CEC502: Geotechnical Engineering I

Module 1: Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Basic

Definitions & Relationships

Lecture 7: Module 1

Dr. Sushovan Dutta

(Email Id: sus.dmcecivil@gmail.com, Mobile: 8657425431)
Department of Civil Engineering

Datta Meghe College of Engineering

Problem 2: An embankment having total volume of 2000 m3 needs to be
constructed with a bulk density of 1.98 g/cm3 and placement water content
of 18%. The soil is required to be transported from either borrow area A or
borrow area B. Borrow area A: e = 0.78, w = 16%. Borrow area B: e = 0.69,
w = 12%. Consider Gs = 2.66 for both the soils.
i) Determine the volume of soil required to be excavated from each borrow
area.

ii) From Borrow area A, it the soil is transported by truck, inside truck, e =
0.8, w = 14%, Gs = 2.66. No. of trucks required to transport required soil if
one truck can carry 10 m3 of soil.

iii) If the cost of excavation is Rs. 35 per m3 in each area, but cost of
transportation is Rs. 32 and Rs. 36 per m3 from areas A and B
respectively, which of the borrow area is more economical?
Embankment: Borrow Area A: e = 0.78, w = 16%.
Gs = 2.66

ρbulk = 1.98 g/cm3, w = 18%

G sρ w
ρd =
ρbulk 1+ e
ρd =
(1 + w) 2.66 x 1
ρd = = 1.494 g/cm3
1 + 0.78
1.98
 ρd = = 1.678 g/cm3 ρ d = 1.494 ton/m3
1 + 0.18
Volume needs to be excavated,
ρd = 1.678 ton/m3
Ms 3356
Mass of dry soil required (M s)
V= = = 2246m3
ρ d 1.494
= ρd V = 1.678 x 2000 = 3356 ton Cost of excavation and transportation

= (35 + 32) x 2246 = Rs. 150482

Borrow Area B: e = 0.69, w = 12%. Truck: e = 0.8, w = 14%.
Gs = 2.66 Gs = 2.66

G sρ w G sρ w
ρd = ρd =
1+ e 1+ e
2.66 x 1
ρd = = 1.574 g/cm3 2.66 x 1
1 + 0.69 ρd = = 1.477 g/cm3
1 + 0.8
ρ d = 1.574 ton/m3
ρ d = 1.477 ton/m3
Volume needs to be excavated,
Volume needs to be transported,
Ms 3356
V= = = 2132 m3 Ms 3356
ρ d 1.574 V= = = 2272 m3
ρ d 1.477
Cost of excavation and transportation
No. of trucks required
= (35 + 36) x 2132 = Rs. 151372
= 2272 / 10 = 227.2 = 228 trucks
Hence, Borrow Area A is more economical.
Problem 3: The subgrade of a highway consists of coarse sand with a dry
unit weight of 16 kN/m3 and Gs as 2.67. It was decided to improve that soil
by mechanical stabilization. When 5.5 kN of dry silty soil and 1.5 kN of wet
clay with a water content of 10% were added to 1 m3 of this subgrade, the
volume of the soil increased by 20%. Take Gs of clay as 2.55 and Gs of silt
as 2.67. Calculate the reduction in the value of porosity of the soil obtained
after stabilization. Take γw = 9.8 kN/m3.

Solution:
Case 2: V = 1+ 0.2 = 1.2 m3
Case 1: V = 1 m3

 d = 16 kN/m 3 (W s)dry silt = 5.5 kN Gs = 2.67

(W s)sand = 16 kN (W)clay = 1.5 kN = W w + W s = wW s + W s = 1.1W s

Gs = 2.67 (W s)clay = 1.5/1.1 = 1.36 kN Gs = 2.55

 Vv V - Vs
Porosity (n) = =
V V Case 2: V = 1+ 0.2 = 1.2 m 3

Case 1: Total volume of soil solids in the

mixed soil of sand, silt and wet clay,
V = 1 m 3 Vs = Ws = Ws
 s Gs  w  Ws   Ws   Ws 
Vs =   +   +  
 Gs  w sand  Gs  w silt  Gs  w  clay
16
Vs = = 0.611 m3
2.67  9.8 16 5.5 1.36
Vs = + +
2.67  9.8 2.67  9.8 2.55  9.8
V - Vs 1- 0.611
n= = = 0.389 = 38.9%  Vs = 0.876 m3
V 1

V - Vs 1.2 - 0.876
n= = = 0.27 = 27%
V 1.2

Reduction in porosity after soil stabilization = 38.9 – 27 = 11.9%

❖ Relation among ρd, G, w and na

V = Vs + Vw + Va Vs Vw Va Va Vs Vw
 1= + +  1− = +
V V V V V V

Ms Mw Ms wM s
 1 − na = +  1 − na = +
ρsV ρw V G sρ w V ρ w V

ρd wρ d ρd  1 
 1 − na = +  1 − na =  w + 
G sρ w ρw ρw  Gs 

 ρd =
(1 − na )ρ w (1 − na )Gsρ w
 1   ρd =
 w +  (1+ wGs )
 Gs 
 ρd =
(1 − na )Gsρ w ρd =
G sρ w
(1+ wGs ) Eq (a)
1+ e
G sρ w
 ρd =
na =
Va
= n(1 − Sr ) wG s Eq (b)
1+
V Sr

If Sr = 100%, na = 0 If Sr = 100%, Sr = 1

G sρ w G sρ w
ρd = ρd =
(1+ wGs ) 1 + wG s

Note: For Sr ≠ 100%, Equations (a) and (b) yield different

results.
❖ Prove that γ' = γ d − (1 − n)γ w

Wsat
γ' = γ sat − γ w  γ' =
V
− γw

Ws + Ww  γ' =
Ws Ww
+ − γw
 γ' = − γw
V V V
Vv γ w
 γ' = γ d + − γw
V

 γ' = γ d + nγ w − γ w  γ' = γ d − (1 − n ) γ w
❖ Prove that γ = γ d + Sr (γ sat − γ d )

W Ws + Ww Ws Ww
γ= γ= γ= +
V V V V

Sr (Ww )sat (Ww )moist soil

 γ = γd + Sr =
V (Ww )fully saturated soil
 Wsat − Ws 
 γ = γ d + Sr  
 V  Vw  w Vw
 Sr = =
Vv  w Vv
 Wsat Ws 
 γ = γ d + Sr  − 
 V V 

 γ = γ d + Sr (γ sat − γ d )
 w
❖ Prove that Sr =
ρw 1
(1 + w) −
ρbulk Gs

Vw Mw wM s w
Sr = = = =
Vv ρ w (V − Vs ) ρ w V − ρ w Vs ρ w V − ρ w Vs
Ms Ms
w
 Sr =
ρw
−
ρw M = Ms + Mw = Ms + wM s = Ms (1+ w)
M Ms
(1+ w)V Vs

w w
 Sr = =
ρw 1 ρw 1
(1+ w) − (1+ w) −
ρbulk ρs ρbulk Gs
ρw
Relationships obtained:

Gs + eSr ρbulk = (1- n)Gs + nSr  ρ w

ρbulk = ρw
1+ e
ρ d = (1- n)Gsρ w
G sρ w ρbulk
ρd = ρd =
1+ e (1 + w)
ρd =
(1 − na )Gsρ w
(1+ wGs )
Gs + e wG s
ρ sat = ρw e=
1+ e Sr ρ sat = (1- n)Gs + n ρ w
Gs − 1
ρ sub =
1+ e
ρw γ' = γ d − (1 − n)γ w

ρ s = G sρ w γ = γ d + Sr (γ sat − γ d )
 CEC502: Geotechnical Engineering I
Module 1: Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Basic
Definitions & Relationships

Lecture 8 - Module 1

Dr. Sushovan Dutta

(Email Id: sus.dmcecivil@gmail.com, Mobile: 8657425431)
Department of Civil Engineering

Datta Meghe College of Engineering

 FIELD DENSITY TEST
➢ The in situ density refers to mass per unit volume of a soil in place.
➢The methods commonly used are:
1. Core-cutter method
2. Sand replacement method

➢The underlying principle of these methods is basically the same:

1. To obtain known weight of damp soil from a small excavation
of somewhat irregular shape in the ground.
2. Knowing the volume of the hole, the wet density is computed
as:
Mass of damp soil in gm
ρbulk = , gm/cc
Volume of hole in cc

➢ If moisture content of the excavated soil is determined, the dry density can
readily be computed.
1. CORE CUTTER METHOD
➢ Take a core cutter of standard dimensions and determine its
volume by knowing its diameter and height. Weigh the core cutter
and record its weight.
➢ Oil the core cutter from inside.
➢ Place the core cutter on freshly prepared plain ground with top
cap (dolly) on it and gently hammer it until the cutter is completely
pushed in to the soil.
➢ Remove the side soil and take out the filled-up core cutter gently,
properly trim the top and bottom surfaces and weigh the core
cutter with wet soil.
➢ Find the wet weight of the soil in the cutter.
➢ Take two moisture cans for moisture content determination.
➢ Wet density and dry density of the soil can be calculated as
usual.
 900 mm

75 mm
Rammer
25 mm

Dolly
127.4 mm

Cutter

100mm Φ
106mm Φ

Test apparatus for core cutter method

 Specimen calculations for field density test using core
cutter:
1. Height of the cutter: 12.5 cm

2. Internal diameter of the cutter: 10.0 cm

3. Volume of the cutter: Vc= 981.7 cc

4. Weight of the cutter Mc= 1274 gm

5. Weight of the soil + cutter M1= 2884 gm

6. Weight of the soil: M = M1 – Mc= 1610 gm

7. Wet density of the soil: ρbulk= M/ Vc = 1610/981.7= 1.64 g/cm 3

8. Moisture content of the soil: w = 28.1%

9. Dry density of the soil:
ρbulk
ρd = = 1.64/ (1+0.281) = 1.28 gm/cc
(1 + w)

G sρ w
10.Void ratio of the soil: e = − 1 = (2.65/1.28) -1 = 1.07
ρd

e
11.Porosity, n (%): n = = (1.07/2.07)× 100 = 51.69%
1+ e

12.Degree of saturation(S)%:

wG s
Sr = = ((2.65×0.281)/1.07)×100 = 69.59%
e
2. SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD
(a) Calibration of standard sand:
1. Fill the sand pouring cylinder with standard white sand leaving
10 mm from top and take the weight. During the entire test,
always this condition should be maintained before releasing the
sand pouring cylinder.
2. Inside diameter of the sand pouring cylinder is 100 mm. Take a
standard calibrating cylinder of 100 mm inside diameter and find
its volume.
3. The sand pouring cylinder can be placed over the calibrating
cylinder so that the holes fit over each other. Place the sand
pouring cylinder over the calibrating cylinder.
4. Open the valve and allow the sand to flow from sand pouring
cylinder into the calibrating cylinder.
5. Close the valve when flow has stopped, and carefully weigh the
pouring cylinder.
6. Fill the pouring cylinder again with sand leaving 10 mm
from top and place on a paper placed on horizontal table.
7. Open the valve again and allow the sand to flow and fill
the cone.
8. Close the valve, and weigh the pouring cylinder.
9. From step 5 and 1 calculate the weight of sand filling
the calibrating cylinder and the cone.
10. From steps 8 and 1, calculate the weight of sand filling
the cone.
11. From steps 10 and 9, calculate the weight of sand filling
the calibrating cylinder only and find the density of
sand.
 Cover lid

Shutter
cover plate

13 mm
Φ
shutter

85
mm 75
mm

200 mm

Sand replacement test apparatus

(b) Field test
1. Level an area of soil in the open field and place a tray
with a 100 mm diameter hole on it.
2. With a 100 mm diameter post auger, bore a hole of 125
to 150 mm depth.
3. Remove all the material excavated from the hole, place it
in a polyethylene sheet and weigh it to find the mass of
soli from the excavated hole.
4. Fill the sand pouring cylinder with standard sand leaving
10 mm from top and take the weight.
5. Place the clean tray on hole and place the sand pouring
cylinder on that.
6. Open the valve and allow the sand flow into the hole.
7. When the flow has stopped, close the valve and weigh the
sand pouring cylinder.
8. Calculate the weight of sand filling the hole and cone from
steps 4 and 7.
9. Calculate mass of sand filling the hole by subtracting the
mass of sand filling cone (earlier determined) from step 8.
9. Determine the volume of the hole by knowing the mass of
sand and the density of sand (earlier determined).
10.From steps 9 and 3, determine the wet density of soil.
11.Take two soil samples from excavated soil (about 30 to 40
gm) in two separate moisture can
12.Determine dry density of soil from the field
 Specimen calculations for field density test using sand
replacement method:
To find density of standard sand :
1. Weight of sand cone apparatus filled with sand (initial):
W 1= 8095 gm
2. Weight of cone apparatus with sand after release of sand
in the standard measuring container: W 2= 6310 gm
3. Therefore weight of sand in the container and cone:
W 3= (W 1 - W 2) = 1785 gm
4. Weight of sand pouring cylinder after release on flat
surface: W 4 = 7650 gm
5. Therefore, weight of sand in the cone:
W c = (W 1 – W 4)= 445 gm
6. Volume of standard container: V = 957cc
7. Weight of the sand only in the standard container: W =
(W 3 – W c) =1340 gm
8. Density of standard sand used: ρsand = W/V= 1340/957
=1.40gm/cc

In situ density of soil:

1. Weight of the sand cone apparatus filled with sand:
W 1 = 8095 gm
2. Weight of the sand cone apparatus with sand after
release in the pit and cone: W 2 = 5515 gm
3. Therefore weight of sand in the pit and cone:
W 3 = (W 1 - W 2 ) = 2580 gm
4. Weight of sand filled in the cone: W c =445 gm

5. Weight of sand filled in pit alone: W s= (W 3 – W c) = 2135 gm

6. Weight of wet soil collected from the pit: W= 2532 gm

7. Dry density of standard sand used (from step 8 of

determining density of standard sand): ρsand = 1.40 gm/cc

8. Volume of the pit: V = W s/ ρsand = 2135/1.4 = 1525 cc

9. Wet density of the soil: ρbulk = W/V = 2532/1525 = 1.66 gm/cc

10.Moisture content of the soil (%): w = 27.4%

11.Dry density of the soil, ρd:
ρbulk
ρd = = 1.66/(1+0.274) = 1.30 gm/cc
(1 + w)
12.Specific gravity of the soil: G =2.65
G sρ w
13.Void ratio of the soil, e: e= −1 = (2.65/1.30)= 1.038
ρd
e
14.Porosity, n (%): n = = (1.038/2.038)× 100 = 50.92%
1+ e
15.Degree of saturation(S)%:
wG s
Sr = = [(2.65 × 0.274)/1.035]×100 = 69.95%
e
CEC502: Geotechnical Engineering I
Lecture 9 - Module 3
Topic: Particle Size Distribution

Dr. Sushovan Dutta

(Email Id: sus.dmcecivil@gmail.com, Mobile: 8657425431)
Department of Civil Engineering

Datta Meghe College of Engineering

Particle size range for different soil solid types:

Boulders > 300 mm

Cobbles 300 mm – 80 mm
Coarse 80 mm – 20 mm
Gravel
Fine 20 mm – 4.75 mm
Coarse 4.75 mm – 2.00 mm

Sand Medium 2.00 mm – 0.425 mm

Fine 0.425 mm – 0.075 mm
Silt 0.075 mm – 0.002 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm
 GRAIN SIZE/ PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

Sieve Analysis Sedimentation/ Wet Analysis

(Dry Sieving/ Wet Sieving) (Usually Hydrometer Analysis)
[Grain Size < 75μ]
*Not applicable for D < 0.2μ

Gravel Analysis Sand Analysis

[Grain Size (D) > 4.75 mm] [75μ < Grain Size < 4.75 mm]
Introduction :
➢ The average representation of the sizes of particles in soils
drawn on semi logarithmic plot having diameter size on
logarithmic scale and percent finer on arithmetic scale,
represents the grain size distribution of a soil.
➢Three general procedure of analysis are adopted to achieve
final gradation curve:
❖Dry sieving: It is used for clean sand and gravels. The soil is
placed on the top sieve of the sieve rack and sieved.
❖Wet sieving: The soil containing silt and clay must first be
washed to remove the fine particles which pass through 75 μ
sieve. The material retained on 75 μ sieve can then be dry sieved.
❖Sedimentation analysis: The material passing through 75μ sieve
is collected and used for sedimentation analysis.
 Sieve Analysis

The sieve analysis is used for grain size distribution of the soil portion
that is cohesionless and grain size larger than 75μm (0.075 mm).

Apparatus and accessories required:

a. Sieve analysis:
1. Set of sieve (from 80 mm to 0.075 mm)
2. Sieve shaker
3. Balance of 0.1 gm accuracy
4. Drying oven
5. Porcelain dishes for drying sample
6. Wash bottles
 Scoop Wooden mallet

Soil tray

spatula

Soil Processing by Pulverization

➢ Fully representative soil sample as received from the field is first air/ oven dried.
➢ Take raw dry soil to a big sized Galvanized iron tray. Pound the soil with the
rubber/wooden mallet until all the big soil clods and lumps are properly broken.
➢ After pounding, the overall soil is thoroughly mixed with a scoop so that proper
representative soil sample can be taken.
➢ Place 1000 or 500 gm of this representative sample in a small enameled tray.
This is required for gravel analysis. The hygroscopic moisture content should be
known, if the soil is air dried or kept outside oven for a long duration.
Gravel analysis (Wet Sieving):
1. The first stage is meant for gravelly soils. Soak 500 g of air-dry soil
in the tray. The hygroscopic moisture content must be known to
calculate mass of completely (oven) dry soil.
2. Add a pinch of Na2CO3 to aid dispersion (or, 2 gm/lt water solution
of Sodium hexametaphosphate (NaPO3)6] and mix the mixture
thoroughly.
3. Leave the mixture for soaking for at least an hour.
4. Wash the mixture on 4.75 mm sieve under the current of water and
collect the fraction retained on the sieve.
5. Transfer the fraction retained on the sieve to a porcelain dish and
keep for drying in oven for 24 hrs.
6. Pass the dried soil through the set of sieves from 38.0 mm to 4.75
mm and record the mass of soil retained on each sieve in the record
sheet.
7. Calculate the percent soil finer than various sieve sizes.
Sand analysis (Wet Sieving):
1. The soil passing through 4.75 mm sieve is subjected to sand
analysis.
2. Take 100 g of air dry soil (soil sieved from 4.75 mm sieve)
with known hygroscopic moisture content.
3. Soak the sample for an hour in water.
4. Wash the soaked sample on 75μ sieve till almost clean water
passes.
5. Keep the soil retained on the 75μ sieve in oven for 24 hrs.
6. Sieve the dried soil through the set of sieves from 2.39 mm to
75μ and record the mass of the soil retained on each sieve in
the record sheet.
Calculation Steps:
1. In order to combine results of the gravel sieve analysis
with that of sand sieve analysis, percent finer (N%)
calculated from sand sieve analysis is modified as follows:
N  N 'g
Modified percent finer, N': N ' =
100
N'g = last value of percent finer in gravel analysis

2. Coefficient of uniformity, Cu : Cu = D60/D10

(D30 )2
3. Coefficient of curvature, Cc : Cc =
D10  D 60

Where, D represents the apparent diameter of soil particle and

subscripts denote percent smaller than D. For example, D10 = 0.15
mm means 10% of sample grains are smaller than 0.15mm
Specimen calculations of gravel analysis
(Wet/ Dry Sieving):
1. Mass of air dry soil = 500 g
2. Hygroscopic moisture content = 10.10%
3. Mass of completely (oven) dry soil = 454 g
4. Mass of water = 46 g

NOTE:
• For Dry sieving, the total soil must be oven dried before performing
the sieve analysis.
• For Wet sieving, air dry soil can be taken to wash the soil through
4.75 mm and 75μ sieves. Then the retained soil mass over 4.75 mm
and 75μ sieves are oven dried to perform gravel and sand analysis,
respectively.
The mass of initial total dry soil is calculated using
hygroscopic moisture content and that mass is used to calculate
percent finer.
Specimen calculation of Gravel analysis:
Sr. No. Sieve Mass of soil Percent Cumulative Percent
opening, retained, gm retained, percent finer, N,
mm % retained, % %
1 19 131.46 28.96 28.96 71.04
2 16 9.09 2.00 30.96 69.04
3 13.2 45.96 10.12 41.08 58.92
4 10 30.60 6.74 47.82 52.92
5 9.5 2.3 0.51 48.33 51.67
6 6.7 20.1 4.43 52.76 47.24
7 4.75 6.98 1.54 54.30 45.70
• Percent retained,% • Cumulative percent • Percent Finer, N:
= (9.09/454)×100 retained,%: = 100-30.96
= 2.00% = 28.96+2.00 = 69.04%
= 30.96%
**It should be noted from the record sheet that the last value of percent
finer in gravel analysis (N'g) is 45.70%.
Specimen calculation of sand analysis (Wet/ Dry Sieving):
1. From passing 4.75 mm sieve, taken mass of air dry soil = 100 g
2. Hygroscopic moisture content = 10.10%
3. Mass of oven dry soil = 90.83 g
Sr. Sieve Mass of soil Percent Cumulative Percent Corrected
No. opening, retained, gm retained, percent finer, N, Percent
mm % retained, % % finer, N', %
1 2.36 1.656 1.82 1.82 98.18 44.87
2 1.18 6.397 7.04 8.86 91.14 41.65
3 0.600 2.624 2.89 11.75 88.25 40.33
4 0.425 3.693 4.07 15.82 84.18 38.47
5 0.212 5.686 6.26 22.08 77.92 35.61
6 0.125 5.343 5.88 27.96 72.04 32.92
7 0.075 3.099 3.41 31.37 68.63 31.36
**N's = last value of percent finer in sand
Corrected Percent finer, analysis = 31.36%
N  N 'g
N' = = (98.18× 45.70)/100 = 44.87%
100