AE 429 - Aircraft Performance and

Flight Mechanics

Level Turn, Pull Up

and Pull Down

Turning Performance
What is a turn?

∆Ψ
R
r

Center of curvature

– a turn is a change in flight path direction

– turn rate is the time rate of change in heading

∆Ψ
Ψ ≡ Lim
∆t → 0 ∆t

1
Turning Performance
More definitions
– Turn radius, R, is the distance between the flight
path and the instantaneous center of curvature
Lsin φ
Lcos φ
L
Load factor and turn radius φ
– Load factor n is defined as
L
n≡ mV∞2 / R
W
–In a level, un-accelerated turn R
W = L cos φ
W
L 1
n≡ =
W cos φ
– N is a function of φ (bank angle)
only in a steady, level turn
cos φ = W / L = 1/( L / W ) = 1/ n φ = arccos(1/ n)

for level turn,

L cos φ = W constant altitude

Perpendicular to flight path in the

horizontal plane
1 r2 = R
(V∞ cosθ )
2

m = L sin φ + T sin ε sin φ

r2
0
Performance parameters:

Turn radius R
Turn rate ω = dψ / dt
ψ local angular velocity along the curved
flight path

Larger the magnitude of Fr :

tighter and faster will be the turn

Note: L and φ are not independent in level turn

2
 Turn Radius
(V )
2

m ∞ = L sin φ
R
V∞2 W V∞2 1 V∞2
R=m = =
L sin φ L g sin φ n g sin φ
cos φ = 1/ n cos2 φ + sin 2 φ = 1
1/ n2 + sin 2 φ = 1 sin 2 φ = 1 − 1/ n2
sin φ = 1 − 1/ n2

1 V∞2 V∞2
R= =
n g 1 − 1/ n2 g n2 − 1

Small R high n (large L/W)

low Velocity

Turn Rate ω = dψ / dt = V∞ / R
V∞2 dψ V∞ g n2 − 1
R= ω= = =
g n2 − 1 dt R V∞

high ω high n (large L/W)

low Velocity
High Performance: smallest R and largest ω for largest n ; lowers speed V
what is the higher possible n ?
R and ω are function of n and V Do not depend on W/S, T/W, k, Cd0, ρ
L φ D TR but T < Tmax A implying that for Tmax A φTmax A
1 1 1
n= nmax = =
cos φ cos φmax cos φTA max
2
Level turn: D = T; L = n W = ½ ρ V2 S CL 1 2nW
T= ρV 2 S CD0 + K
L/D = n W/T 2 ρV 2 S
1
ρV 2 S CD0
1/ 2
C
2 T 1 L T 1
nmax = − ρV 2 = 1 ≤ n ≤ nmax nmax = ρV 2 L max
K (W / S ) W max 2 W /S DW max 2 W /S

3
Minimum Turn Radius
Minimum turn radius
– Stall speed in straight and level flight (L = W) is
2W
Vs =
ρ∞SCLmax

– In a level turn, stall speed becomes (L=nW)

2 nW
Vsturn = Vsturn = Vs n
ρ∞SCLmax
– Which suggests that
– Replacing Vs with Vsturn in the turn radius equation gives
the aerodynamic limit on minimum turn radius
Vs2 Vs2 n Vs2
Rmin = turn
= =
g n2 − 1 g n2 − 1 1
g 1− 2
n

Level Turn Chart

4
Pull-Up
Consider a turn in the vertical plane: wing-
level Pull-Up (instantaneous turn)
– Different from level turn (constant flight properties)
– The radial forces are:
at t = 0; θ = 0
Fr = L − W = W ( n − 1)
R θ
V 2 W V∞2
=m ∞ =
R g R
– Solving for R: L>W
V∞2 θ=0
R=
g (n − 1) L=W
– And for turn rate: W
V g ( n − 1) W
ω= ∞ =
R V∞

Pull-Down
Now, look at another instantaneous turning maneuver in the
vertical plane -- a “split s”
– Using the same approach as
for a Pull-Up

at t = 0; θ = 0
V∞2 V∞2
m = L +W R=m
R L +W W
V∞2 L
R=
g (n + 1)
g (n + 1) R
ω=
V∞
– The rate is improved θ
and the radius is enlarged
over pull-ups

5
Limiting cases: n large

Effect of W/S (wing loading) and Clmax

– When n is large,
V2 gn
n +1 ≈ n −1 ≈ n R ≈ ∞ , ω≈
gn V∞
2L
– Recalling that V∞2 =
ρ∞SCL

– Substituting, we obtain radius and rate of turn

2L 2 W
R= R=
ρ∞SCL g (L / W ) ρ∞CL g S

gn
ω= ρ∞CL n
2L
ρ∞SCL
ω=g
( )
2W
S

For minimum turn radius and maximum turn rate

– Maximize both CL and load factor

2 W ρ∞CLmax nmax
Rmin =
ρ∞ gCLmax S
ωmax = g
2W ( )
S
– Practical constraints on load factor
– nmax is a function of CLmax;
– at low speeds it will be limited by the aerodynamic lifting capability
(stall) of the lifting surfaces
1 CL
nmax = ρ∞V∞2 max
2 W
S
– at high speeds, structural loads on the airframe may also limit nmax

– for many airplanes, the other force balance (T = D) governs the

minimum turn radius and the maximum turn rate -- turn
performance is limited by available thrust

6
 constraints on V
– V as small as possible for Rmin and ωmax
L = n W = ½ ρ V2 S CL
2nW 2nW
V∞ = CL = CL max VStall =
ρ∞ SCL ρ∞ SCL max
– Rmin does not necessarily correspond to nmax
1 ≤ n ≤ nmax
V∞2 2q∞ ∂R
R= = =0
g n2 − 1 g ρ∞ n 2 − 1 ∂q∞
4k (W / S )
Rmin =
g ρ ∞ (T / W ) 1 − 4kCDo /(T / W )2
ωmax = q∞ ρ ∞ /(W / S )[(T / W ) /(2k ) − (CDo / k )1/ 2 ]
nR min = 2 − 4kCDo /(T / W )2
V∞ R min = 4k (W / S ) /( ρ∞ (T / W ))

V-n diagram
the V-n diagram illustrates 2 of these constraints

CL max

Corner Velocity or
maneuver velocity
2nmax W
V* =
ρ∞ CL max S

7
Aerodynamic and structural limits on turn
performance

Aerodynamic and thrust limits on turn

performance

Aerodynamics
Wing
Design

1 CL
nmax = ρ∞V∞2 max
2 W
S
Thrust Available
Drag

Structural
(Materials/
Wing Size)