Q:- Minorities representation ?

There are two common methods of

proportional representation:
=> Minority representation means giving a fair
chance and equal opportunities to people who (i) Single Transferable Vote System: In this
belong to minority communities, so that they system, voters rank candidates in order of
can have their voices heard and be included in preference, and seats are allocated based on
all aspects of society. It is about making sure the total number of votes each candidate
that everyone is treated equally, regardless of receives. Candidates must reach a certain
their race, gender, sexual orientation, or other quota of votes to be elected.
differences. Minority representation helps to
create a more diverse and inclusive society,
where everyone has the chance to succeed and (ii) The List System: In this system, political
contribute. parties create lists of candidates, and seats
are allocated based on the percentage of
Methods:- votes the party receives. The top candidates
1) Proportional representation:- Proportional on the list are usually elected.
representation is a system that ensures that
minority groups receive a fair share of
representation in government. It is a method
of voting in which seats in an assembly or
parliament are allocated to parties based on
the percentage of votes they receive.
 2) limited vote system:- In the limited vote
system, voters are given a limited number of
votes that they can allocate to a select number
of candidates. For example, if there are six
seats available, voters may only be allowed to
vote for three candidates.
3) Alternative Vote System:- The alternative
vote system is a preferential system in which
voters rank candidates in order of preference.
If no candidate receives a majority of first-
preference votes, the candidate with the
fewest votes is eliminated, and their votes are
redistributed based on second preferences.
This process continues until a candidate
receives a majority of votes.
4) Cumulative Vote System:
The cumulative vote system allows voters to
cast multiple votes for a single candidate. For
example, if there are three seats available, a
voter may be allowed to cast three votes for
the same candidate.
5) Communal Representation:
Communal representation is a system that
ensures that minority groups are represented
in government. This may involve creating
special constituencies or seats in which
minority groups are guaranteed
representation. For example, in some
countries, seats are reserved for certain ethnic
or religious groups.
 Q:- Political parties ? 3) liberal, moderate, or progressive party:-
liberal, moderate, or progressive party by
=> Political parties are organized groups of
contrast, advocates for social and political
individuals who share similar political beliefs
change, often promoting individual rights,
and ideologies. They exist to promote their
equality, and social justice. Such parties may
ideas and influence public policy, and
support reforms to address issues such as
ultimately to gain control of the government
poverty, discrimination, or environmental
by winning elections.
protection.
There are four kinds of political parties.

1) The Reactionary party:- A reactionary party

is characterized by a strong opposition to
progressive or liberal reforms, and seeks to
restore traditional values and institutions.
Such parties often have conservative social
and economic policies, and may advocate for
the restriction of individual rights or freedoms.
2) Conservative party:- A conservative party
seeks to preserve existing social and political
structures, and resist significant changes to the
status quo. While conservative parties may
support some limited reforms or changes, they
generally prioritize stability and tradition over
rapid change.
4) Redical or Revolutionary parties:-
A radical or revolutionary party seeks to
fundamentally transform the existing political
and social order, often using radical means
such as mass mobilization or direct action.
Such parties may advocate for the overthrow
of existing governments, the abolition of
traditional social structures, or the
establishment of a new political or economic
system.
 Q:- 5 Functions of political parties ?
=> 1) They organise opinion and formulate the
general will:- They organize and shape public
opinion, representing a particular set of
beliefs and values that reflects the party's
ideology.
2) They select candidates for public offices:-
They choose and endorse candidates for
public office, selecting individuals who align
with the party's goals and values.
3) They endeavour to capture government by
constitutional methods:- They seek to gain
control of the government through legal and
constitutional means, such as winning
elections and forming a government.
4) They also criticise the governement:- They
hold the government accountable by
scrutinizing its actions and policies, and
providing constructive criticism or opposition
when necessary.
5) They control their members in the
legislature:- They exercise control over their
elected representatives in the legislature,
ensuring that they vote in line with the party's
platform and objectives.
 Q:- Public opinion ? 4) Pooling of differing opinions:- Public opinion is
formed by the collective views of individuals
=> Public opinion refers to the collective views
with different perspectives, ideas, and values.
and beliefs held by the general population
regarding various social, economic, and
political issues. It is an important factor that
5) Intensity of opinions:- Public opinion can be
shapes the decision-making process of
strong or weak, depending on the level of
governments, institutions, and individuals.
importance and interest of the issue to the
Characteristics :- There are seven public.
characteristics of public opinion.

1) Living issues of politics:- Public opinion

6) Informed opinion:- Public opinion is based on
focuses on current issues that are of interest
information and knowledge about the issue and
to the public and have an impact on their
is influenced by various sources such as media,
lives.
political leaders, and community organizations.

2) Non-identifiable group:- Public opinion is

7) Continuity and change in public opinion:-
not specific to any particular group or
Public opinion is not static and can change over
individual but represents the general view of
time due to the changing social, economic, and
the population.
political environment.

3) Widely-held opinions:- Public opinion

represents the dominant view among the
population on a particular issue.
 Q:- Conditions of sound public opinion ?
=> There are five conditions of sound public
opinion.
1) Education:- A well-educated population is
essential for sound public opinion. Education
provides individuals with the knowledge and
skills to critically analyze issues and make
informed decisions.
2) Free press:- A free press is crucial for the
dissemination of information and diverse
opinions. It provides the public with access to
a variety of perspectives and enables them to
form their own opinions.
4) Social harmony:- A socially harmonious
environment fosters the development of sound
public opinion. It promotes mutual respect and
tolerance for different perspectives and allows
individuals to engage in constructive dialogue.
5) Economic security:- Economic security is a vital
condition for sound public opinion. A population
that is struggling with poverty, unemployment,
and economic instability is less likely to have the
time, resources, and energy to engage in public
discourse and form informed opinions.

3) Free discussion:- Free and open discussion

of ideas and opinions is important for the
formation of sound public opinion. This
includes the freedom to express dissenting
views and engage in constructive dialogue.
 Q:- Pressure/interest groups ?
=> A pressure group (also known as interest
groups) of individuals organised for
promoting their special economic or some
other interest by influencing the government
or a public officer. The means used by
pressure groups to apply pressure or
influence on the government, legislators,
administrators, political parties are agitation,
persuasion, 'political sniping' public opinion-
mongering or even bribery.
Functions of pressure groups :- There are
several functions of pressure groups.
1) Firstly :- they provide information of a
specialised and technical nature to the
government, and administrators, which
enable them to make laws and enforce them,
or make policies and implement them.
2) Secondly :-they act as intermediaries between
the people and the government. They transmit
and communicate ideas from the people to the
government. They enable the people to
participate in the activities of the government.
They enable the government to ascertain the
reactions of the people to the government
policies.
3) Thirdly :- they act as a check on political
extremism. One group may demand one type of
policy from the government, while another may
oppose it.
4) Forthly:- the minority parties and communities,
and such other small groups can influence
government through their pressure or interest
groups.
 Q:- Capitalism ?
social classes based on their wealth, income, and
=> Capitalism is an economic system where
private individuals and businesses own and
operate the means of production and
distribution of goods and services. The main
goal of capitalism is to generate profit
through buying and selling goods and services
in a free market, with limited government
intervention.
Features/characteristics:- There are several
features or characteristics of capitalism.
1) Right to property:- Individuals have the
right to own and control private property,
including businesses, land, and resources.
2) Privatization:- Private individuals and
companies own and operate industries,
transportation, communication, and other
services that were previously owned by the
government.
3) Class life:- Society is divided into different
status.
4) Exploitation-based:- Capitalism relies on the
exploitation of workers, where employers pay
low wages and demand long working hours to
maximize profits.
5) Unjustified competition:- In capitalism,
businesses often engage in unjustified
competition, where they try to eliminate their
rivals by lowering prices or copying their
products.
6) Economic competition:- Capitalism is based
on economic competition, where businesses
compete to produce goods and services more
efficiently, to increase their profits.
7) Dictatorship of the Rich class:- In capitalism,
the wealthy class dominates and controls the
economy, making the rules and policies that
benefit them.