebody engine types, resulted in
about 4,700 narrowbody and 2,266
widebody engine SVs in 2019.
The narrowbody market has been
dominated by the CFM56-5B and -7B and
V2500-A5 engines for more than a decade.
These accounted for about 3,800 SVs in
2019; 81% of the market total. The
CFM56-5B and -7B accounted for almost
2,700 SVs in 2019, since they equipped
more aircraft than the V2500-A5. There
were about 80 SVs for the CFM56-5A.
The remainder of the narrowbody
engine fleet was largely made up of older
types that included the JT8D, CFM56-2
and -3 series, the RB211-535, and the
PW2000. There is also the CFM56-5C,
which powers the A340-300 even though it
is in a narrowbody thrust class.
The older types that generate the most
SVs, and will continue to do so for at least
another 10 years, are those that power a
large number of freighters. These include
the CFM56-3, RB211-535 and PW2000.
SV volumes for the CFM56-5B and
-7B reduced to about 1,800 SVs in 2020.
This may surprise some, but the Chinese
narrowbody fleet only operated at low

AIRCRAFT COMMERCE ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

 Partnership
counts
If you need
assistance, even
beyond normal
support services
– we are here
to help!

We are your engine experts

Our people make the difference. We are passionate. We are dedicated. We marry engineering
with intelligent creativity. And we never give up unless an optimal solution has been found.
As the global market leader in customized solutions for aero engines, MTU Maintenance
supports you with the right product across the lifecycle of your engine. From innovative
maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) services, to integrated leasing and asset management.
Contact us and find your solution today.

www.mtu.de/en
30 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
rates of utilisation for six months.
Moreover, many engines were already in
operation at the start of 2020 and into the
pandemic. The number of SVs for these
two types was similar for 2021.
SV activity for the V2500-A5 dropped
by a similar degree in 2020 and 2021.
The recovery in traffic is expected to
see an increase in the number of CFM56-
5B and -7B engines to about 2,100 in 2022
(see table, page 28), and then up to 2,400
in 2023. The number of V2500-A5 SVs is
forecast to rise to about 850 in 2022, and
then settle at slightly fewer than 800 in
2023.
“There was a wave of SVs predicted
for these three main types before the
pandemic, because many engines in the
fleet had not had their first SV,” says
Trapp. “It is more probable that the
pandemic will smooth out this wave, and
the industry is more likely to see an even
number of maintenance events for these
three main types over the next three to five
years.”
In addition, there are the new CFM
LEAP-1A and -1B and the PW1100G
which power large numbers of A320neo
and 737 MAX family aircraft. The oldest
A320neos entered service in 2016, while
the 737 MAX did not enter into service in
large numbers until late 2020 or early
2021. All three should generally have long
removal intervals. Given the fleet’s young
age, and the lack of clarity about average
removal intervals, it is not possible at this
stage to forecast annual SV numbers. They
are unlikely to reach significant levels until
2025 or 2026.
The widebody engine fleet is less
dominated by one or two types. It can be
split into up to eight groups. The first is the
1980s generation RB211-524, PW4000-94
and CF6-80C2 engines, plus a small
number of CF6-50s, that power the oldest
widebodies. The large percentage that
power freighters were unaffected by the
pandemic.
The PW4000-100, Trent 700 and CF6-
80E1 power the A330 fleet. Most of these
engines are under maintenance contracts
with OEMs, and there are few alternative
engine shops for independent support. This
may change as the A330 makes way for
new generation widebodies. These engines
generated about 440 SVs in 2019, and this
declined during the pandemic. A peak of
SVs is expected in 2024 and 2025. Future
activity will largely depend on the A330’s
success as a freighter.
The GE90, PW4000-112 and Trent
800 power the older generation 777
variants, especially the -200ER. This fleet is
more likely to decline to small numbers as
they are replaced by larger 787-10 and the
A350-900 and -1000.
The GE90-110/-115 powering the 777-
300ER is a more dominant type, powering
more than 700 aircraft. Its continued
popularity, and the 777-300ER’s expected
widespread acceptance as a converted
freighter, is likely to ensure that SV
numbers will remain at 450-500 per year
for most of the next decade. While MTU
Maintenance is an independent provider
for the GE90-100/-115, the increasing
number of younger types in the fleet means
that other independent maintenance
providers will be required in the future.
It is unclear how many A380s will
remain operational. While its large size
means a large number were disposed of
during the pandemic, the retirement of
many 747-400s means most A380s could
remain in operation. Maintenance for the
Trent 900 and GEnx-2B are controlled by
Rolls-Royce and General Electric.
The Trent 1000 and GEnx-1B
powering the 787 and Trent XWB
equipping the A350 family will account for
the largest number of engine SVs in the
future. These gradually climbed, despite the
pandemic, and the number of SVs is
forecast to pass 700-800 by 2025. This is
the largest portion of the widebody engine
SV market, which is forecast to reach about
2,400 per year in 2024 and 2025.
To download more than 1,200
articles like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com

Comprehensive engine and

airframe disassembly solutions

Complementing its established aircraft teardown activities, EirTrade offers disassembly services for
CFM56-3, CFM56-5A, CFM56-5B & CFM56-7B engines at its NEW facility in Dublin, Ireland.
EirTrade’s AFRA accredited teardown facility in Knock, Ireland West, can
complete a narrowbody disassembly in 15 days. With a 95% recycle rate,
it is ISO EQA 9001 2015 & EU333/2011 certified.
eirtradeaviation.com
Call: +353 1401 6080
Dublin | Knock | Dallas | Barcelona | Beijing assetmanagement@eirtradeaviation.com

AIRCRAFT COMMERCE ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022


The management of parts and components, in all processes, is one of the
most complex elements in the path to the digitisation of engineering and
maintenance. All considerations for each of the major parts management
processes, all the way to maintenance execution, are examined here.
Parts management
in a digital system
D
igitisation, and the ultimate
goal of using a paperless system
to perform all engineering
management and maintenance
processes, involve many stages of
development. A paperless system partially
operates with fully digital and interactive
task cards to allow mechanics to source all
required information, such as parts that are
required to perform routine and non-
routine (NR) maintenance, through the
device that the task card is viewed on.
Development of maintenance &
engineering (M&E) systems that can
deliver correct parts information in an
interactive and fully digital task card, is
examined here.
Main considerations
The basic principle is that routine
maintenance task cards will list the part
numbers (P/Ns) of any expendable parts
required to perform the task. The standard
task cards are listed in the aircraft
maintenance manual (AMM) provided by
the original equipment manufacturer
(OEM), while airlines can develop their
own task/job cards from the standard.
The P/Ns of expendable parts are listed
in the illustrated parts catalogue (IPC),
which is provided by the aircraft’s OEM.
The IPC is available in electronic
format from aircraft OEMs, and lists the
correct P/N or P/Ns that can be used in
each position on the aircraft according to
its line number (L/N) or manufacturer
serial number (MSN). For a particular
AMM maintenance task card, the correct
P/N to be used may not be the same for
every aircraft in the fleet. P/Ns for the same
task card, and position on the aircraft, vary
between individual aircraft, and during the
years of operation.
These variations make it difficult to
ensure that the correct P/N is always used,
and are caused by several factors.
The first is that design changes are
made to an aircraft series or variant as its
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
production progresses, over a period of 15-
25 years in many cases. Small
improvements to a section of an aircraft’s
design, zones and assemblies will be
incorporated during the production run.
Aircraft are identified by their own unique
serial number (S/N), L/N or other
numbering system. The P/N or P/Ns used
by the OEM for a structure or zone in the
aircraft can change over time, so a
particular P/N will only apply to a group
of aircraft L/Ns in a fleet, while a different
P/N may apply to another group of aircraft
L/Ns. This applicability of P/Ns to groups
of aircraft L/Ns or S/Ns is listed in the IPC.
A second factor is that the aircraft
OEM and its parts vendors also agree to
improvements to parts used over the years
of operation to improve reliability, or cost
of manufacture.
These changes to P/Ns are therefore
reflected in revisions to the IPC that are
issued every three months, and those
quoted in the tasks described in the AMM.
“If the aircraft’s L/N or MSN is used,
the electronic IPC will show the P/Ns that
apply to it,” says Chris Reed, managing
director at Trax. “The IPC can be
downloaded to certain M&E systems, and
intelligent data is used to filter by aircraft
L/N or MSN to ensure the correct P/Ns are
shown.”
Modifications & configuration
A third issue is that during the course
of an aircraft type’s operation, which can
be over three or four decades,
modifications described in airworthiness
directives (ADs), service bulletins (SBs) and
engineering orders (EOs) will result in a
change in P/Ns used on task cards.
Some modifications change the
aircraft’s rotable and repairable component
configuration, while larger modifications
result in a change to an aircraft’s
assemblies or particular systems. These
include changing an aircraft’s cabin layout,
installing new seats with moving parts, or
31 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
changing lavatories or galleys when
reconfiguring premium passenger cabins.
Larger modifications can also lead a
substantial change in an aircraft’s systems
and assemblies, including a complete
change to the manufacturer of certain
rotable and repairable components, as well
as expendables.
Component manufacturers also
regularly upgrade their components to
higher dash numbers, or even an all-new
P/N. These improved parts can just be
recommended, and so are listed in the IPC
as an alternative dash number or P/N to
the original part, or they may have to be
fitted following a modification to a system,
structure or assembly.
Each aircraft’s modification status
therefore affects which P/Ns are relevant
for a particular task listed in the AMM.
These are the main factors that cause
changes to expendable P/Ns listed on
AMM task cards; and to all categories of
parts in the IPC. These changes to P/Ns are
captured by regular revisions and upgrades
to these OEM-issued documents.
To maintain safety compliance, it is
essential that the correct P/Ns are used
each time; either for a routine inspection
that involves installing a new part, or an
NR rectification that requires an
unplanned replacement. The mechanic
signing the task card is legally responsible
for using the correct P/N when the latest
and correct revisions of the task card,
derived from the AMM and the IPC, have
been used. The engineering department is
legally responsible, however, for ensuring
the latest revisions of the manuals are
provided and used. It can therefore be
legally responsible for incorrect P/Ns being
fitted if the manuals were not updated, or
the latest versions were not used.
Alternative parts
In addition to the P/Ns listed in the IPC
by the OEM, alternative expendable parts
can also be used in routine task cards.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
32 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
Parts listed in the IPC are provided by the
OEM itself, or by its sub-contract vendors,
in the manufacture of the aircraft.
Airlines may also use alternative P/Ns
to those listed in the IPC. These can be
approved by the OEM, but not listed in the
IPC, or they may be parts manufacturer
approved (PMA) parts, which are often
available at substantially lower prices than
the parts listed in the IPC.
“Alternative parts that are approved by
the OEM often have local quality
assurance approval,” says Reed. “These
can be items such as oxygen bottles or fire
extinguishers. Like PMA parts, these will
not be quoted in the IPC.”
An airline can legitimately use these
categories of alternative parts, so it needs
to have a system whereby it correctly lists
and catalogues P/Ns according to the
aircraft’s configuration and modification
status. “Trax can download the contents
of the OEM’s IPC, and create a bespoke
version for the operator’s fleet,” says Reed.
“Alternative P/Ns can be added at this
stage.”
There will be cases, however, where
alternative parts can be used on some
aircraft within a fleet, but not others, due
to differences in aircraft modification
status, configuration and ownership.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
Aircraft that are owned by lessors often
cannot use PMA parts, except in cabin
furnishings and other interior equipment.
Airlines that own their aircraft have more
freedom to use alternative parts.
Ultimately for a maintenance task,
several P/Ns may be listed for a particular
aircraft or group of aircraft L/Ns. Some
will be original parts from the IPC, while
others will be alternative P/Ns. To use
alternative P/Ns that are not listed in the
IPC, an airline’s engineering department
needs a system for managing these parts to
ensure the right ones are listed as possible
choices on a task card according to the
aircraft’s L/N, modification status and
component configuration.
Parts identification
Selecting the correct P/N or P/Ns when
planning and performing a maintenance
task therefore relies on a complex system
of maintaining the right technical
documentation, and keeping parts
effectivity up to date.
When using alternative parts, airlines
often keep an approved parts list (APL).
An airline’s APL, or other bespoke part
listing system, will therefore list all the
possible P/Ns that can be used for a
The aircraft configuration module in Swiss
AMOS. This module plus the use of a relational
database allows the correct P/Ns to be
automatically selected by preparing a task card
for a specific aircraft L/N or MSN. The allowance
of particular component P/Ns can also be
determined by aircraft modification status or
part installation dependency.
particular position on the aircraft, and
AMM task card. It also needs to have all
the relevant applicability information.
Substantial coordination is needed of
the AMM, IPC, modification status and
component configuration of each aircraft,
and the APL. It must be performed
manually within the engineering
department when operated on a paper-
based or semi paper-based system.
In this case, it could take up to six
months to update and implement all
revisions to the IPC, make changes to the
set of routine and NR task cards for the
relevant aircraft, cross-check these changes
with component installation rules and each
aircraft’s configuration, and audit all the
changes. It would take a team of several
people in the engineering department to
implement these changes.
The process is operated more
efficiently, and with fewer errors, when
managed electronically. For applicability
reasons, information stored in the system
must be written in standard generalised
mark-up language (SGML) or extensible
mark-up language (XML).
SGML and XML data has
functionality because it uses metadata,
which gives the information a degree of
‘intelligence’. This allows the system to
determine whether a P/N can be used in a
particular position depending on whether
or not an SB had been performed.
Maintaining all the correct manuals
and information relating to parts and P/Ns
centres around planning maintenance tasks
and events in advance, and identifying and
requesting the correct P/Ns when an NR
maintenance event has occurred. In a
purely paper-based system, a maintenance
planner who is planning an airframe check
will start with a list of routine maintenance
tasks.
To select the correct P/Ns, the
maintenance planner will look up each
task in the AMM. A standard task card
will list the correct P/N according to
A page of the illustrated parts catalogue (IPC) in
the Trax M&E system. An OEM’s IPC can be
downloaded to an M&E system, and a bespoke
IPC generated for the user’s fleet, taking into
account aircraft L/Ns and MSNs, and component
configuration.
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
 AMOS.
AGAIN.
“With the implementation of
AMOS, we are able to strengthen
our working practices across the
company with an integrated end-
to-end solution. It will enable
transparency, improve quotation
and billing cycles and enhance
communication with our customers.
We will be able to deliver better
services as well as exceptional value
to our customers for a sustainable
future,”
Kevin Kruger, Director & General Manager
of HAECO Hong Kong
HAECO Group goes live with AMOS,
the world-class M&E software
solution.
AMOS, as a scalable end-to-end
solution, is the right tool for the
HAECO Group and has the potential
to unlock new levels of efficiency and
productivity.
AMOS provides HAECO with a future-
proof solution to fully support the
Group’s digital transformation process.
SWISS-AS.COM
34 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
groups of aircraft L/Ns, as well as specific
P/Ns if certain modifications have not been
performed, and other P/Ns if they have.
A maintenance planner must therefore
look up the aircraft’s component
configuration and modification status with
respect to the task being planned, starting
with the aircraft’s L/N, regardless of
whether a paper-based or electronic system
is being used.
If an electronic system with intelligent
SGML or XML data is used, and where
electronic associations can be created in the
M&E system database, correct and
relevant P/Ns will be selected from the APL
for a task for the particular aircraft L/N or
MSN. These associations ensure that the
relevant and correct P/Ns are shown, and
the non-relevant P/Ns are not. “AMOS can
therefore automatically select the P/Ns for
the specific aircraft, if its engineering and
airworthiness are being managed by the
system user,” says Chris Clements, sales
representative at Swiss Aviation Software.
“The tasks are basically the same between
all aircraft in a fleet, but the associations
for the right P/N for each aircraft L/N are
based on the configuration management
module. The associations are only possible
if the system has a relational database. The
procurement department then chooses the
P/N it wants to use.”
Levi Schmidt, managing director of
customer excellence at EmpowerMX
explains that these associations are possible
not because of hyperlinks between
electronic manuals, task cards and the
database, but because of associations that
are made between task cards and P/Ns.
The M&E system manages each aircraft
L/N, and creates applicabilities in relation
to P/Ns for each one.
The maintenance planner’s function is
to identify all possible P/Ns that can be
used for the task, and the routine tasks that
have to be performed, using all current
revisions of all relevant manuals.
It must be appreciated that the AMM
only lists the expendables required, and
does not list P/Ns for any rotable or
repairable component. The IPC lists all
three categories of P/Ns.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
Parts selection
When a maintenance planner has
selected and sequenced the correct group of
tasks to be performed in the check, each
task card should correctly list all the P/Ns
that are permitted for the particular
aircraft. This package of tasks is then
passed to the procurement department,
which plans the provisioning of the parts.
The procurement department decides
which P/N to use in the case of planned
routine tasks. Alternative P/Ns may be
cheaper than the standard ones listed in the
IPC. There is also the issue of availability.
Intelligent data can be used to allocate
parts requested for a planned check, so
engineers in procurement can see how
many units of each P/N are in each of its
stores, and how many of each have already
been allocated to other aircraft and checks.
This makes it possible to order cheaper
P/Ns in advance if this is a priority for the
airline, and to avoid delays in progressing
with the check.
The procurement department needs to
order parts at short notice in cases of NR
rectifications following findings as a result
of routine inspections. This is when a
defect arises during aircraft operation that
cannot be deferred and so requires the
replacement of a rotable component.
This can be within a section of an
airline’s maintenance control centre that is
responsible for managing aircraft-on-
ground (AOG) situations.
For maintenance checks that have been
outsourced to a third-party maintenance
provider, the latter will receive a package
of routine tasks from the airline, often with
an inventory of parts known to be required
for the check. The maintenance provider
also needs access to the airline’s AMM and
IPC, and possibly APL, to react to NR
tasks and rectifications. How the parts for
NRs are ordered depends on how urgently
they are needed.
Non-routine tasks
Planning airframe checks in advance
gives the engineering department’s quality
Once particular parts have been selected in
Ultramain, it will continually show the
availability status of each one.
assurance or procurement teams time to
identify and select the right P/Ns.
There is limited time available,
however, to select the right P/Ns when
routine inspections reveal defects that
require rectifications, and therefore NR
cards to be written. In the case of
expendable parts, it is usually simply a case
of looking at the area of the aircraft in the
IPC when preparing the NR card. Together
with the aircraft configuration and
modification status, it allows the correct
P/N to be identified for routine task cards.
The same process is done by third-
party maintenance providers when airlines
sub-contract maintenance checks. The
maintenance provider will need access to
the airline customer’s AMM, IPC and the
configuration and modification status of
the aircraft L/N or MSN being worked on.
Rotables & repairables
There are three main situations where
rotable and repairable components have to
be considered.
Change of life limited parts
The first is where components with life
limits, such as oxygen bottles, fire
extinguishers and safety equipment, are
close to life expiry, and must be changed.
Changing these components will be
included in routine task cards that are part
of a hangar airframe check.
Unlike many other parts on the
aircraft, there is a large number globally of
suppliers of life limited parts (LLPs) for
airlines to choose from. The P/Ns for these
are therefore not listed in the AMM.
“These parts are often provided by
local suppliers, and have local approval,”
says Reed “The P/Ns for these will be
hosted in an airline’s APL or bespoke IPC
loaded in its M&E system. The P/Ns will
be loaded into its own bespoke routine
task cards. These are used either by its
mechanics when performing maintenance
in-house, or passed to a third-party
maintenance provider. The known
expendables and rotable components for
the routine cards are sent together with the
aircraft.”
A complication with such rotable
components is that while each oxygen
bottle or fire extinguisher has the same life
limit, the entire shipset on the aircraft is
rarely in phase, because parts originally
installed on an aircraft are often not the
same age at installation. Some will have
been held in stores longer than others, so
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

airline engineering departments must track
the life of each installed component to
ensure that the right ones are identified for
removal and replacement when planning
the check.
Most rotable components, including
avionics and systems, on an aircraft are
complex, and have only have one supplier.
Some repairable components, such as
brake units, have several alternative P/Ns.
There are several OEMs for these.
Unscheduled removals
The second scenario to consider in
relation to rotable and repairable
components is an unexpected technical
fault arising during aircraft operation.
This is usually brought to the attention
of the flightcrew and maintenance control
department attention via fault messages
originating from the aircraft’s central
maintenance computer (CMC).
This will identify the fault, and the
malfunctioning rotable or repairable
component. The offending component will
have to be removed and replaced with
either an identical or interchangeable
component. Two interchangeable
components may have the same P/N, but
different dash numbers. The higher dash
numbers of some components often have
higher reliability than lower dash numbers,
but are otherwise interchangeable.
“A common practice is to simply find
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
the component on the aircraft, identify the
P/N, and get a replacement one with the
identical P/N,” says Robert Saunders,
digital transformation at Ultramain. “In
fact, once the line mechanic has physically
located the component, the correct
procedure is to look it up in the IPC, since
this has pictures of it, and where it is
installed in the aircraft.”
This process is easier if an electronic
version of the IPC and the APL is used.
“This allows the mechanic to look up the
zone of the aircraft via a handheld device,”
continues Saunders. “Airbus and Boeing
provide an electronic version of the IPC via
their AIRN@V and MPT portals. The
correct P/N for the aircraft L/N will be
listed. Alternatively, an airline may provide
its own bespoke IPC hosted on its M&E
system.
“Another route to finding the right P/N
starts with the component’s functional
identification number (FIN), which is a
system used on Airbus aircraft,” continues
Saunders. “The FIN is listed at the part’s
physical location on the aircraft, and
provides the correct P/N. It must be
appreciated that there may be two or three
of the same components that interact with
each other. They may have the same P/N,
but different dash numbers. It is because of
these issues that a relational database in the
airline’s M&E system is needed. By using
intelligent data the relational database will
have all information on each component,
35 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
its P/N and its location on the aircraft.”
The faulty component can be removed,
and a replacement installed. Each
component will have an S/N, and the
airline must report every S/N that has been
removed and installed. This way the OEM
knows all the components that are fitted to
each aircraft, so that it provides an up-to-
date IPC via its online portal service. The
IPC has component information that is
specific to each aircraft.
There are problems, however, since the
OEM updates the IPC once every three
months. The airline therefore has to wait
for up to three months before the
component S/N information is updated in
the IPC. In the meantime, however, the
airline records component removals and
installations for all aircraft in its fleet on a
daily basis internally on the aircraft
configuration management module within
its M&E system. This data is therefore
constantly out of phase with the IPC
provided by the OEM. Some M&E
systems automatically send information on
component changes automatically to the
OEMs’ IPCs hosted on their online portals.
Component changes made on aircraft can
be kept in phase with the airline’s own
bespoke IPC on its M&E system.
Rotable changes in airframe checks
A third situation where rotable and
repairable components may need to be
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
36 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
changed is while routine maintenance task
cards and system tests are being performed
during maintenance. An example would be
sufficient hydraulic pressure or fuel
pressure being reached in their relevant
systems, or correct voltage being produced.
There are several of these to perform,
especially in larger C checks, which often
reveal malfunctioning components and
systems, and require replacement of rotable
or repairable components.
“If a problem is detected, a non-routine
card (NRC) will be written. Many are
standard, so have already been written,”
says Saunders. “The NRC will often
include the P/N, but the FIN can also be
used to correctly identify the P/N required
via the IPC. In some cases there may be
interchangeable P/Ns. The permitted P/Ns
for the FIN on the particular aircraft L/N
or MSN are located via an IPC application.
The IPC will only list the OEM’s standard
P/N, not alternative P/Ns that the airline
may want the option of using. This can be
resolved where the airline’s M&E system
has its own bespoke IPC or APL that list
all P/Ns the airline wants to choose from.”
The airline’s supply chain and
procurement departments have the role of
highlighting the most reliable and cheapest
parts. They need to be involved in the
decision-making process, so they will use
an electronic version of the APL, which
will interface with the configuration
management and aircraft modification
modules of the M&E system.
Managing electronically
The process of cataloguing, identifying,
selecting, installing and recording the
correct P/Ns for each position on each
aircraft in a fleet is clearly complex.
Managing this electronically will generate
many benefits, especially in time and man-
hours (MH) saved, but also in more
accurate compliance, selecting cheaper
parts more often, and improving fleet
operational reliability.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
“There are several elements involved,
and the entire process needs to be
configured so that it is seamless from one
function and module of the system to
another,” says Rob Mather, vice president
aerospace & defense industries at IFS. “So
a maintenance task card is just one module
of a fully integrated system. To manage
every step of the process, including having
an OEM’s IPC with all P/Ns, installing the
part, changing the aircraft’s configuration
information, requires a really robust
aircraft configuration management system,
with all the correct component usage rules
at the heart of it.”
All modules of an M&E system must
be linked and seamlessly connected so that
the correct P/N can be selected from a list
of all appropriate P/Ns in all situations of
aircraft maintenance. This will include
hyperlinks between all relevant parts of the
system.
IFS has developed an automatic
reservation controller capability to
correctly select P/Ns. “This uses an
algorithm that regularly checks the
inventory of every P/N that can be used by
the airline or MRO provider,” says
Mather. “The algorithm also applies rules
on the use of each part, including positions
on the aircraft, and effectivity according to
the aircraft configuration management
module. Overall the system is configured to
ensure that the correct parts are always
properly ordered and requested.
“The auto reservation controller uses
many parameters to get the system to work
throughout the entire process, starting with
the IPC, and going all the way to providing
the selected parts at the right place at the
right time,” adds Mather. “Other
considerations include the expiry dates of
rotable components, the cost of parts, and
the preferred P/N to be re-ordered. These
parameters all lead to the ability to source
and use the cheaper parts where possible.
The system can also prevent the acquisition
of a P/N that is not compliant with a
specific aircraft L/N.”
A completed task card in the IFS system. This
lists all relevant information, including the P/Ns
removed and installed and the related quantity.
Further details such as the warranty for the
component, and the technician that performed
the task can be accessed.
Routine task card
Listing the correct P/Ns for an
interactive or digital routine task card will
require the M&E system to have several
versions of the same task card according to
the aircraft’s configuration, which in turn
is related to its maintenance status.
There will be several versions of the
same task card, and each one will
correspond to particular aircraft L/Ns
according to their configuration and
modification status, via associations or
hyperlinks within the M&E system.
“The selection of the correct P/Ns is
managed via Ultramain’s Configuration
Management module,” says John Stone,
vice president of product management at
Ultramain. “Ultramain tracks the aircraft
assembly related to the task card, and has a
record of all P/Ns installed on the
assembly. Each slot where a part can be
fitted has an allowable P/N list, which
takes the aircraft’s modification status into
account.
“The maintenance programme, and the
specific tasks within it, is another element
of selecting the right P/Ns,” continues
Stone. “This has all the routine P/Ns that
are linked to each task card and
modifications incorporated in SBs, ADs
and EOs. This section allows parts to be
defined as required or optional. An
example of a required part is an LLP that
needs to be replaced. It can be linked to the
task card, and can either be issued with the
task card or requested by the mechanic.”
EmpowerMX offers both a fully
interactive digital task card system, and a
pdf overlay system that it calls E-task card.
“The FleetMX M&E system retains all the
information relating to different versions of
each task card, and the P/Ns that are
associated to them that are specific for each
aircraft being managed,” says Schmidt.
“As well as ensuring that routine task
cards always have the right P/Ns listed in
the M&E system, it is important to ensure
that parts are never in short supply, which
will clearly hold up the progress of a check.
“Therefore, when a workpackage is
put together by a check planning engineer,
FleetMX will determine all the parts that
are known to be required for the routine
cards,” continues Schmidt. “From this it
generates a list of what parts are needed
for the check, but also what parts are not
in stock. This shortage report is generated
daily, and is part of the project
management for an airframe check.”
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
 



 


 





38 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
There are also circumstances where a
mechanic discovers that additional parts
are required when performing a routine
task. “An example is a routine task that
involves an inspection where something
must be opened or removed to be
inspected,” says Schmidt. “The unbolting
may reveal that some bolts or fasteners are
defective, and so have to be replaced.
These can be identified via a hyperlink
between the task card and the IPC. The
mechanic can copy the listed P/N in the
IPC to the task card with an interactive or
digital system, and then request it from the
parts store. This can also apply to an on-
condition part or section of the aircraft.”
There are techniques to list all possible
parts, such as those that may only require
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
replacement during a routine inspection.
In cases where two or more P/Ns can
be used, some airlines may prefer to use the
lowest priced P/N whenever possible.
Ultramain can track the preferred P/N, and
list interchangeable P/Ns that can be used
on task cards and positions on the aircraft.
“The purchasing department will always
try to order the preferred P/N,” says Stone.
“If only one of several interchangeable
P/Ns is available, it must be issued instead
of a preferred P/N. The system user has to
establish rules in Ultramain that make it
clear to procurement personnel which P/Ns
are the preferred choice.”
In addition to listing alternative P/Ns
and their prices so that a procurement
department can select the cheapest units as
An interactive task card of EmpowerMX’s
FleetMX system. The main section shows
instructions to complete the sub-tasks and
steps, while the section on the right lists the P/N
requested, its S/N, and the identity of the
mechanic making the request.
often as possible, the M&E system needs
to know the exact stock levels in each of
the user’s stores and maintenance
locations. “This requires additional
parameters to be followed,” says Mather.
“One example is including the expiry date
of parts where relevant, so that those with
the closest expiry date can be used first.”
Tracking stock levels in each of the
stores requires many detailed parameters
and information that must be interfaced
with reordering strategies and rules, so that
stock levels are not depleted to the point
that they prevent or delay the performance
of airframe checks. “These must be
updated, since aircraft modifications or
OEM component upgrades affect which
P/Ns are fitted to aircraft, and how the
consumption of previous P/Ns will be
reduced in the future,” explains Stone.
“Ultramain automatically updates this
information as modifications are applied
and suppliers improve their components. It
also prevents older P/Ns from being used
on individual aircraft or across a fleet when
modifications have been implemented.”
Non-routine maintenance
NR maintenance occurs during
planned hangar checks, and in response to
faults during aircraft operations.
In the case of hangar checks, many
NRs are fixes and repairs to findings that
are common when routine inspections are
made. The NR cards are therefore
standard, and have been created from
previous checks. “In this case, there are
associations created between the NR task
cards and the P/Ns that are most
commonly used when the rectifications
have to be used,” says Schmidt. The
correct P/Ns will be pre-populated on the
NR task card, and also held in the aircraft
configuration module.
Clearly it is impossible to predict which
associated P/N will be needed, or how
many, since it depends on the severity of
the fault. An example is where several
bushings or rivets have to be replaced. The
number of these parts used differs each
Ultramain’s Mobile Mechanic, which shows a
consolidated page of the IPC. The prime
information of P/N, and the number available in
each store are clearly displayed.
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

time the NR card has to be performed. “In
another situation, the mechanic inspecting
a particular zone of the aircraft may
discover that certain expendable parts need
replacing that are not included in a
standard NR task card,” says Schmidt.
“For example a routine inspection on
landing gear hydraulic hoses may show
that some bolts related to the harness need
to be replaced. Finding the right P/Ns starts
by searching the IPC by the ATA chapter,
and finding the relevant assembly or
structure, and then locating the individual
P/Ns.”
There will be situations where NR
cards have to be written. “In some cases
this can be done by the mechanic in situ,”
says Clements. “An example is finding a
cracked section of ducting while making an
inspection. The NR task and rectification
content is actually the findings that the
mechanic writes on the NR card. The
simple repair task card be written on the
mobile device, and the relevant piece of
ducting requested electronically.”
In the case of line maintenance and
technical faults during fleet operations, the
technician will select the part, usually a
rotable component. As described, the P/N
can be found by starting with the FIN or
position codes through the electronic IPC,
or the same P/N on the faulty component
can be entered manually by the mechanic
in the electronic IP.
Interactive task card
With an interactive task card in an
M&E system a mechanic can carry out all
actions and gain all information they need
to perform maintenance via a handheld
device.
The interactive task card therefore
needs to have all possible interfaces with
other modules in the M&E system, and all
required hyperlinks to information sources.
This means that if a technician performing
maintenance needs a part and needs to
determine the P/N or different P/Ns that
can be used, and their availability, they can
request this entirely through the interactive
task card.
“There are several instances where the
technician, rather than a planner, must
select P/Ns to use through an interactive
task card,” says Schmidt. “The system
needs the right effectivity and applicability
rules so that it can quote the correct P/Ns.
An interactive task card therefore needs to
connect seamlessly to the IPC.”
The interactive task card will have
optimal functionality if it is capable of
shop floor data collection (SFDC). This is
the recording of time inputs used to carry
out the task and sub-tasks, and the parts
used. Desirable features include recording
parts that are not used in the event and are
returned to stores, and the ability to record
removal of a rotable component and
39 I MAINTENANCE & ENGINEERING
installation of its replacement. SFDC also
records the flight hours and flight cycles of
each rotable that has been installed on the
aircraft, thereby generating component
reliability data.
“When a rotable component has been
requested by a technician from stores for
installation on a particular aircraft L/N, the
Maintenix system automatically knows the
S/N of the part,” says Mather. “The
technician must then verify that this is
correct when they have installed the
component.”
There are other functionalities that can
help eliminate the manual processes for
removing and installing rotable
components. “For example, Ultramain
automatically updates the aircraft’s
configuration in the system, or the aircraft
assembly tree,”says Stone. “This is
recorded in real time, so there is no
requirement for any manual system entry
by the technical records department.
“As well as this, it is also useful for
engineering departments to have statistics
of labour MH and parts used to each
specific task card and for airframe checks,”
continues Stone. “A popular report is a
listing of all parts issued that were not used,
and returned to the stores.”
To download more than 1,200
articles like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com

Power your MRO on

EmpowerMX Cloud
and Go Digital Now

Mobile and tablet ready

Fully integrated for Heavy,

Line, Shop. and Supply
Chain

Reduce TAT, Improve Labor

Ef昀ciency, Embrace Paperless
Operation and Automated Planning

• sales@empowermx.com

ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/OCTOBER 1998 AIRCRAFT COMMERCE

40 I FREIGHT BUSINESS
Avensis Aviation is developing passenger to
freighter (P-to-F) modifications that are
deployable according to freight market growth.
Cargo conversion
on demand
A
vensis Aviation has developed a
portfolio of passenger-to-
freighter (P-to-F) conversion
programmes. The MEDIUS
solution is a reversible P-to-F conversion
that enables under-utilised passenger
aircraft to be modified into freighters. This
enables operators and owners to deploy
their aircraft on lucrative cargo routes
during times of a capacity shortfall.
It is possible to reconfigure the aircraft
for passenger service if needed, for example
if the asset must be returned from lease.
Next in the Avensis portfolio is the
NAVIS P-to-F solution that features a full-
size main-deck cargo door and dedicated
cargo loading system (CLS).
NAVIS is a non reversible P-to-F
conversion, yet NAVIS-modified aircraft
have the ability to handle standard pallets
and universal loading devices (ULDs).
NAVIS uses a ‘plug’ type main-deck cargo
door that requires little maintenance, and
is less prone to failure.
According to Cristian Sutter, chief
executive officer of Avensis, the MEDIUS
and NAVIS modifications allow operators
to grow in accordance with their market
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
requirements. “We are not relying on a
single solution. With Avensis’ MEDIUS P-
to-F conversion product, carriers can
change configuration from passenger
aircraft to freighter to suit their contractual
commitments, and lessor obligations.”
Demand for freighter aircraft and P-to-
F conversions is strong, and continues to
grow. Sutter observes that a number of
carriers are operating narrowbodies on
their long-haul routes, and have yet to
return to using widebodies. Narrowbodies
have little or no space for belly cargo.
Positive demand for freighter aircraft,
and a continuing shortage of lower-lobe
widebody capacity, combined with five-
year lead times for full cargo conversions,
mean that owners and operators need an
immediate and flexible dedicated freighter
alternative.
Avensis developed a temporary ‘light
cargo conversion’ supplemental type
certificate (STC) called LEVIS. This was
installed in Airbus A320, A330 and A340
aircraft with over 20 conversions
embodied. European Union Aviation
Safety Agency (EASA) and Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations
dictated that temporary ‘Preighter Aircraft’
cannot be operated after July 2022.
Anticipating this situation, and in line
with the ‘scalable ethos’ of its P-to-F
conversion portfolio, Avensis created the
first ever reversible P-to-F Class E freight
compartment for widebody aircraft. It is
available for the A330-200, A330-300,
and A340-600. Avensis has four confirmed
customers lined up for its E-Class
conversion, including the airlines TAP
(launch customer for the A330-200) and
AELF (launch customer for the A340-600)
and two lessors.
“The MEDUS P-to-F Conversion is
versatile, and it can be adapted to match
changes in market demand,” explains
Sutter. “The advantage of the MEDUS
conversion is that it is possible to operate
the aircraft as a freighter, or return it to
passenger service. For example, carriers
operating seasonal passenger routes during
the summer can fly the aircraft on lucrative
freight routes in the winter.”
The conversion features a separate
supernumerary crew cabin, a smoke
curtain and modified aircraft
environmental control system (ECS) and a
new smoke detection system (SDS) making
the cargo compartment a full Class E
freighter with no operational limitations.
“Cargo is restrained using a 9G cargo
nets. Avensis created a system called
EASY-NET where the 9G nets are
suspended from the ceiling over each cargo
zone, and then lowered into position and
hooked to the floor fittings,” adds Sutter.
“The EASY-NET solution helps improve
loading and offloading time. It frees floor
space.”
The MEDIUS solution can be used at
airports that do not have freight loading
infrastructure.
The A330ceo is an excellent candidate
for the MEDIUS conversion because low
eCommerce freight packing densities mean
that operators benefit from the platform’s
large volumetric capacity and long range.
The MEDIUS conversion was launched
in 2020 for the A330ceo, and the A340-
600 was launched soon after. Avensis
expects to receive full certification for its
MEDIUS conversion in the coming weeks.
Avensis P-to-F Conversions products can
be inducted at MRO conversion lines
worldwide.
To download 1,200 articles
like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com
Avensis Aviation’s Medius conversion is a
reversible Class E cargo compartment solution
that is replacing its Levis solution. Next is the
Navis full cargo solution that has a cargo
loading system and full-size cargo door. The
scalable solutions will mitigate against
protracted waiting times from other suppliers for
full cargo conversions.
ISSUE NO. 141 • APRIL/MAY 2022
 A NEW FREIGHTER
FOR A DIFFERENT WORLD.
INTRODUCING THE E190F AND E195F.
Air freight is vital to the global economy – an economy that is
changing rapidly. E-commerce is growing significantly and speeding up
how we send and receive goods. Supply chains are shortening and
becoming more spread out. New business hubs are emerging as
people relocate and work from home. It’s the ideal environment for
two new freighter aircraft to enter the market providing operators with
the speed, flexibility and lowest cost per trip and volume to deliver
round the clock and make the most of every opportunity.

embraerfreighter.com
#ForADifferentWorld
42 I FREIGHT BUSINESS
Cargo in the cabin has come to an end. Vallair
are developing reversible E Class cargo
conversions that enable temporary passenger
freighter operations to continue.
No limits: a new
future for preighters
M
ature asset specialist Vallair
is creating an A330-300
Class E widebody
passenger-to-freighter (P-to-
F) conversion. The solution is designed to
bridge the gap between a full cargo
conversion, and cargo in the cabin (CIC).
Launch lessor Deucalion Aviation
Limited manages the two A330-300
prototypes that will have about a 60-tonne
maximum payload, a total volume (main
deck and lower deck) of about 364 cubic
metres (12,850 cubic feet), and a range of
about 4,200nm.
“There are more than 150 inactive
A330s,” says Patrick Leopold, director of
trading and leasing at Vallair. “We are
developing a reversible ‘Class E’ cargo
compartment for A330-300 to allow these
aircraft to be utilised as freighters. The
Vallair solution is based around the CIC
temporary freighter solution implemented
during the pandemic. This made it possible
for airlines to take advantage of high-
yielding freighter operations when
passenger traffic was low.”
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
Since the end of July 2022, CIC
freighter operations are not permitted by
national aviation authorities (NAA). The
Vallair P-to-F conversion will not have any
time expiry dates, meaning it can be
operated for the life of the aircraft.
The main difference between Vallair’s
E Class solution and a dedicated freighter
is the absence of a main-deck cargo door
and a cargo loading system (CLS). The
Vallair P-to-F conversion kit costs a
quarter of the cost of a full Freighter
conversion. A full A330-300 P-to-F cargo
conversion can cost more than $18 million.
There will be a cost to reconfigure the
Vallair freighter back to passenger service,
and this is expected to be a quarter of the
passenger to E Class conversion.
European Union Aviation Safety
Agency (EASA) and Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) Class E cargo
compartment standards are fundamentally
higher than those granted to CIC
freighters. According to Leopold, modified
regional aircraft have been successfully
flying as freighters by way of a Class E
solution for many years.
The solution has a smoke detection
system and, in the event of a fire, Class E
regulations dictate the crew reduce the
oxygen content in the cargo compartment.
“Class E rules stipulate a requirement for a
fire starvation system. We also install a
smoke curtain that prevents smoke from
entering the cockpit,” says Leopold.
The modification is part of a joint
venture with UUDS. It is possible to
complete the modification outside a hangar
because the solution requires no structural
alterations. All the modification work is
completed inside the aircraft interior.
“The great thing about the solution is
that it is different to a full cargo conversion
in terms of waiting and installation time.
There is a lead time of about six months
for the conversion kit, then the installation
will take about one month,” explains
Leopold. “We can complete the P-to-F
conversion at our maintenance
organisation, and include it as part of
aircraft heavy checks.”
The solution is fully reversible, so the
aircraft can return to passenger service if
required. Leased aircraft can be modified
because they can be returned to passenger
specification once the lease term has ended.
“The removal of passenger seats,
overhead bins, galleys, monuments and
sidewalls means that the floor is the only
significant interior piece remaining,” adds
Leopold. “Installing toughened plastic
cargoliners protects the aircraft structure
from damage.”
The A330-300 will have 24 reinforced
cargo positions. The Class E solution uses
a conveyor belt system inside the cargo
compartment to distribute the individual
parcels. This improves loading efficiencies
and reduces aircraft turnaround times.
“There are conveyors that start at each
end to transport the parcels into the
cabin,” adds Leopold.
“It is becoming apparent that lessors
are changing lessees more frequently,”
adds Leopold. “Owners must be more
flexible and adaptable. The solution is not
designed to replace a full freighter, but we
believe that eCommerce is here to stay and
the demand for air cargo will continue to
rise.”
To download 1,200 articles
like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com
Turboprop freight operators have taken
advantage of Class E cargo solutions for a
number of years. Low express freight packing
densities mean cabin floors require little or no
modification to support the light cargo. Large
A330 types enable substantial cargo volumes to
be carried in the Aircraft’s upper and lower
lobes.
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

Reduced A300/767/757 feedstock, and several A330 & A321 cargo
conversion programmes ‘in-waiting’, mean many are poised to write the
‘epitaph’ for the legacy freighters. Yet high levels of robustness and
comparatively low levels of utilisation mean the ageing types have the
potential to remain active, and be converted, for many years to come.
Life begins at? The
future for A300, 757
& 767 freighters
F
lexible mid-size freighters are a
mainstay of the current freighter
fleet, including the A300-600F,
757-200F and 767-200F/-300F.
This fleet is ageing, however, and there is
an increasing requirement for growth in
this freighter size category to match air
cargo demand.
The cessation of A300 and A310
passenger-to-freighter (P-to-F) conversions
means the cohort is unlikely to increase in
size. Production of 767 and 757 passenger
aircraft has long since ceased, and the
number of suitable conversion feedstock is
diminished. In terms of factory freighters,
A330-200F production stopped in 2017
after a limited run. Meanwhile Boeing
must halt its 767-300F production in 2028
because of new Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) emissions
regulations.
“We need the used aircraft feedstock to
re-deliver P-to-F cargo conversions, and we
know Boeing is not going to manufacture
more 767-300ER passenger aircraft. Given
the average age of the 767-300ER in-
service fleet and market trends, we believe
there will be feedstock available for the
next three to four years,” explains Rafi
Matalon, vice president & general
manager marketing, aviation group at IAI.
The ageing freighters must be replaced
at some point. Nevertheless, the uncertain
longevity of 757 and 767 P-to-F
programmes, and the lack of a factory
alternative means fleet planners and
investors must consider alternative
solutions.
Line up
At the start of 2022, the 1,023 large
narrowbody and medium widebody
(MWB) freighters include A300/310Fs
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
(171), A330F (48), 757F (387) and 767F
(417). Established conversion programmes
in this group include Precision
Conversions’ 757-200 Precision Converted
Freighter (PCF), Boeing’s 767-300ER
Boeing Converted Freighter (BCF), and
IAI’s 767-300ER Bedek Special Freighter
(BDSF).
“At Precision, we have seven 757-200s
across four conversion lines at the moment,
and a backlog of 18 aircraft,” says
Zachary Young, director of sales and
marketing at Precision Conversions.
“There is not a true match for the 757-
200F in terms of payload and
performance. However, contemporary
trends dictate the A321-200F, with its high
volumetrics and low cash operating costs,
is best for most operators in this segment.”
Lack of available 767-300ER feedstock
has driven 767F operators, such as
CargoJet, to the 757F because they need
the capacity. Despite a 20-tonne payload
differential, commonality between the two
Boeing freighters, including the pilot type-
rating, helps reduce cash operating costs.
“FedEx, UPS, DHL and other express
carriers operate many of these freighters,”
explains John Mowry, managing director,
Alton Aviation Consultancy. “The
relatively low utilisation rate of these
freighters means that legacy types,
including aircraft over 30 years of age, are
still economically viable.”
Elbe Flugzeugwerke (EFW) redelivered
its first A330-300P2F cargo conversion in
2017, followed by the A330-200P2F a year
later. The large volumetric capacity of the
A330P2Fs signifies the MWB platform as
ideal for the express cargo market. To date
17 A330-300P2Fs and four A330-200P2Fs
have been redelivered. IAI is also
developing its A330-300BDSF
supplemental type certificate (STC) that
43 I FREIGHT BUSINESS
has an entry into service (EIS) penned for
early 2025.
EFW redelivered the first A321-200P2F
into the large narrowbody freighter fleet in
2020, while the 321 Precision Conversion
A321-200PCF EIS followed in 2021.
Other A321-200 conversion STCs are
being developed by C Cubed and Sine
Draco with an EIS date for the latter
scheduled for 2022.
“Despite fledgling A330 and A321 P-
to-T programmes, 757-200Fs and 767-
300Fs still have a long way to run. Unless
something drastic happens, like excessive
fuel price hikes, these freighters will remain
active for many years,” says Stephen
Fortune, principal Fortune Aviation
Services. “The 757 and 767 P-to-F
conversions are much more popular than
people expected they would be by now,
but by 2024 the number of conversions
will begin to decline.”
A large pool of available and
competitively priced A330 and A321
feedstock is appealing to investors. On the
other hand, the prospect of migrating from
proven 757Fs and 767Fs is daunting for
operators, partly due to a decline in the
economics of operating a mixed fleet or
changing to an entirely new aircraft with
distinct operational and maintenance
programmes.
Demand
According to Tom Crabtree, market
analysis of air cargo at Boeing, express
carriers are operating 60-65% of all
freighters, either directly or indirectly
though leasing or ownership arrangements.
Moreover, the MWB freighter segment
grew by 9% from 656 in-service units in
2020 to 713 by the end of 2021. “The
market for this type of freighter is hot.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
44 I FREIGHT BUSINESS
Even during the first quarter of 2022 it
grew by another 1%,” adds Crabtree.
MWB segment freighters have 40-80
metric tonnes of revenue payload, and
through the course of the pandemic these
aircraft have been working hard. Flight
data point to typical utilisation rates of 6.0
flight hours (FH) per day across the fleet.
According to Brian Hermesmeyer,
director, product marketing and freighter
customer leader at Boeing, aircraft
utilisation varies by operator type and
business model including network type,
and the number of aircraft turnarounds
they must make per day.
“Freighters are typically retired at
about the 30-year mark, but retirement age
can vary depending on how an aircraft is
utilised. End of life is mandated by a Limit
of Validity (LOV) established for each
aircraft type by the OEM and regulatory
authorities, so it is conceivable we will see
some aircraft retirement ages approaching,
or exceeding, 40 years depending on their
utilisation level,” Hermesmeyer adds.
According to Boeing’s 2022
Commercial Market Outlook (CMO), the
total freighter fleet will expand by 80%
though to 2041. “Across all gauges we
expect to see new-build MWB freighters at
about 425 deliveries, and widebody
conversions at about 555 by 2041,”
explains Crabtree. “By then the dedicated
freighter fleet will exceed 3,600 units, and
of the freighters flying today just over 800
will still be flying in 20 years’ time.”
Air cargo is poised for a sustained
period of growth, barring unforeseen
circumstances, and worldwide general air
freight yields have increased by 2.5 times
since the health crisis started. “The average
yield in terms of revenue during 2019 was
$1.77 per kilo. By the first half of this year
the rate was hovering around $4 per kilo,”
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
warns Crabtree. “During the pandemic,
the maritime container ship industry raised
its prices to seven times pre-Covid levels.
Now the figure is down to five times pre-
Covid pricing.”
Before the pandemic, maritime
shipping companies consolidated their
market share. Inflated rates, protracted
lead-times and staff shortages are expected
to continue, so air cargo traffic will grow
by about 4.1% over the next 20 years.
767-200F
Introduced in 1982, the 767-200 series
has a fuselage of 155 feet; and the 21-feet
longer 767-300 was introduced in 1986.
“ABX Air Services was the first carrier
to convert 767-200s. The early aircraft did
not have a main-deck cargo door,” says
Jacob Netz, consultant at Cargo Facts.
“ABX used a unique container that could
be loaded and unloaded through the
original passenger doors of its DC-8F and
DC-9F fleet. At the time the omission of a
main-deck cargo door was cost-effective
and meant the 767-200F could interline
with the airline’s existing narrowbody
freighter fleet.
“ABX Air Services later modified its
767-200Fs, adding a full-size cargo door
and reinforced floor, after it acquired 767-
300Fs and needed to interline unit load
devices (ULDs) between the two types. It
also found that the passenger-door solution
was sub-optimal for MWB freighters,”
adds Netz.
The 767-200F can carry 19 of the 88-
inch x 125-inch pallets on its main deck,
and has an upper-lobe cargo volume of
9,456 cubic feet (cu ft). Lower-lobe
containerised volume is 2,640 cu ft in 22
LD2 containers.
“The average age of the 767-200F fleet
There are 360 active 767-300Fs, making it the
most prolific medium widebody freighter. The
A330 cargo conversions by EFW and IAI are
predicted to be the dominant type moving
forward. Yet the A330’s large airframe and
appetite for increased ramp space means
operating costs are higher. After values fall
sufficiently and passenger carriers seek
replacements, the smaller 787-8 could be a
contender for an eventual 767F replacement.
is 37 years, and at this age profile it is
anticipated that most of this fleet will retire
by the end of the decade,” adds Mowry.
“Retirements are also set to be triggered by
operators’ tendency to use larger freighters
on routes as demand for package freight
increases.”
The 767-200F is only supplied as a P-
to-F conversion and in 2022 active, in-
service examples range from 22 to 40 years
of age. Of these 57 aircraft, 77% (44) were
built from 1982 to 1985, with two outlier
examples leaving the production line in
2000. Most of the fleet (54) is equipped
with CF6-80 series engines, and three are
equipped with JT9D series of engines. It is
likely that 767-200Fs powered by JT9D
engines will be the first to be withdrawn
from service once alternatives are delivered.
Depending on the operator, the
freighters have an FH to flight cycle (FC)
ratio of 1.34-5.99:1.0. Most aircraft have
an FH:FC ratio of 1.4-3.4:1.0 FH:FC.
In the first quarter of 2022 seven 767-
200 aircraft were still in passenger service,
and another 10 were in storage. It is
unlikely that investment will be made to
convert any of these aircraft into freighters.
A300-600F/A310F
In the first quarter of 2022 there were
167 A300-600Fs in active service,
including both factory freighters and P-to-F
conversions. There are four A310
freighters in active service. The main
difference between the A300-600 and
A310 platforms is size, since the A300-600
is 24 feet longer, giving it greater
volumetric capacity than the A310F.
“We do not expect large retirements of
A300-600s soon,” says Mowry. “The
average age of the active freighters is about
24 years, and many of these are factory-
built. We do not see an impetus for
operators to retire this type, and we expect
many of these aircraft to be flying in the
next decade.”
North American carriers FedEx (65)
and UPS (52) manage 70% of the active
A300-600F fleet, and are the largest
operators of the type, followed by
European Air Transport (22) and Air
Hong Kong (9). The A300-600 has an
FH:FC ratio of 1.02-3.37:1.0 across the
fleet.
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

“The first A300-600F was factory-built
and delivered in 1994 to FedEx. Deliveries
ceased around 2006,” explains Crabtree.
“Like the 757 these aircraft have plenty of
life remaining. Maintenance condition and
cost will be the main reasons for operators
to invest in a new type.”
New midsize freighter
In the first quarter of 2022, 206 767-
300ERs were left in active passenger
service. Low remaining 767-300ER
feedstock is believed to be the impetus for
MWB freight operators to gravitate
towards the A330-300 platform. IAI has
partnered with launch customer Avolon,
which has committed to 30 A330-
300BDSF conversions from 2025 to 2028.
“It is very encouraging to have a large
number of orders at this early stage of the
development programme,” says Shmuel
Kuzi, executive vice president & general
manager at IAI. “The 767-300BDSF
output is at full capacity until 2024, after
which feedstock will become limited. We
are going to increase 777-300ERSF and
A330-300BDSF output in time for the
decline of 767-300BDSF conversions.”
According to Kuzi, the 767-300BDSF
is still hugely popular, and while
production cannot last forever, he also says
that 767-300ER P-to-F conversions will
not end tomorrow. Furthermore, existing
operators of older MSNs are investing in
the increasing number of maintenance
tasks, because the platform still makes
economic sense.
FAMILY COMPLETE!
The Airbus Freighter Conversion
www.efw.aero
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
For A330 P-to-F programmes to make
economic sense, the residual value of the
feedstock must be considered. A330-300
values slumped during the pandemic, yet
prices are beginning to rally as passenger
traffic returns and new aircraft production
slows. “IAI is delivering its A330-300BDSF
solution in 2025 when initial acquisition
prices will be at threshold levels for
conversion,” adds Matalon. “We could
have developed the STC earlier, as we have
the engineering capability, but if the
conversion is ready too soon then nobody
will buy it because the build cost will be
too high.”
According to Matalon, the A330-
300BDSF will be the flag carrier for IAI’s
mid-size freighter for the next 15 years,
and there is currently no other MWB
platform that can be used.
When the A330-300 was conceived, it
to provide a replacement for the DC-10
and L-1011, and to compete against the
MD-11 and 777-200. “The larger A330-
300 is less efficient on a unit cost basis
relative to the 767F, which is a key factor
for the express markets that this aircraft
will primarily serve,” adds Hermesmeyer.
“The A330-300 also requires the same
ramp area as a 777-200F, while providing
significantly less volume. Large express
hubs can have limited space, which is
prohibitive because you are not extracting
the maximum potential out of the available
ramp area.”
There has been speculation that Boeing
will develop a 787-cargo conversion to
replace the 767-300ERF and -300BCF
45 I FREIGHT BUSINESS
aircraft. The 787-8 is the shortest 787
family member, and is six feet longer than
the 767-300ER making it ideal in terms of
size. With its EIS in 2011, there were 329
787-8s in service at the start of 2022.
These aircraft will reach conversion age
towards 2030.
P-to-F feedstock typically becomes
available because passenger operators want
a next generation replacement aircraft.
“When considering a new cargo
conversion, the availability of feedstock
and market demand are key. When the
time is right we will collaborate with our
customers to develop new solutions that
meet their needs,” adds Crabtree.
At present freight operators say the
767-300F is extremely efficient. Possible
discussions on the 787-8F will really get
going when 767F operators want to fly
something different and “now they do
not”, according to Hermesmeyer.
767-300F
There has been a total of 212 767-
300F deliveries to operators including
FedEx (113), UPS (72), LATAM (8) and
DHL (2). According to reports, 767-300F
output is currently the highest of all the
original equipment manufacturers’
(OEMs’) factory-built widebody types at
three deliveries per month.
The 767-300F and P-to-F conversion
are similar in terms of pallet configuration
and volumetric capacity. “The difference is
that the 767-300F has a larger lower-lobe
aft cargo door enabling it to accommodate
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
46 I FREIGHT BUSINESS
a larger variation of pallet sizes. The
passenger aircraft were all built with a
small lower-lobe door so they can only
accommodate LD2/LD8 containers and
pallets of similar base dimensions,” adds
Hermesmeyer.
According to Hermesmeyer, after in-
service repairs and/or modifications, some
P-to-F feedstock can pick up weight over
time, and they can suffer a little in terms of
range and fuel burn as a result. Greater
operating empty weight (OEW) will
detract from payload, but the 767-300F
and -300BCF ultimately have similar
payload/range capabilities.
The 767-300F can carry 24 88-inch x
125-inch pallets on its main deck,
providing a cargo volume of up to 11,884
cu ft. Within its lower hold, the freighter
can accommodate 30 LD2 containers.
Total containerised volume is 15,484 cu ft;
3,438 cu ft more than the 767-200F.
Although Boeing is actively seeking an
exemption within the construct of the
proposed rule, the FAA’s environmental
emission proposal for FAR Part 38 would
require Boeing to otherwise cease 767-
300F production in 2028. P-to-F
programmes would not affected.
“Operators such as UPS and FedEx are still
placing orders for 767-300Fs because the
aircraft is the logical replacement for
ageing MWB freighters, and has optimal
capacity for many routes,” says Mowry.
At present, Boeing has 58 outstanding
767-300F orders and says that demand is
continuing. In 2021 FedEx ordered 20
767-300Fs and its backlog for the type
totalled 48 at that time. The additional
aircraft are due for delivery in 2024 and
2025.
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
767-300 P-to-F
The 767 has an extremely high limit of
validity (LOV), and can operate up to
180,000 FH before the LOV is reached, so
feedstock can be converted above the
considered average age for conversion.
“I think many people are trying to
write the epitaph of the 767 conversion
line a little too early, and the feedstock
situation is not as bleak as people think,”
adds Hermesmeyer. “One of the things
that we ensured when developing the BCF
programme was that the airframe would
be capable of a long life after conversion.
At express freight levels of utilisation, an
aircraft that may appear old in terms of
calendar age can still have a significant
amount of life left.”
At the start of 2022 Boeing had
redelivered a total of 51 767-300BCFs,
including 47 equipped with CF6-80
engines and four with PW4060 engines.
IAI has redelivered a total of 101 767-
300BDSFs, 95 of which are equipped with
CF6-80 engines and six with PW4060
engines.
“The initial trend was to convert CF6-
80-powered aircraft,” explains Matalon.
“Now investors are finding it difficult to
source GE-powered aircraft, and they are
moving towards converting feedstock fitted
with PW4000-94 engines. Recently we
have received a proposal from a company
that intends to convert its Rolls Royce-
powered 767-300ERs, and so have the first
RB211-equipped conversions.”
Furthermore, both Boeing and IAI are
improving 767-300ER conversion
capacity. Boeing has four existing
conversion lines: three at ST Engineering in
After taking delivery of a A330-200P2F in January
2022, MasAir Cargo became the first US operator
of the EFW A330P2F conversion. In terms of
volume the A330-200/-300 platform makes
sense for express carriers with substantial
freight traffic. The A330-300P2F by EFW can
accomodate 26 maindeck cargo positions and
the A330-200 can carry 23. In its lower hold the
aircraft can carry large LD3 containers that are
common for many widebody types.
Singapore, and one at GAMECO in
Guangzhou. New lines in GAMECO (1)
and ST Engineering (1) have been
announced. IAI operates six 767
conversion lines: two each in Tel Aviv and
Mexico, and two new lines in Ethiopia.
“There is still enough feedstock to
sustain conversion lines beyond 2028, but
accessibility is now the issue because of
resurgent passenger demand coming out of
the pandemic,” says Crabtree. Investing in
new conversion lines shows the confidence
conversion providers have in their 767
conversion programmes.
Lengthy LOV and low express daily
utilisation rates of 3.5FH make it possible
to acquire aircraft that would normally be
considered too old for conversion. “It is
highly likely that there is significant life left
in most 767-300ERs, which would provide
enough candidates for several years,” says
Hermesmeyer.
“Until Delta Airlines (45) and United
Airlines (38) retire their 767-300ER fleets,
the feedstock for conversions is pretty
much non-existent,” says Fortune.
A330F
Airbus introduced the A330-200F in
2010 as a replacement for the A300-600F.
Its production ended seven years later after
38 factory-built aircraft. For its factory
freighter, Airbus used the 193-ft long
A330-200 platform, which is 17 feet
shorter than its -300 sister variant. High
maximum take-off weight (MTOW) and
maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) give
the A330-200F a 70-tonne payload. It has
a substantial payload packing density and
range compared to other MWB freighters.
The A330-200F’s mundane sales
performance is partly attributed to its
capital cost and list price of $241 million in
2018. This compares to a list price of
$212.2 million for a 767-300ER. At the
time, according to Mowry, Airbus and
Boeing adopted different business strategies
for these aircraft.
“Airbus marketed the A330-200F as a
long-range freighter that could be operated
on transpacific and transatlantic routes at
minimal risk because it had a smaller
payload than a 747F and MD-11F,” says
Fortune. “Operators realised they did not
need an aircraft with a shorter fuselage
than the A330-300, and also had no ability
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022

LARGE NARROWBODY AND MEDIUM WIDEBODY TYPICAL LOADING CONFIGURATIONS
Aircraft A300-600
type
Maximum payload lbs 107,370
Main-deck ULDs 21 X PAG
Main-deck ULD size ft 88 X 125
Lower-deck ULDs 23 X LD3
Lower-hold bulk cu ft. 610
Aircraft A330-200P2F
type
Maximum payload lbs 134,482
Main-deck ULDs 18 X AMA + 4 X PAG
Main-deck ULD size ft 96 X 125
Lower-deck ULDs 26 X LD3
Lower-hold bulk cu ft. 695
Maximum payload is dependent on feedstock configuration such as winglets, weight variant and engine type. ULD specifications vary by manufacturer.
to really use the -200’s range.” The FH:FC
ratio for most A330-200F operations in
2022 is 2.95-4.54FH:FC.
The EFW A330-200P2F can
accommodate 23 main-deck 88-inch X
125-inch pallets and containers, or 22
main deck 96-inch X 125 inch pallets and
containers. The A330-200P2F has a gross
payload up to 61 tonnes. The larger
-300P2F can accommodate 26 main-deck
pallets, a gross payload up to 62 tonnes
(see table, this page).
The close relationship between EFW
and Airbus means that operators and
lessors may consider the P2F conversion to
be an OEM product. Airbus contributes
data and certification support, while EFW
is responsible for the STC and conversion
process. The A330-300P2F overall has a
22.8% larger containerised volume than
the 767-300F.
MasAir Cargo became the first US
operator of the EFW conversion, after
taking delivery of a A330-200P2F in 2022.
The operator is planning to operate both
-200s and -300s. Similar trip cost, yet 14%
more containerised volume, means that
A330-300 conversions are likely to be
more dominant.
IAI maintains the original MZFW and
MTOW and, depending on weight variant
(WV), will be able to carry 61 tonnes of
cargo. IAI is expected to be awarded the
STC at the end of 2024, and will have
conversion lines in Tel Aviv and other sites.
The A330-300BDSF is fitted with a 9G
ridged barrier so it can carry 27 main-deck
containers. “This allows for one additional
container position, and an extra 540 cu ft
depending on ULD type,” says Matalon.
“The location of the cargo door is also
unique to the A330-300BDSF. We have
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
767F 767-300BCF
127,860 127,480
24 X PAG 24 X PAG
88 X 125 88 X 125
30 X LD2 30 X LD2
430 430
A330-300P2F A330-300BDSF
136,687 134,500
22 X AMA + 4 X PAG 23 X AMA + 4 X PAG
96 X 125 96 X 125
32 X LD3 32 X LD3
695 695
moved the aperture aft, so that the two
forward-most containers may be loaded
first, which reduces the potential for the
aircraft to tip backwards during loading.
This improves aircraft turnaround time.”
According to Matalon, the long
fuselage allows considerable clearance
between the cargo door and the engine,
reducing the possibility of a ‘strike’ during
loading.
757-200
Precision is the exclusive STC holder
offering 757-200 P-to-F conversions in
2022. The freighter has 15 main-deck
pallet positions and, depending on
feedstock configuration, can achieve a
maximum payload of 31-38 tonnes.
“About 80 production freighters were
built. Most are operated by UPS and
almost all are still active,” adds
Hermesmeyer. “Its performance in terms
of payload is slightly less than the MWB
size category.”
Of the 171 completed and pending
757-200PCF cargo conversions, 22 are
equipped with PW2000 family engines.
The most popular engine type is the
RB211. In feedstock terms there are 202
active 757-200s in passenger service. Of
this number, 83 are equipped with the
RB211s and 119 with PW2000s.
“Almost all active PW2000-powered
aircraft are operated by Delta Airlines,
which has not released them to the
market,” explains Young. “The 757
continues to be the backbone of the Delta
Airlines fleet, so it is unlikely that these
aircraft will be available anytime soon.”
According to Young there are more
than 150 757-200 suitable conversion
47 I FREIGHT BUSINESS
767-300BDSF 757-200PCF
128,200 84,000
24 X PAG 15 X AAA / AAY
88 X 125 88 X 125
30 X LD2 n/a
430 1,790
A321-200P2F A321-200PCF
61,729 59,680
14 X AAA / AAY 13 X AAA / AAY + 1 PAG
88 X 125 88 X 125
10 X LD3-45W 10 X LD3-45W
208 208
candidates, yet once Delta’s aircraft are
excluded, the number is much smaller.
United Airlines has 42 active -200s built
from 1994 to 2004. The main issue now is
aircraft availability. “Trying to source a
757-200 is difficult in the present climate
because there are not that many to choose
from.
“The 12 active Icelandair examples are
coveted by many, and if any one of these
aircraft became available it would certainly
be converted. The problem facing most
757-200 passenger operators is that there
is no suitable substitute for the type right
now in terms of capability. Until operators
can replace them with something similar,
757-200s are unlikely to be released,” adds
Young.
The youngest in-service passenger 757-
200 was built in 2005, while the oldest
dates from 1987. The typical build years
for aircraft inducted into conversion are
now 1997 to 2004. Younger aircraft are
preferred if they can be acquired at a cost
that makes economic sense for the investor.
“The next three years of the 757
programme will be very telling. The
feedstock has got to an age where it is
difficult to import in several countries
outside North America and Europe. This
will restrict the market,” describes Young.
“It is possible that age limits imposed by
countries such as China, Thailand and
Indonesia will drive operators to the A321-
200PCF.”
To date few customers are torn
between 757-200PCF and A321-200PCF
freighters. Present 757-200PCF customers
are either new operators requiring range
and payload, or existing 757F operators
adding to their fleet.
Of the active 757-200F fleet, seven
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
48 I FREIGHT BUSINESS
aircraft are over 35 years old, and 97 are
older than 30. It is likely that these aircraft
will be the first retirements out of the fleet.
Operators looking for replacements can
either gravitate towards new generation
A321Fs or the 737-800F. “However, there
will be operators that rely on the 757F for
a long time. Its uniqueness makes it
irreplaceable to many,” adds Young. “The
A321-200PCF is close in terms of
containerised volume and falling
eCommerce packing densities. This means
there is much less importance attached to
gross payload than in the past.”
A321-200F
Depending on the configuration, the
A321-200F has a main-deck volume of
6,094 cu ft to 6,132 cu ft and
approximately 7.2% and 6.6% less than
the 757F. The A321-200F can carry 1,270
cu ft. containerised cargo in its lower lobe,
plus 208 cu ft of bulk cargo (see table,
page 47). The 757-200F on the other hand
has 1,790 cu ft of lower-lobe bulk
capacity. This means that the A321-200F
has a greater total containerised/palletised
cargo volume compared to the 757-200F.
There were 7 A321-200P2Fs active and
one A321-200PCF active at the beginning
of 2022. According to Young, the A321-
200PCF ramp-up is unlike anything that
has gone before and was difficult to
imagine at the initial stages of the
programme. “The health crisis helped free
up feedstock. We are in the process of
converting six aircraft across five
conversion lines,” says Young.
Both aircraft accommodate 14 main-
deck 88-inch X 125-inch pallet positions,
and yet have different configurations. The
EFW freighter can accommodate 14
AIRCRAFT COMMERCE
AAA/AAY main-deck containers,
compared to the 13 AAA/AAYs and a
single 88-inch x 125-inch 71(H) PAG
netted pallet available to the Precision
freighter (see table, page 47). The Precision
freighter can also accommodate 2 LD3-45
containers in its 14th main-deck position.
EFW’s forward placement of the 9G
barrier, ahead of the L1-R1 passenger
doors, allows the 14th and aft-most
container to be positioned laterally without
fowling the interior ceiling. As a result, the
L1-R1 doors must be plugged, and a crew-
entry door added.
The placement of the 9G barrier on the
Precision aircraft is aft on the L1-R1
passenger door, because of a height
restriction, a centreline netted pallet must
be used in the final 14th position.
Maintaining L1-L2 access results in a
conventional cockpit layout and large
supernumerary area.
“At first glance some could consider it
an inconvenience that the 14th position is
netted,” explains Young. “Nevertheless,
operators regularly utilize netted positions
and, interestingly, the design saves
significant OEW without a volume penalty,
and improves fuel burn and CO2 emissions
compared to the crew-entry door design by
3-4%. A significantly lower OEW allows
maximum payloads and ranges with
optimized operating weights and eliminates
weight increase prerequisites to meet
maximum gross payload. This simplifies
repair damage assessments, noise
regulation compliance, and landing fee
exposure all while contributing to lower
on-ramp costs with the Precision A321-
200PCF. ”
Providing the freighter is installed with
a lower-lobe cargo loading system (CLS),
both types can accommodate 10 LD3-45W
With a payload of up to 38 tonnes, the 757F has
been the workhorse of the large narrowbody
freighter fleet for many years. Despite remaining
feedstock numbers, the 757’s popularity in
passenger service means availability is low. With
a payload of up to 28 tonnes, reduced cash
operating costs, and a high volumetric payload,
the A321F series of P-to-F conversions is the
most suitable alternative for most operators.
‘belly’ containers. The system is unique to
A320 and A321 narrowbodies and
improves interlining opportunities, while
also optimising lower-lobe space.
Since about 50% of A321ceos are
installed with a lower-hold CLS, Precision
includes the option for an aftermarket
Telair solution. The system is unique
because it allows operators to load bulk or
containerised cargo in the lower lobe. This
means that the lower-hold space can be
used regardless of whether the carrier has
LD3-45Ws containers within its existing
infrastructure and route network.
It is possible that operators in this
market will choose the 12-pallet position
737-800F to bolster capacity requirement.
“The 737 Classic and 737-800 freighters
are prolific,” adds Hermesmeyer. “The
737-800 is serving multiple roles as the
replacement demand for standard body
freighters. But its economic benefit
compared to the A321F has caused many
to pivot to the 737-800BCF, which has
outsold competing products since its
launch.”
According to Hermesmeyer there are
no plans at present to develop a 737-
900BCF but it remains an area of study for
Boeing. It is possible that the larger 737
freighter could accommodate 13 main-
deck pallet positions, one fewer than the
A321F but with significantly better
economics. High demand in the passenger
market is keeping residual values high, and
availability low. Yet Hermesmeyer does
not rule out the possibility of a 737-
900BCF in the future.
Suitable A321ceo availability remains
high, and feedstock can be sourced with
CFM56-5B or V2500 engines. Unlike 757
and 767 conversion programmes it is
difficult to determine a preferred engine for
the A321, because investors and operators
are converting both types of feedstock.
At the beginning of 2022 there were
1,402 active A321-200s, including 608
powered by the CFM56 and 794 powered
by the V2500. According to Young, there
is a 50-kilo difference between engine type
post-conversion. It is likely that feedstock
availability and existing fleet type will
dictate engine choice.
To download more than 1,200
articles like this, visit:
www.aircraft-commerce.com
ISSUE NO. 142 • JUNE/JULY 2022
WE SET THE STANDARD...
... YOU PICK THE FLAVOR.

757-200PCF
8,358ft3 Volume • Up to 84,000lbs Payload

A321-200PCF
7,988ft3 Volume • 59,680lbs Standard Payload

PRECISION FREIGHTERS The Best at what Counts.

• Lowest Operating Empty Weight • Operationally Proven Design
• Highest Aggregate Payload • Efficient, Well Supported & Reliable

Cargo aircraft is our business –

your needs design our product.

Contact: PRECISION AIRCRAFT SOLUTIONS

www.precisionaircraft.com USA (336) 540-0400 Eastern Time Zone
Brian McCarthy brian.mccarthy@precisionaircraft.com
Zach Young zachary.young@precisionaircraft.com
 airbus.com

A 3 5 0 F.
LOOK
AHEAD
WITH

NEW
G E N E R AT I O N
FREIGHTER

Offering unrivalled operational efficiency, the Airbus A350F is based

on the most modern platform ever developed. And with the latest
technology to reduce fuel burn and CO2 emissions by up to 40%,
it’s helping to keep the world a beautiful place.