Script of Lecture

Fundamentals of Power Engineering

Chapter - Electrical Machines
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Joachim Lämmel

Course of studies
Electrical Engineering and Information Technology

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä1-Titel
 Contents of the Lecture Fundamentals of Power Engineering
Chapter - Electrical Machines
___________________________________________________________

1 General Fundamentals of Electrical Machines

1.1 Power Conversion by Electrical Machines
1.2 The Magnetic Field
1.3 The Ampere´s Law
1.4 The Faraday´s Law and the Origin of Force
1.5 Arrow System, Balancing of Power and Efficiency
1.6 Phasor Diagram and Locus Diagram
1.7 Classification of Electrical Machines

2 D.C. Machines
2.1 Design and Principle of Operation of D.C. Machines
2.2 Air-Gap Field
2.3 Commutation
2.4 Balance of Power, Torque Creation and Induced Voltage
2.5 Circuits of D.C. Machines and Terminal Markings
2.6 Operational Performance of D.C. Machines
2.6.1 Generating Operation
2.6.2 Motor Operation
2.6.2.1 Speed Control of D.C. Machines
2.6.2.2 Starting of D.C. Machines
2.6.2.3 Braking of D.C. Machines

3 Transformers
3.1 Single-Phase Transformers
3.1.1 Design and Principle of Operation of Single-Phase Transformers
3.1.2 Ideal and Real Transformer
3.1.3 Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Diagram of Single-Phase Transformers
3.2 Operating Conditions of Single-Phase Transformers
3.2.1 The Transformer in No-Load Operation
3.2.2 The Transformer in Short-Circuit Operation
3.2.3 The Change of Voltage under Rated Operation
3.2.4 Losses, Balancing of Power and Efficiency
3.2.5 Parallel Operation of Single-Phase Transformers
3.3 Autotransformers
3.4 Three-Phase Transformers
3.4.1 Design of Three-Phase Transformers
3.4.2 Circuits and Markings of Three-Phase Transformers
3.4.3 Vector Groups of Three-Phase Transformers
3.4.4 Parallel Operation of Three-Phase Transformers

VGU 2017/ EMA1/Lä 2_contents

References (English)
Chapman, Stephen
Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 2005
ISBNM 0-07-246523-9

Fitzgerald, A. E.
Electric Machinery, 2002
ISBN 0-07-366009-4

Dale R. Patrick
Rotating Electrical Machines and Power Systems, 1996
ISBN 0-88173-239-7

Rajput, R. K.
A Textbook of Electrical Machines, 2006
ISBNM-10: 8170088593

References (German)
Fundamentals:
Fischer, R. Elektrische Maschinen, Carl Hanser Verlag München

Müller, Germar Grundlagen elektrischer Maschinen

Vogt, Karl Berechnung elektrischer Maschinen
VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH Weinheim

Fischer, K.-F. Taschenbuch der Technischen Formeln

u.a. Teil Elektrotechnik/Elektronik; 4. Auflage, 2009
Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag

Application:
Stölting, H.-D. Handbuch elektrischer Kleinantriebe,
Kallenbach, E. Carl Hanser Verlag München

Hering, E. u. a. Handbuch der elektrischen Anlagen und Maschinen

Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg

Brosch, P. F. Praxis der Drehstromantriebe

Vogel Buchverlag, Würzburg

VGU 2017/ EMA1/Lä 3_references

1 General Fundamentals of Electrical Machines
1.1 Power Conversion by Electrical Machines

Electrical machines are electromagnetic or electromechanical energy converters.

Example 1: Electromagnetic Energy Conversion (Transformer)

Electrical Energy Electrical Energy with

other parameters

Example 2: Elektromechanical Energy Conversion (Motor - Generator)

Electrical Energy Electrical Energy

Mechanical Energy
GENERATOR

MOTOR
Mechanical Energy

1.2 The Magnetic Field

B - magnetic flux density,  - magnetic flux,
 - permeability, A – cross section, H - magnetic force

Important relations:
 
B  H Vs/m² - material equation of the magnetic field

 = 0 r Vs/Am - permeability (coeffizient of material)

0 = 1,25610-6 Vs/Am - natural permeability (natural constant)

r - relative permeability (depending on material)

 
   BdA Vs - magnetic flux
A
 
V   Hdl A - magnetic voltage drop
l

flux tube
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä4_General_Fundamentals
 B ferromagnetic: iron, alloys;
0 Nonlinear
and of
technical
relevance
ferrimagnetic: ferrite;0

paramagnetic: palladium; 0

antiferromagnetic: air;  0

H
diamagnetic: copper, silicon, water; <0

Neukurve - virgin curve

Remanenz - remanance Br
Koerzitiv-
feldstärke - coercitvity - Hk

partielle Hysteresekurve -
- partiel hysteresis loop

Hysteresis loop Characteristics of technical

important materials
The natural permeability (natural constant) is 0 = 1,256*10-6 Vs/Am.
Ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials only have technical relevance with a relative permeability
r ≥1000 depending on magnetic field strength and hysteresis loop (s. figure).
Magnetic soft materials have a small enclosed area of the hysteresis loop and a minimal
coercitivity (applicated in transformers, rotating electric machines – FeSi-bonds).
Magnetic hard materials have a big enclosed area of the hysteresis loop and a maximum
coercitivity (applicated for permanent magnets – hard steels, rare-earth bonds).

Coils are classified:

- if there is a fixed or variable inductivity,
(variability by taps of windings, by translation of the magnetic core or by premagnitization
of the magnetic circuit),
- if the the connection between the windings is realized by air or by means of an iron core,
whose absolute permeability is essentially higher than air
or
- according to design (e. g. disc coil, cylindrical coil, coil with toroidal core,
spiral winding, core with or without air gap, ...).

Coils were applicated for reactors in power transmission, in transformers and electric
machines, smoothing reactors in power electronics, in relays and filters, ...
Standards exist for transformers, reactors and electric machines (e. g. in Germany DIN VDE
standards 0530 and 0532 or international standards EU and IEC)

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä5_magnetic_materials
Field Distribution (examples)

To the interpretation of field distribution Field at a pol-shoe edge

Analogies between the Electric and the Magnetic Field

Electric Field Magnetic Field

Strom I A Fluß   Vs 

electric current magnetic flux
Feldstärke E  V/m  Feldstärke H  A/m 
electric field strength magnetic field strength
Quellenspannung Uq V Durchflutung  A
source voltage current linkage
Spannungsabfall U V Spannungsabfall V A
electric voltage drop magnetic voltage drop
Stromdichte J  A/m²  Flußdichte B  Vs/m² 
current density flux density
Materialkoeffizient   m/mm²  Materialkoeffizient   Vs/Am 
Conductivity permeability
Widerstand R = U/I (Def.)  V/A  =    Widerstand Rm = V/  A/Vs 
resistance reluctance
Widerstand R = l/A  Widerstand Rm = l/A  A/Vs 
Knotenpunktsatz I = 0 A Knotenpunktsatz  = 0 Vs 
Kirchhoff´s current law
Maschensatz (Uq+U) = 0 V Maschensatz  = V  A 
Kirchhoff´s voltage law

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä6_field_analogies
 1.3 Ampere´s law
 
   Hds
s

current linkage
Examples of current linkages:

a) picture above:  = I1 + I2 – I3 + I4

b) Coil with N turns and current I:

=I*N

c) transformer:

 = I1N1 – I2N2 = Hlm = Rm = V

 (I N  I N )
B  H  1 1 2 2
l
m

A( I N  I N )
Φ  BA  1 1 2 2  Θ
l R
m m

d) Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap (exciting field of d.c. machines)

B B
Θ  IN  H FelFe  H lll  lFe  ll
 
length of the air gap – ll Fe l

IN
B with lFe >ll and Fe>>l
lFe ll

Fe l

IN A Θ
Φ  BA  l 
l R
l m

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä7_amperes_law
1.4 The Faraday´s Law and the Origin of Force

The Faraday´s law describes the relation between a time–dependent magnetic field and the elec-
tric field. (induction, induced voltage)

a) Induction in stationary arrangements:

e   N dΦ
dt

b) Induction in moving arrangements:

  
e   (v  B)dl
l

c) Force on a conductor carrying current

in a magnetic field

  
F  I  (dl  B)
l

1.5 Arrow System, Balance of Power and Efficiency

Use of the load reference arrow system

resistor R coil L capacitor C

di 1
C
u  Ri uL u idt
dt

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä8_induction_force
Circuit Generator - Load :

Power Output Power Input

Erzeuger: UI  0 Verbraucher: UI  0

For the representation of electric and

magnetical parameters of a coil the right-
handed system is used.
.

Quadripoles or four-terminal networks are

often seen at input and output as load.

Balance of Power and Effiency

Pab = Pzu - Pv1 - Pv2

 = Pab / Pzu

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä9_arrows
 1.6 Phasor Diagram and Locus Diagram

The phasor diagram is the symbolic representation of sinusiodal quantities of the same
frequency. Therefore the use of nonrotating phasor is sufficient.

Rotating phasor
The character of a phasor is an underlined
letter to destinguish from r.m.s. value.

e. g. I = Ie ji

The relations for the arrows of voltage and

Nonrotating phasor current over the components R , L und C are
shown in the following figures.

resistor R coil L capacitor C

U lags 90° behind I

I lags 90° behind U
U and I in phase

State Description of Electric Machines I in den Quadranten I und IV:

I in den Quadranten II und III:

I in den Quadranten III und IV:

I in den Quadranten I und II:

Example:
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä10_phasors
Locus Diagram

The locus diagram shows the movement of the phasor in the complex plane as function of
another parameter.

e. g.: current in dependence of frequency, voltage in dependence of the value of a

component, ...

VGU 2011/EMA1/Lä11_locus_diagram
 1.7 Classification of Electric Machines

with stationary parts with rotating parts with transversal movement

TRANSFORMERS --- D.C. MACHINES--- A.C. - AND THREE-PHASE MACHINES LINEAR MOTORS

ASYNCHRONOUS SYNCHRONOUS (asynchronous,

MACHINES MACHINES synchronous or
d.c. machines)
separately
excited single-phase stationary-pole revolving-pole
series asynchronous machines machines
excited machines

single-phase shunt Three-phase

transformers excited asynchronous with cylindrical
machines rotor
compound excited
salient-pole
With short rotor
three-phase circuit- or
transformers cage rotor
with slipring
rotor
VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä12_classification
2 D.C. Machines

History and the State of the Art of D.C. Machines

1832 Pixii, development of a generator for a two-pulse direct current with permanent
magnet
1850 First separately excited d.c. machine
1860 Pacinotti, application of a ring winding for the rotor of a d.c. machine
1872 v. Hefener-Alteneck, invention of the drum-type armature, which is used in
modern d.c. machines until now
1882/1884 The first power- station generators in New York and Berlin with d.c. machines
1890 The predominance of the d.c. machine was finished by the increasing
application of three-phase systems.

currently Application
- performance less than 1W up to 30MW;
- range of high performance operation with higher voltage (e. g. 3kV);
- application mostly as motor;
- generator application nonsignificant
Examples
- trains and further electrical vehicles and cranes
- machine tools
- mill motors and transport equipment
- inside cars as wipers, blowers and positioners up to 100W
(permanent excited)
- spezial design as servo motor with disc-type rotor or bell-shaped rotor

2.1 Design and Principle of Operation of D.C. Machines

Principle of the D.C. Motor

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä13_history_state
Principle of the D.C. Generator

Principle of
Drum-Type Armature

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä14_d.c._drum_type_armature
 d.c. machine
with the number of pole pairs
p = 1 (two-pole)

Pole Pitch:

d.c. machine
with the number of pole pairs
p = 2 (four-pole)

remark: In reality the brushes are arranged under the pole shoes. But
they are connected with the turns inside the commutating zone
between the pole shoes.

Technical terms used in the pages 14 to 17

Trommelanker – drum-type armature (p. 14)

Polteilung – pole pitch (p. 15)
Polpaarzahl – number of pole pairs
Polschuh – pole shoe
1 – Ständerblech – stator lamination (p. 16)
2 – Hauptpole – main poles
3 – Wendepole – commutating poles
4 – Erregerwicklung – field or excitation winding
5 – Wendepolwicklung – commutating-( field) winding
6 – Anker – armature
7 – Ankerwicklung – armature winding
8 – Stromwender – commutator, collector, pole changer
9 – Kohlebürsten – carbon brushes
Schleifenwicklung – lap winding (p. 17)
Wellenwicklung – wave winding

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä15_poles
 Longitudinal and cross section of a four-pole, fully laminated d.c. machine ( P = 38kW,
U = 400V, n = 1460min-1 – Franz Kessler KG, Bad Buchenau)

1 – stator lamination 4 – excitation winding 7 – armature winding

2 – main poles 5 – commutating-field winding 8 – Commutator
3 – commutating poles 6 – armature 9 – carbon brushes

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä16_cross_section
 a) Armature Winding as Lap Winding

(S) (N)

Commutator Brushes

b) Armature Winding as Wave Winding

(S) (N)

Commutator Brushes

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä17_winding_kind
2.2 Air-Gap Fields
a) Magnetic Field of the Main Poles (Exciting Field)

IE x   x IE

Maximum of flux IE  NE
density in the air gap BEmax  0
2 min

pole-pitch factor

BEm
  0,65...0,7
BEmax

b) Magnetic Field of the Armature Windung

armature ampere
conductor

I Stab z A
A
dA π

field excitation
curve

x
VA   Adx
0

field distribution
curve

VA
BA  0
x
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä18_air_gap_fields
c) armature reaction

unsaturated machine
saturated machine

Impacts:

1. The symmetric curve of the flux density is distorted in no-load operation .

BE  BEmax

2. By saturation the flux intensity is less increased, but another parts are fully
weakened. A field weakening results in the sum.

  0

3. The zero crossing of the flux intensity is shifted in the commutating zone.

 = x
Therefore the function of the d.c. machine will be influenced. The armature reaction is
eliminated by the compensation of the armature ampere-turns.

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä19_armature_reaction
Commutating-Field and Compensating Winding
a) Commutating Field

The generation of the commutating field results by additional

poles in the neutral zone (commutating field winding).

The commutating-field winding leads the armature current.

This results in a current linkage in opposite to the armature field.

The current linkage W = IANW of the commutating-field

winding compensates the current linkage of the armature in the
neutral zone – between the main poles of the excitation field.

The field of the commutating winding effects

an over-compensation of the armature field.

Superimposition of the excitation-

field curves of armature and commu-
tating windings x

Resulting armature reaction (flux

densitiy)

VW(air) x
BW  μ0
W

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä20_commutating_field
 Commutating-Field and Compensating Winding
b) field of armature compensation
The commutating-field winding are not able to influence the field under the
pole shoes of the excitation winding (main poles). The weakness of the flux
under the main poles would be unchanged.

Therefore d.c. machines of essential power are constructed with compensa-

ting windings to prevent the weakening of the excitation field under the main
poles.

The compensation winding is inserted in the surface of the main poles and
leading the armature current.

The current linkage  = IANK compensates the armature-current linkage

under the main poles and with it the armature reaction in this region.

VW(air)
BW μ 0
W

Superimposition of the excitation-

field curves of armature, commutat-
ing and compensation windings x

Resulting armature reaction (flux

densitiy)

VWr(air)
BWr  μ 0
W x

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä21_compensating_field
2.3 commutation

All conductors lead a half

of the armature current
IA/2.

The currents through the

conductors of the armature
have under the south and
the north pole the opposite
direction.

During the movement of

the conductors between the
poles (neutral region) the
armature current must
change its direction (com-
mutation).
under
-commutation

over
-commutation

bB
tk 
vk

tk – time of commutation
bB – brush width
vk - peripheral speed of the
commutator
VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä22_commutation
2.4 Balance of Power, Torque Creation and Induced Voltage
Balance of Power

PA PE
PA, PE – active power absorbed by the armature
P resp. by the excitation winding

PCu – power losses in the windings (heat loss by

current, ohmic loss)
PCu, PFe, Prbg
PFe – losses in the iron core (hysteresis and eddy-
current loss)
Prbg – friction losses

P – output of active power at the shaft

active-power input = power losses + active-power output

Efficiency

Torque Creation

The basic relation is the equation describing the force at a current-carrying conductor in the
magnetic field.
  

F  I (dl  B)
l

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä23_balance_of_power
Because of rectangular conditions between the quantities in an electric machine the relation
will be much easier. Finally the absolute value is only from interest. Therefore results:

M  F  r  IlBr.

For the torque at one of the z conducters of the armature results:

IA
M ( x)  lB( x)r.
2a

with IA – brush current and a = p (at loop winding)

a = 1 (at wave winding)

After calculation of the mean value of B(x) for the total torque of all z conductors of the arma-
ture results:
r
p
I rz
M A
πr  B( x)ldx.
2a 0
p

By converting and summarizing the following expression results:

:

zp
M  ΦP I A  cΦP I A  M i . intrinsic moment
2 πa

motor torque (counter-torque of the generator)

zp
Thereby is c a machine constant andP the pole flux.
2 πa

For the induced voltage follows with an analogical derivation

  
U q   (v  B)dl U q  cΦP.
generator voltage (counter-voltage of the motor)

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä 24_torque_voltage

2.5 Circuits of DC Machines and Terminal Markings (DIN VDE 0530)
a) Separately Excited Machine
Excitation winding:
- winding with many turns
- low diameter of the wire
- IE << IA ; RE >> RA
- undependent voltage UE
Armature windung:
- undependent voltage UA
- IA; RA s. above
Application: variable-speed drives

b) Series Machine
Design:
- armature and excitation winding in series
- excitation, pole flux Φ = f(IA)
- winding with few turns and relatively big
diameter
Application:
- universal motors for a.c. and d.c.
- traction drives (e.g. electric cars)

c) Shunt Machine
Design:
- shunt winding as excitation winding of the
separately-excited machine
- armature winding just as well
- IE << IA ; RE >> RA
- non-dependent voltages UA, UE
Application:
- if only one voltage supply is available
(e.g. accumulator)
- characteristics as separately-excited machine

d) Compound Machine
- compound winding (combination separately
and series)
- intensified separately excitation
- indirect compensation of armature reaction
(cheaper than compensation winding)
- reversing polarity of excitation winding
means reversing polarity of series winding,
too
A - armature winding, excitation windings: D – series,
B - commutating winding, E – shunt,
C - compensating winding F – separately excited

VGU 2021//EMA1/Lä 25_d.c._circuit

2.6 Operational Performance of D.C. Machines
2.6.1 Generating Operation (isolated operation)
a) Separately Excited Machine
in No-Load Operation IA

IA = 0; UA = cΦPω = Uq
UA = f(ΦP) ist nichtlinear
A1
F1
UA
U A
F2
A2
Uq

voltage by remanent magnetic flux

b) Separately Excited Machine in Load Operation

IIEE

IA = ILoad
UA = Uq - IA RA - UBK

UBK – voltage drop over the brushes

(2V over each pair of brushes)

UBK
UA

UA0

UAN Kurzschlussstrom:
IARA ANKERRÜCKWIRKUNG

IN IA

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä26_gen_separately
c) Self-Excited Shunt Generator in No-Load Operation

UA = cΦPω - IARA - UBK

IA = IE + ILoad
UA = IERE - IEREV

Leerlauf:

IA = IE und IE << IAN

 armature-voltage drop
negligible

Therefore it is valid if the brush-voltage drop UBK is also negligible:

UA = cΦPω und cΦPω  IERE

The procedure starts at:

U0
(cΦPω)
increasing voltage
U increasing
(IERE) I E1  rem follows
voltageuntil
follows
until the value U0n RE the
until the U
value value
0 U0

IE0

Two borderline cases:

UA (IERE)
a) the value of RE is too high (above criti-
(IERE)
cal resistance – limit of self excitation)
(c P)
b) wrong polarity of the exitation
winding – „suicide connection“
b) a)

The operating points are far away from the

IE nominal voltage in both cases.
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä27_gen_self_excited
d) self-excited shunt generator in load operation

Because of IE  IA results:

IA  ILoad

and therefore

UA = cΦPω - IARA – (UBK).

It is to notice that with the increasing load or armature current the armature voltage UA
slightly falls down and therefore also IE and P resp. Uq.

 IARA

IARA

IA
cP UA IAK

short-circuit current – Urem/RA

Remark: Series and compound machines are also able to operate as generator.

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä28_gen_shunt_load
2.6.2 Motor Operation
2.6.2.1 Speed Control of D.C. Machines
The d.c. machine operates at a grid with constant voltage. A transition in the generator
operation is possible.

a) Separately Excited D.C. Motor (Shunt Characteristic)

In the following derivations you will find some neglects:

- no friction losses Prbg = 0, Mi = M
- no losses by magnetic reversal PFe = 0
- no voltage drop over the brushes UBK resp. RBK are zero.

armature equation (second Kirchhoff´s law)

UA = cΦPω + IARA !
exciting circuit

UE = IERE

From armature equation follows:

With M = c PIA the relation follows

 = f(M)!

In no-load operation (M = 0) the speed can be calculated with

From the torque equation direct follows

IA = f(M)!

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä29_mot_separately_excited
With both relations  = f(M) and IA = f(M) the characteristics of the operational performance
of the separately-excited d.c. machine can be represented.

UA RA M
 = f(M)   M IA = f(M) IA 
cΦ P (cΦ P ) 2 cΦP

 IA
0

GENERATOR MOTOR GENERATOR MOTOR

Pel  0 Pel  0 Pel  0 Pel  0
IA  0 IA  0 IA  0 IA  0

The armature voltage UA and the angular velocity  resp. the speed n have the same direction
both in generator and motor operation.

b) Series D.C. Machine (Series Characteristic)

The same neglects as in case a) are used. Friction losses , losses by magnetic reversal and
voltage drop over the brushes are again zero.

Interval I Interval II

P

P = k1IA  P = k2 IA, IE

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä30_mot_series
The armature equation is unessentialy changed according to the series connection of armature
and exciting winding.

UA = cΦPω + IA (RA + RE)

The magnatization characteristic has different formulas in both intervals.

Interval I Interval II
P = k1IA P = k2
With
M = cPIA = ck1IA2

results

M M
IA  . IA = f(M)! IA 
ck1 ck 2

The angular velocity follows from the

conversion of the armature equation.
Thereby the conditions in the intervals
have to consider.

UA R  RE
  A M
ck1 I A (ck1 I A ) 2

With the above mentioned equation for IA

follows.

UA R  RE U A RA  RE
  A  = f(M)!   M
ck 1 M ck 1 ck 2 (ck 2 ) 2

Interval I Interval II Interval I Interval II

 IA

M M
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä31_mot_series
c) Speed Control (Example: Separately- Excited D.C. Machine)

Three possibilities of speed control exist. We can show the results by the characteristics of
angular velocity and armature current versus machine torque.


IA

Significant applications are:

1. Die Spannungssteuerung von der maximal möglichen Ankerspannung bis

zur Spannungs- und damit Drehzahlumkehr (rot – Spannungsabsenkung)

2. Die Drehzahlerhöhung durch Flussschwächung, wenn eine

Spannungssteigerung nicht mehr möglich ist (grün – Flussschwächung).

3. Die Drehzahlverringerung durch Vorwiderstände im Ankerkreis (blau –

Widerstandserhöhung)

The speed control of the series excited d.c. machine is possible in an analogical way. Because
of the serial connectien of armature and exciting winding the realization is made by other
methods.

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä32_mot_speed_control
2.6.2.2 Starting of D.C. Machine

- A d.c. machine with small performance (less than 1kW) can be directly connected with
the d.c. grid .

- A d.c. machine with higher performance can be started by two methods to prevent an
overload of the grid.

1. Reduced-Voltage Starting 2. Rotor Resistance Starting

Starting with reduced or Starting with additional series
controllable armature voltage resitors in the armature circuit
in the armature circuit

2.6.2.3 Braking of D.C. Machines

Three methods are used.
1. Regenerative Braking 2. Rheostatic Braking

3. Counter-Current Braking

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä33_braking
3 Transformers

History and the State of the Art of Ttransformers

1831 Faraday; experiments with two coupled coils for the evidence of the
induction law (Faraday´s Law)

1856 Varley; the first transformer with iron-coupled windings

1888 Kapp; basic descriptions of the transformer theory

1889-91 v. Dolivo Dobrowolski; developing of the first three-phase transformer

1890 First three-phase transmission in germany from Lauffen /Neckar to

Frankfurt /Main (transmission voltage 15kV, length 175km)

today Integrated system over the most parts of Europe with high transmission
voltages (transmission performance S  U²). Transformers are important
equipment in this system (380kV, 220kV, 110kV … 400V).
e. g. Europe 220kV/380kV, Canada, Russia 750kV

Application of Transformers

- power transformers for power transmission

-  400MVA (three-phase transformers, portable)
-  3  333.3MVA (3 single-phase transformers - transformer bank)
-  until 1700MVA ( step-down transformers of generators in power
stations)

- transformers in devices for power supply

- current and voltage transformers for metrology

- voltage regulating transformers for testing

- test transformers until 1.5MV

- impedance transformers in metrology and communication

engineering

- special transformers e. g. welding transformers, core-control

transformers, autotransformers, ignition coils ...

VGU 2011/EMA1/Lä34_history_state
3.1 Single-Phase Transformers

The statements made for the single-phase transformer are also valid for one phase of the
three-phase transformer. The specialities of the three-phase transformer are presented in chap-
ter 3.4.

3.1.1 Design and Principle of Operation of the Single-Phase Transformer

principle of operation:

Grundprinzip ist die Spannungsinduktion

durch einen zeitlich veränderlichen Fluss
in mehreren Wicklungen.

There are two basic arrangements

a) core type b) shell type

Joch

Schenkel

a
Lower-voltage winding 2
a
Higher-voltage winding

The higher- and the lower-voltage winding can be arranged on both limbs in the case of core
type.

Windings:

The tasks of the windings are:

a) A time-variable magnetic field is established by the time-variable currents in the windings

(Ampere´s law).

b) Time-variable voltages are induced in the windings by the time-variable magnetic fields
floating trough the windings (Faraday´s law).
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä35_single_design
There are two kinds of the design of windings:

a) concentric winding b) disc winding

The gap serves as

Iron Core:

The iron core consists of iron sheets isolated of each other. The sheets are especially rolled to
a thickness of 0,23 to 0,35mm . The insulation is either an enamel coat or a thin silica-
phosphat layer.
The eddy-current losses are decreased by means of the lower electric conductivity of the iron
sheets and the arrangement of the sheets in direction of the flux.
For transformers with low or medium performance the cross section of the core is squared (a).
Graded cores are used to adapt the cross section to the shape of the winding (b).
A special construction is the involute core (c).
The geometric space factor increases from the left to the right.

a) b1) b2) c)

 

63,7% 78,7% (2) 85,1%(3)…90,8 %(5) … (15) until 96%

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä36_iron_core
 3.1.2 Ideal and Real Transformer

The ideal transformer Fe 

The ideal transformer has Cu   Fe = 0

the following features:

- - Der
The elektrische Widerstand
electric resistance deswinding
of the Wick- is
gleich null
zero ( conductivity Cu   ).
(Cu   ).
- - - Der
The magnetische Widerstand
magnetic resistance desiron-
of the Eisen-core
kreises ist gleich null    ).
is zero (permeability
(Fe   ). Fe

- - Der
The elektrische Widerstandofdes
magnetic resistance theEisenkrei-
iron core
ses ist unendlich groß
is zero (permeability Fe   ).
(Fe = 0 ).
- - Der
Themagnetische Widerstand
magnetic resistance of thedes Umge-
environment
bungsmediums ist unendlich
is infinite (permeability air Luft = 0).
of thegroß
(Luft = 0 ). Luft 

That means, there is no leakage flux under ideal conditions (Fe   ; Luft = 0 ) or the
whole magnetic flux  is inside the iron core. Therefore the magnetic flux  must be the
same in both windings (useful flux).
According to Faraday´s law for both windings results:

dΦ dΦ
u1  N1  N2  u2
dt dt

Therefore the identity follows for the voltage ratio of the ideal transformer with the turn ra-
tio.

U 1 N1
 ü
U2 N2

The magnetic resistance of the iron core is zero. Therefore with the Ampere´s law follows that
the magnetic voltage drop is zero, too:

 
 ds  0  I 1 N 1  I 2 N 2
H
For the current ratio of the ideal transformer consequently results:

I1 N 2 1
 
I 2 N1 ü
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä37_tr_ideal
 The real transformer
The real transformer only few differs from the ideal transformer in comparison to other elec-
tric machines. Two distinctions are essential for the function of a transformer.

a) The ideal transformer in no-load operation might have no primary current I1 6

because the secondary current I2 is zero.

In reality the no-load current I1 = I10 flows.

b) The ideal transformer might have no magnetic flux outside the iron core.
In reality leakage fluxes exist. They are closed outside the iron core and don´t
achieve the other winding.

The deviations from the ideal transformer are very low. The real transformer has losses from
0.5 to 3% and efficiencies from 97 to 99.5%.
Cancellation of Ideal Conditions:i

1. For the conductivity of the material of the windings is valid Cu  .

Consequently follows:

- endlichen Widerstand R.

2. For the material of the iron core is valid Fe   und Fe > 0.

-- Permeability Fe   means, the iron core has the magnetic resistance Rm0.
- Therefore ampere turns are required.
.
-
-

-- Conductivity Fe > 0 means, eddy currents and eddy-current losses results
- inside the iron core. In addition hysteresis losses arise by means of the
- magnetic reversal of the core with 50Hz.
-
- Magnetizing Fe  Ibedeutet,
Permeabilitätcurrent dass der
and leakage Eisenkreis
current einen
IFe have magnetischen
a phase displacement

- of Beide Ströme
90° and result sind zueinander
in the um 90° Iphasenverschoben
no-load current . und bilden den Leer-
0
laufstrom I0.
magnetizing I
UU101

I 0  I μ  I Fe
II10
0
No-load I
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä38_tr_real
Leakage I 0 IFe
IuI Fe
of the
magnetic
-reversal losses
3. For the permeability of the iron core is valid Fe   and for the environment Luft > 0.

The result are leakage fluxes 1 and 2 I1

belonging only to one winding.

1
Useful flux h (main flux)
Index 1: primary winding
Index 2: secondary winding

h
The goals are:
a) The realization of an integrative electric equivalent circuit summarizing primary and
secondary winding of the transformer.
b) The construction of the phasor diagram out of this equivalent circuit.

The transmission ratio of the transformer must be reduced to ü =1(unity turns-ratio, N1=N2).
All quantities of the secondary winding are related to the primary winding (symbol e.g. U´).
The answer for the secondary voltage is:
U2 = (N2 /N1)U1

(N1 /N2)U2 = (N2 /N1)U1(N1 /N2)

U2´= U2ü .

On the same way the formula of the secondary current arises:

).

For the magnetic linkage flux results:

Finally the resistance, inductivity, reactance and impedance can be calculated according to:

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä39_tr_reduction
3.1.3 Equivalent Circuit and Phasor of Single-Phase Transformers
Under consideration of the preconditions 1 and 3 of the transition from the ideal to the real
transformer and the reduction of the transformation ratio to ü =1 the following equivalent
circuit is valid. leakeage flux ~ inductor

R1 jX1 jX2 ´ R2´

I1 I2´
*  *

R1 I1 jX1 I1 jX2 ´ I2´ R2´ I2´

ZLast´
U1 U2 ´
jN1h jN2h´

**  **


For the voltage drop over the main inductivity results

jN2h´=
' jN2 (N1/N2)h = jN1h .

That means, both of the voltage drops (left and right of the main inductivity) are always
identical and therefore both signed points, too ( * -> ** ) .
(
For the component in the cross circuit is valid

jN1h = jLhI .
According to Ampere´s law and under consideration of the no-load current results

N1I1 - N2I2 = N1I0 I1 - I2´ = I0 . (recall)

if N1 = N2

Reduced Equivalent Circuit of the Transformer

R1 jL1 jL2´ R2´

I1 I2´

R1I1 jL1I1 jL2´I2´ R2´I2´

ZLoad´
U1 U2 ´

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä40_tr_circuit
Phasor Diagram of the Transformer

Two mesh equations result from the equivalent circuit

1. U1 = I1R1 + I1jL1 + Uh 2. U2´= - I2´R2´- I2´ jL2 ´ + Uh

and two junction equations, too

3. I1 - I2´= I0 4. I0 = I + IFe

I1jL1

U1
I1R1

-I2´jL2´

Uh -I2´R2 ´ I2´
I1
U2

IFe
I0
h
I

-I2´

-Uh

(reduziertes) Ersatzschaltbild – (reduced) equivalent network

Zeigerbild – phasor diagram
Leerlaufstrom – open-circuit current
Magnetisierungsstrom – magnetizing current
Eisenverluststrom – iron-loss current, leakage current
Übersetzungsverhältnis Spannung – voltage ratio
Strom – current ratio
Windung – turn ratio
Hauptinduktivität – magnetizing inductance
Streuinduktivität – leakage inductance

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä41_tr_phasor
3.2 Operating Conditions of Single-Phase Transformers
3.2.1 The Transformer in No-Load Operation (open)

Preconditions: a) The current of the secondary winding is zero.

jL2´ and R2´ are negligible compared with the
components in the cross circuit, because of I´2 = 0.

b) The no-load current flows through the primary winding (I10  I1N).

Therefore the voltage drops over jL1 und R1 are negligible, too.
Both components can be neglected.

1. equivalent circuit 2. phasor diagram

U10
I0 0
0 IFe

I

3. open-circuit test I0 P0
A W

V U10

4. goals: determination of relative No-load Current:

to a) I10
i10 i10  100%
I1 N

to d) P0
cos 10 
U10 I10

VGU 2021EMA1/Lä42 tr_no_load

to e)
U 102 I Fe 
U 10
und I μ  I 02  I Fe
RFe 
2

P0 with RFe follows

U 10 Xh
Xh  resp. Lh 
Iμ 

The open-circuit test is connected with the test of the iron core. The crest value of the flux in
the iron circuit can be determined by the transformer formula.

2π ˆ
UN fΦ  4,44 NfΦˆ
2

3.2.2 The Transformer in Short-Circuit Operation

The transformers have much influence on the short-circuit behaviour of the transmission
grids. They care for the limitation of the short-circuit current which is many times of the nom-
inal current.

The short-circuit test is realized with the nominal cur-

rent I1N, because the real short-circuit current Ik is
thermally destroying the transformer!

Because I1NI10 (current in the cross circuit) is valid again and in addition also U1N Uk
(voltage during the short-circuit test) the cross circuit (Xh, RFe) can be neglected.
Then I1 = I2´ is valid.

1. equivalent circuit 2. phasor diagram

I1NjL
k
Uk
I1NRk
I1N= I2´

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä43_tr_short_circuit
 I1N
3. short-circuit test
A Pk W
U1=Uk V Uk

goals: determination of

a) der relativen Kurzschlussspannung uk%

b) des Nennübersetzungsverhältnisses
I1/ I2  I1N/ I2N  1/ü
c) des Dauerkurzschlussstromes Ik
d) der Kurzschlussverluste PCu  Pk
e) des Kurzschlussleistungsfaktors cosk und
f) die Elemente Rk und Xk.

to a) U kN (at I1N ) U (at I1 ) I1N

u kN %  100%  k 100%
U1N U1N I1

to c) U 1N
I k U 1N
 Ik  I1N
I1N U kN U kN

to e)
Pk P U kN U k
cos  k   kN with
Zk  
U k I1 U kN I1N I1N I1

to f)
U kN
Rk  R1  R2 ´ cos  k
I1N

U kN
Lk  Lσ1  Lσ2 ´ sin  k
I1N

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä44_tr_short_circuit
3.2.3 The Change of Voltage under Rated Operation

The cross circuit is neglected under rated operation, too (I1NI0). The difference to the previ-
ous test is U2´ 0.

1. equivalent circuit 2. phasor diagram

Short-Circuit or Kapp Triangle
I1N I2N
I1N I2N´ I1NjXk
I1NRk I1NjXk
Z´Load
I1NRk I1NjX
I1Nk Rk
U1N U1N U2N
U2N´
U1N

U2N´
U1= I1NRk + I1NjXk + U2N I1N = I2N´

Under rated operation the voltage (UN) and the current (IN) must have their nominal values
depending of the performance and the design of the transformer. Only the phase angle (Load)
of the load can be changed.

We can observe a dependence of the output voltage U2 resp. U2 from

the phase angle of the load in spite of constant input voltage U1.

U2

blue – inductive
decreasing voltage
U1
red – capazitive
increasing voltage U2
green – ohmic
decreasing voltage

U2 I1= I2
Last
I1 Last I1
VGU 2021/EMA1
/Lä45_tr_load
According to VDE 0532 for changing of voltage is valid :

Rk I 1N X I
u UX u  cos   k 1N sin 
U 1N U 1N

U1

UR

U2´
3.2.4 Losses, Balance of Power and Efficiency
Possible losses in transformers are:

a) heat losses due to current (copper losses) in the windings

b) iron losses by magnetic reversal (eddy current and hysteresis losses)

c) additional losses in parts of the construction auxiliaries service (e.g. fans for cooling)

d) dielectric losses in the insulating materials

The losses of the transformers are very low (0.5 to 3% of the nominal active power). The
determination is impossible during nominal operation .
Therefore the determination by means of the segregated-loss method is useful (see chapters
3.2.1 and 3.2.2).

Determination by the segregated-loss method

a) Calculation of the active input power P1

P1  U1 I1 cos 1
b) Determination of the copper losses Pcu by means of the short-circuit test

at nominal current:

2
2  I1 
at any desired current: PCuN  Rk I1N  
 1N 
I

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä46_tr_balance
by means of the definition of
the load factor:

c) Determination of the load-independent iron losses PFe by means of the open-circuit test
is const for all losses condition
d) Total losses PV of a transformer

Under consideration only of the copper and the iron losses results:

Active input
power P1

PCu

Active output
power PFe
P2

f) Calculation of the optimal resp. maximal efficiency m

In dependence of the load factor of the transformer PV

PCu
the efficiency gets a maximum. At this point is valid:

2
 I  PFe

PFe  PCu  PCuN  1  .

 I1N  m

Therewith for the load factor and the maximal efficiency in this point results

g) Efficiency of the transformer at rated operation

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä47_tr_balance
3.2.5 Parallel Operation of Single-Phase Transformers
The secondary terminals of transformers in parallel must have the same potential for avoiding
circulating currents between the transformers.
This will be fulfilled if: - the voltage ratios (U1N/U2N) and therewith the rated
voltages are equal
grid 1 - the short-circuit voltages u % at different rated
k
currents are equal and
- the short-circuit power factors cos k are equal.
tr1 tr2
In the case of transformers in parallel operation for the determination of
the apparent power is valid:
S1 S1N u k2 %
grid 2 
S 2 S 2 N u k1 %
3.2 Autotransformers
Beim Spartransformator
At autotransformers werden
parts of the Wicklungsteile sowohl
coil are used both fürprimary
for the die
Primär- als auch für die Sekundärseite
winding and for the secondary winding. verwendet.

Autotransformers arewerden
Spartransformatoren used if eingesetzt,
an electrical
woisolation between Tren-
eine galvanische
nung
higher-voltage
zwischen and
Ober-
lower-voltage
und Unterspannungsseite
side is not necessary.
nicht erforderlich
ist.
In opposite to the separate-winding transformer autotransformers
Gegenüber
have lowerdem
costsVolltransformator führt
for the construction der and
(core Spartransformator zu
winding material)
geringeren Kosten bei der Herstellung
and operation (lower losses). (Kern- und Wicklungsmate-
rial) und beim Betrieb (geringere Verluste).
Autotransformers
Der are able
Spartransformator kanntoinoperate in both directions.
beide Richtungen betrieben werden

examples of application: - interconnection of high voltage grids (380kV/220kV)

- supply of traction motors
- control of voltage fluctuation in grids
- control transformers
At separate-winding transformers design or unit rating ST and transmittable or throughput
rating SD are equal.
If U1/U2 1 is valid it results for autotransformers:

throughput rating: U 1 I1  S D  U 2 I 2 unit rating: U R I1  S T  U P I P

With UR=U1-U2 results:

S T  U R I1  (U 1  U 2 ) I1  U 1 I1 (1 
U2 U
)  S D (1  2 ) ST  SD
U1 U1
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä48_tr_auto
3.4 Three-PhaseTransformers
3.4.1 Design of Three-Phase Transformers

At units of very high performance the power is transmitted by means of three single-phase
transformers (three-phase transformer bank). The problem is the transport to the operation
place.
L1
L2 grid 1
L3

tr1 tr2 tr3

L1´
L2´ grid 2
L3´

The three transformers are only electrically coupled, but not magnetically.

One of the first realizations: “temple type“

u + v + w = 0

By means of the phase shift of the fluxes of 120° the value of the flux through the middle
limb is zero. On this way the „temple type“ comes into beeing.

Real three-phase transformers can be realized as core-type and shell-type transformers.

a) core-type transformers
a1) symmetrical (very seldom) a2) unsymmetrical three-limb transformer (usual)
iron core

iron core

lower-voltage winding

higher-voltage winding

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä49_3tr_design
 b) shell-type transformers
b1) five-limb transformer b2) three-phase shell-type transformer
(very seldom)
iron core iron core

The behaviour of a three-phase transformer and of 3 single-phase transformers for each phase
is equal under symmetrical load. This is only valid for the fundamental wave, but not for the
third harmonic wave (e.g.). By means of tertiary windings (delta connection over three limbs)
asymmetries can be balanced.

3.4.2 Circiuts and Markings of Three-Phase Transformers

Ký hiệu Đỏ bên dưới là "ký hiệu cũ"
L1 L2
Mắc sao L3
1U1 IStr 1V1 1W1
example:
star connection of both (U) (V) (W)
windings UStr higher-voltage
.systemr-
( DIN 42402; VDE 0532) spannung
1U2 1V2 1W2
(X) (Y) (Z)
2U1 2V1 2W1
(u) (v) (w)
lower-voltage
.systemr
Unter-
2U2 2V2 2W2 spannung
(x) (y) (z)

Therefore the apparent power in a three-phase system is calculated by the formula

S  3U Str I Str . 'Str' ~ phase

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä50_3tr_circuit
Beside the above mentioned star connection a further system primary used is the delta con-
nection.

a) star connection (Y) b) delta connection (Δ)

ULL
U V W IL
IL

S =3UStrIStr phase quantities S =3UStrIStr

IL= IStr, ULL= 3 UStr IL= 3 IStr, ULL=UStr
S = 3 ULLIL grid quantities S = 3 ULLIL

In distribution transformers a third kind of winding connection is used.

The so called zigzag connection or interconnected star connection is only used as lower-
voltage system.

c) zigzag connection, interconnected star connection

1U
1U 1V
1V 1W
1W Here the star connection is chosen as higher-voltage
system. (The delta connection would be possible,
too.)
N1 1
N

a) Bei der Zick-Zack-Schaltung werden die Wick.

b) Der Sternpunkt kann beliebig gewählt werden.

N2N
/2 2/2

c) Die Teilwicklungen werden so verbunden, dass

N2/2 diese sich auf unterschiedlichen Schenkeln und
N2/2 Ebenen befinden sowie räumlich entgegenge-
setzte Durchflutungen erzeugen. Ein mögliches
Beispiel wird im nebenstehenden Bild gezeigt.
2U
2U 2V
2V 2W
2W

Transformers with zigzag connection are insensitive against unsymmetric load in the phases.
This is normal near the consumer. In transformers with other combinations (star, delta or zig-
zag - vector groups) tertiary windings are used to prevent the saturation of the iron core.
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä51_3tr_yd
The kind of connection of windings is indicated by identification symbols.

- Dreieckschaltung (D - Oberspannungswicklung,
d - Mittel- oder Unterspannungswicklung)
-- star connection
Sternschaltung (Y,y)
(Y,y)
-- zigzag connection
Zick-Zack-Schaltung (Z,z)
(Z,z)
-- Offene Schaltung
brought-out neutral or star point(III,
(N,iii)
n)
-- Herausgeführter
open connection Sternpunkt (N, n)
(III, iii)

12 vector groups are determined by standard (VDE 0532, part 4). Transformer producer have
to use these vector groups only. The vector group shows:

- - die
theZusammenschaltung
lagging of the phasorder
of Wicklungsstränge
the lower-voltage connection
against the same phasor in the higher-voltage connection
- die Phasenlage zuordenbarer Spannungszeiger
- - das
the Spannungsübersetzungsverhältnis.
kind of connections of the higher and the lower-voltage windings and

- the voltage ratio

e. g.:

vector phasor diagram circuit voltage ratio

group h.v. connection l.v. connection higher voltage lower voltage UL1: UL2
1V 2U 1U 1V 1W
2W N1
Dy5
1U 1W
3N 2
2V 2U 2V 2W

Following principles are to mind at creating symbols of vector groups:

- the capital letter (the connection with the highest voltage) must be the first part of the symbol

- connections with the same voltage are classified according to the nominal power
D: delta
- at the same nominal power the classification follows the order D, Y, Z, I Y: Star
Z: Zigzag
- N resp. n is the last letter at brought-out neutral point I: Innerconnection
- the final numerical index of vector group multiplied by 30° represented the phase lagging of
the corresponding phasors of the l.v. connection against the h.v. connection.

examples: YNyn0, Yzn5, Dz6,....

There are 4 preferred vector groups under the 12 groups fixed by standard:

1. Yy0 step-down
step-downtransformer for for
transformer the the
interconnection of grids
interconnection resp.
of grids in distribution
resp.
grids.
in distribution grids

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä52_3tr_vector_groups
2. Yd5 generator transformer in power stations; delta connection to the generator

3. Dy5 distribution transformers

distribution transformer over
overabout
about300kVA
300kVAfor
forurban
urbanand
andindustrial
industrialgrids
grids
(with tertiary winding)
(with tertiary winding)

4. Yz5 distribution transformers

distribution transformer up
uptotoabout
about300kVA
300kVAfor
forurban
urbangrids
grids (zigzag con-
(zigzag
nection).connection)

To the Determination of Numerical Index and Voltage Ratio

The basis der

Grundlage of the following construction
Konstruktion is:
ist, dass alle Spannungen von Wicklungen
Alldem
auf voltages in windings
gleichen Schenkelof
diethe same Phasenlage
gleiche limb have the same phase angle.
besitzen.

a) Determination of the numerical index resp. the lagging between the phasors of the
higher-voltage and lower-voltage connection

a1) circuit: a2) 2. Kirchhoff´s Law (higher-voltage and

lower-voltage connection):
U1uv
Maschensatz der Oberspannungsseite:

U1u U1v U1w U1uv = U1u - U1v

Maschensatz der Unterspannungsseite:

U2v´ U2w´
U
a3) phasor diagram
U2v´´ -U2w´ U2v´

U2u´´ U2v´´ U2uv - U1uv

U1u
-U2u´´
U1v
U2uv U1w

VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä53_3tr_theory_group
W V
b) Determination of the voltage ratio
The modification of the amplitude of the voltage happens on the way from the higher-voltage
terminals to the lower-voltage terminals by two reasons.
- by circuit-logic reasons ( e.g. transition from line to phase quantities) and
- the reason of voltage ratio (Faraday´s Law).

The product of all modifications, analog to amplifiers in series, results in the voltage ratio.
For the transformer with the vector group Yd5 therefore results:
Yz5


U 1uv U 1uv U 1u U 2u N 1 2 N1
    3 1  
 U 2uv
U 2uv U 1u U 2u N2 3 3N 2
2

keep in mind:
Bei Drehstromtransformatoren kann das Spannungsübersetzungsverhältnis
vom Windungszahlverhältnis abweichen!

To the Determination of the Numerical Index by Experiment

1. Die Schaltgruppe ist Yz (Die Kennzahl

wird eine ungerade Ziffer sein; Dz führt
immer zu geraden Kennzahlen)

2. Gemessen wurden:

- die Spannungen der Oberspannungsseite

U1UV= U1VW = U1WU =600V

- die Spannungen der Unterspannungsseite

U2UV= U2VW = U2WU =400V

- Die Beziehung zwischen Ober- und Unter-

spannungseite wird durch eine Verbindung
zwischen den Klemmen 1U und 2U
hergestellt (Gleiches Potential).

2U 2V 2W - Messung der Spannungen zwischen den

offenen Oberspannungs- und Unterspan-
nungsklemmen U1W2V= 720V,
U1V2V= U1V2W =
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä54_3tr_exp_group
3. Steps of the Construction of the Phasor Diagram

The basis of the following construction is:

Measured voltages are distances in the phasor diagram!!!

3.1 triangle of the line voltages of the higher-voltage terminals (length corresponding to 600V)

3.2 Circle around 1U - because of wired connection identical with 2U (radius corresponding to 400V).
At this circle are located the potentials of the terminals 2V and 2W.

3.3 Determination of the final potentials of the terminals 2V und 2W circles around 1V and 1W.
(radius 1V – 2V corresponding to 320V; radius 1W – 2V coresponding to 720V).

(720V um 1W)
phasor diagram:
2U
(400V um 1U)

1U
2V
(320V um 1V) For the determination of the
phase angle resp. the numeri-
cal index the phasor U2UV
must be turned anticlockwise
until it has the same direction
2W
as the phasor U1UV

1W 1V

3.4.4 Parallel Operation of Three-Phase Transformers

The corresponding secondary terminals of transformers in parallel must have the same potential
for avoiding circulating currents between the transformers. The preconditions are the following:
- use of vector groups with the same numerical index and
connection of corresponding terminals at the h. v. and the l. v. connection.
- use of transformers with the same voltage ratio (the same nominal voltage at the h. v.
and the l. v. connection )
- nearly the same short-circuit voltages (allowed deviation 10%)
- ratio of nominal power less than 3:1
S1 S1N u k2 %
As at the single-phase transformer is valid, too: 
S 2 S 2 N u k1 %
VGU 2021/EMA1/Lä55_3tr_parallel
PFe = 0 PFe ≠ 0 PFe ≠ 0, Prbg ≠ 0

Mesh Equation UA = Uq +… Mesh Equation UA = Uq +…+PFe / IA Power Balance UA IA= … P

Uq {PFe = 0} Uq {PFe ≠ 0}

P (at shaft)
cɸp {PFe = 0} cɸp {PFe ≠ 0}

cɸp {PFe ≠ 0}IA M = P/2πn

Mi {PFe = 0}

Mi {PFe ≠ 0}
cɸp IA {PFe = 0} - PFe /2πn Legend of Indices:
A - armature
+Mrbg -Mrbg P - pole
q - source
i - intrinsic
Fe - iron
M (at shaft) rbg - friction

VGU 2021/EMA/Lä 57_Attachment 0

Generator and Motor Function of DC Machines

GENERATOR MOTOR
M

Voltage and Torque Balance of Electric Machines

1. intrinsic moment: Mi = M (moment at the shaft) + Mrbg (moment by friction)

P Prbg
M i  cΦP I A M  + M rbg 
= 2πn 2πn

2. moment and induced voltage

Motor: intrinsic torque at the air gap induced counter voltage in the armature
(> load torque of the driven machine) (< voltage of the grid)

Generator: induced voltage in the armature counter torque at the air gap
(> voltage of the grid) (< driven torque of the turbine)

VGU 2021/EMA/Lä Attachment 1

Starting of DC Machines

- A d.c. machine with small performance (less than 1kW) can be directly connected with the d.c. grid .

- A d.c. machine with higher performance can be started by two methods to prevent an overload of the grid.

1. Reduced-Voltage Starting 2. Rotor Resistance Starting

Starting with reduced or Starting with additional serial resistors
controllable armature voltage in the armature circuit

Breaking of DC Machines

VGU 2021/EMA/Lä Attachment 2

Phasor Diagram in Real Transformers

Transformer in Short-Circuit Operation

U1

U2

I1
I2

Transformer in No-Load Operation

Components of Transformers in the Equivalent Circuit

N1 /N2 = 1

Vollständiges reduziertes Ersatzschaltbild für den Transformator

R1 jL1 jL2´ R2´

I1 I2´
I0
R1I1 jL1I1 jL2´I2´ R2´I2´
ZLast´
Load
U1 jLh Uh RFe U2 ´

I IFe

FHF 2003/EMA1/Lä40_tr_ersatz

VGU 2021/EMA/Lä Attachment 3

 Calculation of Voltage, Current and Power
of a Symmetrical Three-Phase System

1. Circuit
Delta Connection Star Connection

L1 U UV I1 I1Y  I StrUY

L2 U VW U WU
L3
N
W2 U1 U1
IStrW  I StrU 
U StrUY
U Str
W2 U2 U StrVY
V2

W1 U2
V2 V1 W1 V1

2. Voltages and Currents (Phasor Diagram)

U UV
UStr  UUV U StrY 
3
I1
IStr  IStrY  I1Y
3

U UV
U WU

I StrU I StrW
I3
I StrW I StrU U UV
I StrV
U StrU
U VW U WU
I StrV
U StrW U StrV
I2
 I StrW
U VW

3. Power

Phase Quantities(  ) Grid Quantities Phase Quantities( Y )

Apparent Power S: 3  U Str I Str  3  U UV I1/Y  3  U StrY I StrY

Active Power P: 3  UStr IStrcos  3  U UV I1 / Ycos  3  UStrY IStrY cos

Reactive Power Q: 3  UStr IStrsin  3  U UV I1 / Ysin  3  UStrY IStrY sin

VGU 2017/EMA1/Lä56 three_phase_system Attachment 4

 Phasor Diagram Circuit Voltage Ratio
Vector Group Higher- Lower- Higher- Lower- UL1/UL2
Voltage Voltage
V v U V W u v w
Dd0 N1/N2
U W u w
V v U V W u v w
Yy0 N1/N2
U W u w
V v U V W u v w
Dz0 2N1/3N2
U W u w
V u U V W
Dy5 w
N1/√3N2
U W v u v w
V u U V W
Yd5 w √3N1/N2
U W v u v w
V u U V W
Yz5 w 2N1/√3N2
U W v u v w
V w u U V W
Dd6 N1/N2
U W v u v w
V w u U V W
Yy6 N1/N2
U W v u v w
V w u U V W
Dz6 2N1/3N2
U W v u v w
V v U V W u v w
Dy11 w N1/√3N2
U W u
V v U V W u v w
Yd11 w √3N1/N2
U W u

V v U V W u v w
Yz11 w 2N1/√3N2
U W u

Pretented Vector Groups of Three-Phase Transformers

according DIN/VDE 532
VGU 2017/EMA/Lä57_pretentedvector_groups Attachment_5
 Formula Collection for the Examination
"Fundamentals of Power Engineering"
1 DC Machines

1.1 Power Balance

common: Pout = Pin - Ploss ; η = Pout / Pin

DC machine: PA + (PE) = PCu + PFe + Prbg + PBK + P

UA IA + (UE IE) = IA2 RA + (IE2 RE) + UBK IA + Prbg + PFe + P

with P = M𝜔 = M2𝜋n

1.2 Voltage (induced)

Uq = cΦp𝜔 Uq = UA - IA(RA + (RE)) - UBK (PFe = 0);

Uq = UA - IA(RA + (RE)) - UBK - PFe /IA (PFe ≠ 0)

1.3 Torque

intrinsic torque: Mi = cΦpIA (PFe = 0); Mi = cΦpIA - PFe /2𝜋n (PFe ≠ 0)

torque of friction: Mrbg = Prbg / 2𝜋n

torque at the shaft: M = P / 𝜔 = P / 2𝜋n

Mi = M + Mrbg (PFe ≠ 0)

1.4 Circuits of DC machines

separately excited, series, shunt, compound (terminals and their markings)

1.5 Armature mesh equation

generator: UA = Uq - IA(RA + (RE)) - UBK

motor: UA = Uq + IA(RA + (RE)) + UBK

shunt machine: I = IA + IE

1.6 Motor operation (losses partly neglect)

a) separately excited: UA = cΦp𝜔 + IARA

2𝜋n = 𝜔 = UA /cΦp - IA RA /cΦp

with M = cΦpIA
 = UA / cΦp - [RA / (cΦp)2]M

No-load operation: 𝜔0 = UA /cΦp

cΦp = Uq /2𝜋n = M / IA

b) series machine:

Interval 1: Φp = k1IA Giai doan chuyen tiep

R  RE M

UA
 A IA 
ck1M ck1 ck1

Interval 2: Φ p = k2 Giai doan bao hoa

U A RA  RE M
  M IA 
ck 2 (ck2 ) 2 ck 2

2 Transformers

Single-Phase Transformer

2.1 Ratios of voltage , current and Power:

U1 / U2 = N1 / N2 = ü; I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = 1/ü

S1 = S2 = U1 I1 = U2 I2

2.2 Reduced quantities: U2' = ü U2; I2' = (1/ü)I2; R2' = ü2R2

2.3 Open-circuit test:

Relative no-load current: i0% = (I0 / I1)100%

No-load losses: P0 ≈ PFe

No-load power factor: cos φ0 = P0 / U10I0

Parameter: RFe = U102 / P0; IFe = U10 / RFe

Iµ = √(I02 - IFe2); Xh = U10 / Iµ; Lh = Xh / 𝜔

2.4 Short-circuit test:

Relative short-circuit voltage: uk% = (UkN / U1N)100% = (Uk / U1N)(I1N / I1)100%

Steady short-circuit current: I1k = (U1N / UkN)I1N

 Short-circuit losses: Pk ≈ PCu

Short-circuit power factor: cos φk = Pk / UkIk

Parameter: Rk = R1 + R2' = (UkN / I1N)cosφk; Zk = UkN / I1N = Uk/I1;

𝜔Lk = 𝜔L𝝈1 + 𝜔L𝝈2' = (UkN / I1N)sinφk

2.5 Nominal Operation:

Mesh equation: U1 = I1NRk + jI1NXk + U2' (Short-circuit test U2' = 0!)

2.6 Power balance: P1 = PCu + PFe + P2

Input power: P1 = U1 I1cos𝜑1

Copper losses: PCu = RkI1N2(I1 / I1N)2

Load factor: ß = I1 / I1N

Efficiency factor: η = P2 / P1 = 1 - (RkI1N2(I1 / I1N)2 + PFe) / P1

Maximum of efficiency factor at ß = ßm at PFe = PCu:

ßm = I1 / I1N = √(PFe/PCuN) e. g. ηm = 1 - [2PCuN(I1 / I1N)2] / P1

2.7 Parallel transformer: S1/ S2 = (S1N / S2N)(uk2% / uk1%)

2.8 Auto transformer: at U1 / U2 > 1 ST = SD (1- U2 / U1)

Three-Phase Transformer

2.9 Power calculation: S = √3 ULL IL = 3UStr IStr

(both grid quantities) (both phase quantities)

IL = IStr; ULL = √3UStr IL = √3IStr; ULL = UStr

(star connection) (delta connection)

2.10 Vector groups: are different combinations of star, delta and/or zigzag connections

2.11 Phase shift: Different vector groups cause different phase shifts between
equivalent primary and always lagging secondary voltages. The
determination is possible by mesh equations and phasor diagrams.