In her research in the 1970s, psychologist Mary Ainsworth expanded greatly

upon Bowlby's original work. Her groundbreaking "strange situation" study revealed the
profound effects of attachment on behavior. In the study, researchers observed children
between the ages of 12 and 18 months as they responded to a situation in which they
were briefly left alone and then reunited with their mothers.
Based on the responses the researchers observed, Ainsworth described three
major styles of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and
avoidant-insecure attachment. Later, researchers Main and Solomon (1986) added a
fourth attachment style called disorganized-insecure attachment based on their own
research.
Secure attachment: Children who can depend on their caregivers show distress
when separated and joy when reunited. Although the child may be upset, they feel
assured that the caregiver will return. When frightened, securely attached children are
comfortable seeking reassurance from caregivers. This is the most common attachment
style.
Avoidant attachment: Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents
or caregivers, showing no preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger.
This attachment style might be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers. Children who
are punished for relying on a caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in the future.
Ambivalent attachment: These children become very distressed when a parent
leaves. Ambivalent attachment style is considered uncommon, affecting an estimated
7% to 15% of U.S. children. As a result of poor parental availability, these children
cannot depend on their primary caregiver to be there when they need them.
Disorganized attachment: These children display a confusing mix of behavior,
seeming disoriented, dazed, or confused. They may avoid or resist the parent. Lack of a
clear attachment pattern is likely linked to inconsistent caregiver behavior. In such
cases, parents may serve as both a source of comfort and fear, leading to disorganized
behavior.
Children who are securely attached as infants tend to develop stronger self-
esteem and better self-reliance as they grow older. These children also tend to be more
independent, perform better in school, have successful social relationships, and
experience less depression and anxiety.
Research suggests that failure to form secure attachments early in life can have
a negative impact on behavior in later childhood and throughout life.9
Children diagnosed with the oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct
disorder (CD), or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) frequently display attachment
problems, possibly due to early abuse, neglect, or trauma. Children adopted after the
age of 6 months may have a higher risk of attachment problems.
Bowlby considered attachment theory to fit within an object relations approach to
psychodynamic theory, but it was largely rejected by the psychodynamic community. He
proposed an evolutionary basis for attachment, a basis that serves the species by
aiding in the survival of the infant.

British psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist. He described
attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings."1
Bowlby was interested in understanding the anxiety and distress that children
experience when separated from their primary caregivers.

Thinkers like Freud suggested that infants become attached to the source of
pleasure. Infants, who are in the oral stage of development, become attached to their
mothers because she fulfills their oral needs.
 Some of the earliest behavioral theories suggested that attachment was simply a
learned behavior. These theories proposed that attachment was merely the result of the
feeding relationship between the child and the caregiver. Because the caregiver feeds
the child and provides nourishment, the child becomes attached.
Attachment is an emotional bond with another person. Bowlby believed that the
earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that
continues throughout life. He suggested that attachment also serves to keep the infant
close to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival.
Bowlby viewed attachment as a product of evolutionary processes
The central theme of attachment theory is that primary caregivers who are
available and responsive to an infant's needs allow the child to develop a sense of
security. The infant learns that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure
base for the child to then explore the world.
October 2, 1985) was a Hungarian physician who focused on child psychiatry,
becoming interested and proficient in psychoanalysis. Although her fundamental interest
was in normal child development, she spent much of her time with severely disturbed
children, which led her to research the development of the concept of self. Mahler is
best known for having developed the Separation-Individuation theory of child
development, as well as the concept of object constancy.
Margaret had a difficult childhood, rejected by her mother, and later suffered as a
result of Anti-Semitism, fleeing Europe for the United States when the Nazis came to
power. However, she was able to turn her personal difficulties and experiences to
positive results, as they provided her with valuable insight into the process of
psychological development and the needs of children in order to mature into healthy
adults. Her insights still inspire and inform many today.
Mahler’s most significant contribution to the field of psychology was her theory on
separation and individuation. Mahler believed that children exist in a symbiotic phase
until they reach about six months of age. During this time they are unaware of their
surroundings and others and only are cognizant of themselves as one with their
mothers. They do not see beyond that relationship. After about the age of six months,
the separation-individuation phase commences and the child begins to distinguish him-
or herself from the mother, thus developing an individual identity and ego. It is during
this phase that the child also begins to develop cognitive skills and master the ability to
communicate with others. For Mahler, this “psychological birth” proceeds according to a
predictable pattern:
The normal autistic phase occurs during the first weeks of life and shows little
social engagement. However, Mahler abandoned this phase later in her career.  The
Normal Autistic Phase takes place during the first few weeks of life. The infant is
detached and self absorbed, spending most of the time sleeping. In order to encourage
a healthy childhood, the mother or father needs to be available to lovingly meet the
baby's needs and introduce tender, caring interaction. Mahler later abandoned this
phase, based on new findings from her infant research (Coates 2003).
The normal symbiotic phase lasts through the first six months of life, and occurs
when the child gains awareness of caregivers but has no sense of individuality.  The
second phase, the Normal Sybiotic Phase, lasts from the first month to about 5 months
of age. The child becomes aware of the mother but there is no sense of individuality.
The infant feels one with the mother, and that there is a barrier between them and the
rest of the world. Positive stimuli (such as cuddling, smiling, and engaged attention) as
well as relief of discomfort (prompt feeding, changing of soiled diapers, providing an
appropriate sleep environment) all help the infant to develop a trust that needs will be
met, building a basis for security and confidence.
 The separation-individuation phase takes place at about four or five months, as
the child begins to develop a sense of self, separate from the mother. This is further
broken down into subphases that proceed in a predictable order:
Differentiation, or “hatching,” occurs when the child first gains awareness that he
or she is separate from the mother. They show a greater interest in the outside world
and show the first signs of separation anxiety. Infants feel most comfortable exploring
from within the safe confines of their mother's or father's arms.
Practicing occurs as the child becomes a toddler, gaining motor skills that enable
the child to explore the world independently from his or her caregivers. Brought about
by the infant's ability to crawl and then walk freely, the infant begins to explore actively,
becoming more distant from the mother—although only briefly, returning often to receive
extra support and comfort. Babies will often want to keep the caregiver within eyesight.
Rapprochement marks a “backing off” from separation, as the child becomes
anxious about separating from his or her mother and tries to regain closeness. This can
lead to separation anxiety and abandonment fears. As a child develops language skills,
this phase winds down. Rapprochement (16 to 24 months): Mahler referred to this as
"ambitendency" and explained that this behavior is representative of a toddler's
sometimes opposing desires and needs. It is during these months that children first get
a real sense that they are individuals, separate from their caregiver—which is both an
exciting and frightening discovery. Mahler noticed that toddlers became slightly more
"low key" when their caregiver was not around; but when they felt comfortable, they felt
free to explore the world by imitating adults and desiring toys and objects that others
have (sometimes taking them by force).
Consolidation and object constancy (24 to 36 months): The child becomes more
comfortable leaving their caregiver, allowing for the ego of the caregiver and the child to
go their separate ways.
Mahler proposed that early in development the child does not have a concept of
object constancy for the mother, which means when the mother disappears, she ceases
to exist. This concept is similar to Jean Piaget's theory of object permanence.
As a child matures, perception of his or her mother begins to evolve and the child
internalizes the image of her. Children who hold positive internal images of their
mothers continue to feel support throughout adulthood, while those who do not may
struggle with insecurities relating from their childhood perceptions. Mahler argued that
disruptions in the normal developmental trajectory could lead to maladaptive behavior,
including child psychosis.