GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

❖ Global Ideas and Communication

Public Sphere:

According to a German Philosopher Jurgen Habermas, "by public sphere we mean first of
all a realm of our social life in which something approaching public opinion can be formed”. It does
not necessarily exist in any identifiable space and it can be seen as "a theater in modern societies
in which political participation is enacted through the medium of talk".

Habermas also defined it as a “society engaged in critical public debate”. According to

him, for it to become a public sphere, the following condition must concur: Access is guaranteed
to all citizens. A portion of the public sphere comes into being where private individuals assemble
to form a public body. And citizens behave as a public body when they confer in an unrestricted
fashion, that is with the guarantee of freedom of assembly, association and freedom to express
and publish their opinions-matters of general interest, which implies freedom from economic and
political control (p. 49). And currently, television, radio, newspaper and magazines are the media
of the public sphere (Habermas, 1964, p. 49).

On the other hand, propaganda is information that is not objective and used primarily to
influence and further agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage synthesis or
perception or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to
the information that is presented. A wide range of materials and media are used for conveying
propaganda messages, which changed as new technologies were invented including paintings,
cartoons, posters, pamphlets, film, radio shows, TV shows, and websites.

The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky which
argues systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in terms of structural
economic causes. Although the model was based mainly in the characterization of United State
media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally applicable to any country that shares
the basic economic structure and organization model postulates as the cause of media bias.

Another theory concerning propaganda is the Epistemic Merit Model conceived by Sheryl Tuttle
Ross. Ross argues that one must consider a threefold communication, the Sender-Message-
Receiver model, which includes the message sender or the persuader (who made the message
out of his personal intention), a channel (where the persuader will send the message) through the
receiver (which is the target for such persuasion). She also added that there are four conditions
for a message to be considered propaganda. Propaganda involves the intention to persuade.
Also, propaganda is sent on behalf of a socio-political institution, organization, or cause. Next, the
recipient of propaganda is a socially significant group of people. Finally, propaganda is a
epistemic struggle to challenge others thoughts.

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Normative Theories of Communication

❖ Authoritarian Theory

Originated from the philosophy of Plato in Ancient Greece adapted by European Monarchs in the
medieval period exercising full control over the press.

Authoritarian Media Theory basically suppresses press freedom as not to encourage the people
to think and act negatively of the government. All forms of media or communication are regulated
by a governing elite group that regulates the communication process between the media and the
audience. Although this media theory could help resolve issues since it is the state or the
government that “dictates” what to be done which may guide the press and the people to support
and cooperate. In this theory, the audience usually could establish propaganda through one and
unified thinking since it is only the government voice that is being heard alone.

Theory Strength Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

1. All forms of In a one-way In an Media only

Authoritarian communication comes communication process, authoritarian serves the
Media from the governing there is no feedback model, there interests of
elite, a monarch or a mechanism, so the would be the ruling elite
dictator and in this governing elite does not stability, peace and enhances
vertical and downward know how the people and security in the power of a
flow of communication, think, feel, and behave the environment. monarch or
there will be more toward the ruling power. dictator, which
Media is
effective decision- could lead to
controlled to
making, efficiency will discontent or
protect and
be increased and even a bloody
prevent the
discipline will be and violent
people from any
maintained. revolution.
threats.

❖ Soviet Communist Model

This model began in the late 19th century and was used by the former Soviet Union, now modern
Russia, after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution when the czar was overthrown. The ruling power or
the government continued to control the press but instead of working for the personal interests of
rulers, it serves the interests of the working class but under the guidance of the party in power.
There is no democracy and freedom as there is still censorship and the press supports the
government.

In the modern world, Cuba remained under this model where media is state-controlled and owned.

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The Soviet – Communist Media Theory controls the media which is similar to the Authoritarian
Media Theory but promotes equality. It is the interests of the people that are given attention and
focus but also gives consideration to the authority of the government. In this theory, the
government may somehow control the communication process but does not totally suppress
press freedom. The state simply filters the news and information disseminated to complement
the interest of the audience.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

2. Soviet The model is a two- The media The media serves This model
Communist way process works under the the people without puts an end to
Media encouraging the leadership, any authoritative private
public to provide promoting blockades, using ownership of
feedback, which national information to media and
would create interests rather develop people's journalists
interests towards than personal skills and fulfill support the
media. agendas. their basic needs. leadership
rather serves
as a
watchdog.

❖ Libertarian Theory

The concept of this model started in the new world, the United States, when Englishmen escaped
from the tyranny of the monarchy to establish a free world and liberal thinking. This model is
opposed to both Authoritarian and Soviet-communist theories and promotes freedom and
democracy. The press or media is given liberty or freedom to create public awareness. Any
negative news and information are considered opportunity to guide the people to know the good
But, the press, unrestrained, exceeded their limits by ignoring decency and privacy and
exaggerating its information. Yellow journalism flourished due to competition in private owned
media.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

3. Press is given There is no It promotes Too much leniency may

Libertarian the liberty or freedom of democracy and harm the relationship
freedom to information and provides checks between the media and
reveal the truth freedom of the and balances to the government -
- media is press because government, members of the society
empowered to the government preventing will be caught between its
present the protects its corruption. loyalty to the government
truth be it ill or interest and or getting influenced by
good.. filters negative the press/media.
information that

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 maybe a threat
to the state.

❖ Social Responsibility Theory (SRT)

SRT gives media the right to be owned and operated by a private entity. It is not governed by a
media censorship because the press is guided by a set of ethics. Sensationalized news and
information can be questioned even if there is media freedom.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

4. Social Yellow journalism Ethics are The voiceless and There are times
Responsibility or sensationalism always vague, marginalized when the press
decreases as ambiguous, people are able to severely damaged
media can be and differ from raise their voices the reputation of
questioned by the case to case so due to pluralism some politicians
law and public as there are no and diversification through
well as self- standards in on news and irresponsible
regulation is information and people involved in reporting, leading to
exercised by the communication. it. major conflicts of
press society.

❖ Democratic Participant (DPT)

DPT exercises press freedom and lets the target audience participate or gets involved in news
and information by expressing their own personal viewpoints.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

5. The model is Communication Criticisms may be Allowing the

Democratic completely non- reach is limited accepted by the audience widely
Participant political and because it is only government as participate with
does not bolster wants local non- long as these are media activities
political control institutionalized presented and consider
and encourages media provide the objectively through alternative when
national information the use of correct dissatisfied
development relevant to small forms of media empowers the
and supporting groups of without the purpose audience to be
local culture. population. of encouraging the choosy and
audience to stand inconsiderate.
against the state.

❖ Development Communication Media

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The main idea behind this model is that the media will play a role for development of people in a
nation or to help the target population. It focuses on issues disseminated by the media considered
as a guide in the development of a country wherein the target audience participates and gets
involved.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

6. Development Helps in development The socially The concept of Encourages

Communication of local and engineered participation in this the audience
Media international projects messages were model encourages to be too
- which helps in the disseminated for social change, dependent
growth and progress a propaganda to uplifting the quality with media
of a country most control culture of of life of people not and the
especially the small the poor only economically government
group of people who countries. but also socially, since this
are unaware of the culturally, and theory
use of media. politically. promotes
and supports
development
projects.

❖ Agenda-setting Media

This model gave rise to the power of global and international news agencies to set their own
agenda, apart from rulers, ruling powers, and governments. The press makes sure that significant
events reach the knowledge of the people

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

7. Agenda- Agenda setting is Media has the Creates impact An agenda may
setting Media the ability of tendency not to over public thinking spark the
media to present/publish a on certain political, beginning of a
determine news or social, or economic propaganda
salience of issues information if it agenda. through the
with news, does not have any concept of
through cognitive notable framing.
process called significance or not
"accessibility", salient to them -
which is the when media sees
process of no value in the
retrieving an news.
issue in the
memory.

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❖ Gate Keeping Media

This theory shows the power and influence of traditional and mainstream media in everyday lives
of people. Media selects and decides which information is important and relevant for the people.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

8. Gate Gatekeeping There is a Unfiltered news or Filtered news or

Keeping sets the probability or information can help information dies not
Media standard for tendency that the public to see the help the audience to
newsworthiness. even factual real situation as to see the real scenario,
information will train them to be in therefore, it does not
not be published flexible responding support flexibility of the
if the news on- and adjusting to people in coping with
hand is not possible crisis. It can probable crisis. It only
favorable to the help the audience to makes them
government or appreciate and/or dependent on positive
members of elite constructively criticize situations only.
groups. the state.

Global Culture, Westernization and Americanization

Modernization which is normally related to the words change, progress, and development refers
to the process of adapting something to the present needs or habits. In a way, one who opts to
modernization is one that is practical and flexible.

Westernization, on the other hand, refers to the process whereby societies adopt or imbibe the
Western culture in areas such as industry, law, politics, economics, and other fields.

Americanization pertains to the action of making a person or thing American in character or

nationality.

In the study by Chi-Yue and his co-authors (2011) they carried out two cross-regional studies to
examine lay people's perception of globalization and its related concepts, as well as lay people's
appraisal of the social impacts of globalization. In their words : "The issues that are commonly
perceived to be strongly associated with globalization fall into one of the five categories:
(1) global consumer brands;
(2) information technology that promote global connectivity;
(3) geographic mobility (passport, air travel, immigration);
(4) global calamities; and
(5) international trade and regulatory bodies.

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 Lay perceivers in international trade and technology. Lay understandings of globalization also
encompass awareness of the positive consequences (e.g., increase geographical mobility) of
globalization as well as its negative consequences (e.g., global calamities). Indeed, international
trade versus technology, and globalization of consumption versus its global consequences seem
to be the dimension is that organize lay people's categorization of globalization related issues.

Others accept with open arms the advent of the globalization of the production as well as the
distribution of goods and services for the benefits that they derive from this. One of which is the
access to products which are made available to them. On the other hand, others are affected by
this especially the producers.

Enculturation, Acculturation and Assimilation in Globalization

Enculturation refer to the process of learning our own (native) culture, whereas,
acculturation is the process of learning and adopting host cultural norms, values and beliefs.
Learning native cultural norms and values of a particular society are essential for an individual to
function in a society. Enculturation is anthropological term used for socialization, both terms refer
to, the process of learning through social interaction. However, the term enculturation is only
confined to culture. Whereas, socialization refer to each and every social interaction of an
individual with other people of a society.

Since conception, baby starts interacting with his family members most of all with mother. Parents
teach their children how to eat, drink, walk, play, and behave in different situations. However,
parents teach all those things according to their own culture. For instance, Middle Eastern families
eat food with their bare hands whereas, American families use fork and knife to eat food. Hence,
children born and raised in Middle Eastern families are enculturate to eat food with bare hands.
Whereas American children are enculturated to eat food with fork and knife. Culture can be
transmitted from one generation to another. During the process of cultural transmission, learning
a culture by a new generation is called enculturation.

On the other hand, adopting foreign culture or other cultural norms and values is known as
acculturation. In this new technological era people can interact with other people living thousands
mile away from them. Due to social interaction through technology and with mass media people
learn new values. And if people adopt those learned values of other culture and modify their own
culture, it will come under the category of acculturation. Mostly, group of people acculturate
because they are influenced by the dominant culture in a given society. For instance, A Pakistani
boy SHAHID immigrates to America, during his first year, he wears, kurta shalwar; which is his
native cultural costume but after a year, he starts wearing, t-shirts jeans, suits and tuxedos, so
SHAHID acculturated; for the reason that, he adopted foreign culture .

When two different cultures becomes similar then we can say that assimilation occurs.
Assimilation is the process in which native culture go through complete change and adopt all the
elements of host culture. In other words, if one can differentiate between the host culture and
native culture after going through a change, then the process is known as acculturation. Whereas,
if one cannot differentiate between the host culture and native culture after going through a

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change, the phenomenon will be called Assimilation. In assimilation process the minority culture
get completely absorbed into dominant majority culture.

References:

Habermas, J. (1964). The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia article (1964) translated Sara Lennox
and Frank Lennox. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/487737.

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018). Introduction to
Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.
“What is cultural assimilation?” Retrieved from https://www.sociologylearners.com/what-is-
cultural-assimilation/
“Difference Between Acculturation and Enculturation” Retrieved from
https://www.sociologylearners.com/difference-between-acculturation-and-enculturation/

Other materials:

“The Media Industry and Globalization” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amzcVwKE3Oc

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