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Seaweed sap: a sustainable way to

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improve productivity of maize in
North-East India
a a a
Jayanta Layek , Anup Das , Gandhiji Idupaganti Ramkrushna ,
b c
Khanjan Trivedi , Daina Yesuraj , Muruganandham
c b bc
Chandramohan , Denish Kubavat , Pradeep Kumar Agarwal &
bc
Arup Ghosh
a
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Research Complex
for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya, India
b
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)-Central Salt & Marine
Chemicals Research Institute Premises, G. B. Marg, Bhavnagar
364002, Gujarat, India
c
CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, G. B.
Marg, Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India
Published online: 11 Mar 2015.

To cite this article: Jayanta Layek, Anup Das, Gandhiji Idupaganti Ramkrushna, Khanjan Trivedi,
Daina Yesuraj, Muruganandham Chandramohan, Denish Kubavat, Pradeep Kumar Agarwal & Arup
Ghosh (2015): Seaweed sap: a sustainable way to improve productivity of maize in North-East India,
International Journal of Environmental Studies

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 International Journal of Environmental Studies, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2015.1010855

Seaweed sap: a sustainable way to improve

productivity of maize in North-East India
JAYANTA LAYEK†*, ANUP DAS†, GANDHIJI IDUPAGANTI RAMKRUSHNA†,
KHANJAN TRIVEDI‡, DAINA YESURAJ§, MURUGANANDHAM
CHANDRAMOHAN§, DENISH KUBAVAT‡, PRADEEP KUMAR AGARWAL‡,§ AND
ARUP GHOSH‡,§*
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†Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam,
Meghalaya, India; ‡Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR)-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute Premises,
G. B. Marg, Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India; §CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research
Institute, G. B. Marg, Bhavnagar 364002, Gujarat, India

The average productivity of Maize in the north-east hill region of India is very low (1.50 t/ha)
mainly owing to cultivation under nutrient-starved conditions. Practical technologies have been
developed to cultivate two commercially important seaweeds, viz. Kappaphycus alvarezii and
Gracilaria edulis in tropical waters. The sap of these seaweeds has turned out to be a low-cost
potent plant biostimulant when applied as foliar spray. A field experiment was conducted using dif-
ferent concentrations of both the seaweed saps in a research farm at Umiam, Meghalaya to study
their impact on growth, yield and quality of maize. Results indicated that both the seaweed saps
significantly improved the grain yield (10.5–13.1%), carbohydrate (12.3–17.4%) and protein con-
tent (4.8%) of maize over and above the control which received the recommended dose of
fertilizers only. Thus, these seaweed saps are proved to be an eco-friendly means for enhancing
maize productivity and quality in this economically backward region.

Keywords: Kappaphycus alvarezii; Gracilaria edulis; Biostimulant; Maize

Introduction

The north-east part of India, comprising seven states, is a resource rich region, yet is
less agriculturally productive than the rest of the India. The farmers of this region are
reluctant to use chemical fertilizers, and so the problem cannot be easily solved. Fertilizer
use is as low as 5 kg/ha in some of the region’s states, compared to the national average
of 144 kg/ha [1]. Since there is growing concern about the serious environmental conse-
quences of using chemical fertilizers, sustainable management systems such as organic
farming offer a solution. The low use of fertilizers in this region may have been a blessing
in disguise with respect to preserving the pristine quality of soil; nevertheless, crop pro-
ductivity must be improved to achieve food security and to avoid social unrest in an
increasing regional population.
The north-east of India has a deficit of 8.33% in food grain production, insufficient even
for the needs of the region’s population. Integrating the economy of this region to that of

*Corresponding author. Email: arupghosh@csmcri.org

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

 2 J. Layek et al.

the mainland has long been a government priority and improving crop productivity in a
sustainable manner will alleviate backwardness in the north-east. Maize is a major staple
food in the region. Maize is cultivated in an area of about 0.17 M ha with productivity of
1.50 t/ha, which is below India’s national average productivity of 1.84 t/ha [2]. The low
maize productivity mainly follows from inadequate plant nutrition and cultivation of local
cultivars [3]. The farmers of the region have small and marginal holdings [4] and cultivate
maize, mainly in uplands and sloping lands. Maize is an important cereal that serves as a
staple food, as well as being an ingredient in many industrial products including starch,
oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food sweeteners, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, film, textile,
gum, package, paper industries, etc. [5]. Thus, enhanced productivity at low cost in a
sustainable manner is the objective.
Sustainable agricultural production means using natural resources to generate increased
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productivity as farm incomes, especially for low-income groups, without depleting the nat-
ural resource base. In this context, seaweed extracts can substantially boost farm productiv-
ity without any negative consequences to the environment. Seaweed extracts are also
within the scope of organic agriculture, which is a production management system that
aims to promote and enhance ecosystem health by ecological soil management practices,
with minimal use of chemicals, making best use of local natural resources [6].
Seaweed extract is a cheap organic source of fertilizers [7]. Application of seaweeds as
fertilizers and their importance in crop productivity have been reported by many authors
[8–14]. The seaweed extracts have been shown to contain many bioactive substances that
favourably affect yield and quality of several crops. They contain, besides plant essential
macro- and micro-nutrients, several plant growth regulators such as IAA, gibberellins,
cytokinins, choline chloride and glycine betaine that are responsible for bringing out many
physiological responses in plants. These lead to better crop productivity and enhancement
of quality [15,16]. If seaweed-based biostimulants are to be used as an effective means of
improving agricultural productivity, the availability of their biomass in plenty is one of the
major criteria. India, having a long coastline with a 12 nautical-mile territorial sea and an
exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles, has the potential to cultivate seaweeds on
a large scale. With shrinking resources available on land, it is inevitable to look seawards
for food, fertilizers, chemicals and energy [17]. Realizing this, the Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSIR-CSM-
CRI) has begun to develop practical cultivation technology of commercially important sea-
weeds, Kappaphycus alvarezii [18] and Gracilaria edulis in India, which has now finally
culminated in large-scale farming of this seaweed in shallow coastal waters (figure 1(a–c))
for production of biostimulants and phycocolloids.
The present study investigates the use of liquid seaweed sap of Kappaphycus alvarezii
and Gracilaria edulis on maize crop as a biostimulant in the north-east hill region of India.
Kappaphycus alvarezii, although a native of the Philippines, has been introduced and
domesticated in many countries including Indonesia, Mexico, Fiji, Vietnam, Brazil, China
and India for commercial cultivation [19]. In India, it was introduced for the first time by
the CSMCRI and thereafter its cultivation technology was perfected. Currently, K. alvarezii
is acclimatized and also is being extensively farmed on the east coast of Mandapam in
Tamilnadu and along the west coast in Diu [20] and more recently along the Gujarat coast.
Gracilaria edulis is a widespread native seaweed, and there are only a few reports of its
use as a biostimulant [21] for improving crop productivity. This report is the first, to the
best of our knowledge, on using it for increasing maize grain production.
 Improve productivity of maize in India 3
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Figure 1. Source: (a) Aquagri Processing Private Ltd; (b) and (c) CSIR-CSMCRI’s Marine Algal Research
Station (MARS), Mandapam, Tamilnadu.
 4 J. Layek et al.

Materials and methods

Experimental site
The field experiment was conducted during the Kharif season of 2012 at the upland
Agronomy Research farm (980 m ASL) of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) Research Complex for the north eastern hill region, Umiam, Meghalaya. The tem-
perature in this region is moderate throughout most of the year except for the few months
of winter. The maximum temperature ranges from 26 to 29 °C in the months of March to
October. In the winter, the minimum temperature rarely goes below 5 °C. The daily mini-
mum temperatures tend to rise from January and maintain the trend till the month of June
and decrease from July onwards. In any year, the maximum relative humidity generally
ranges above 80%, while the minimum relative humidity rarely goes below 50%. The
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mean annual evaporation was about 850 mm. The mean annual rainfall was 2450 mm. The
soil of the site was sandy clay loam with pH 5.2 (1:2.5 soil: water). The experimental soil
contained 1.92% organic carbon, available nitrogen (257.10 kg/ha), available phosphorus
(8.6 kg /ha) and available potassium (231.6 kg/ha).

Experimental design and treatments

The experiment comprised nine foliar treatments with different concentrations of sap
derived from two seaweeds (Kappaphycus alvarezii and Gracilaria edulis, herein after
referred to as K-sap and G-sap, respectively) along with one control, which was water
spray of equivalent volume to the sap spray solution. The sap from the seaweeds was
extracted as per the established procedure described earlier [22]. Table 1 shows the typical
composition of Kappaphycus alvarezii and Gracilaria edulis sap used as a biostimulant in
this study. The treatments were as follows: T1: Water spray (Control), T2: 2.5% K-sap, T3:

Table 1. Composition of K. alvarezii and G. edulis sap.

Amount in ppm
Constituents Kappaphycus alvarezii sap Gracilaria edulis sap

Indole 3-acetic acid (IAA) 26.52 8.67

Zeatin 19.65 3.13
Gibberellin (GA3) 23.65 ND
Choline 57.30 35.75
Glycine betaine 79.33 62.96
Betain aldehyde Present Present
Na+ 198.0 1952.0
K+ 33,654 682.1
Ca2+ 321.0 352.0
Mg2+ 1112.0 311.0
Zn2+ 4.7 0.628
Mn2+ 2.1 32.9
Fe2+ 86.1 12.67
Cr3+ 32.0 0.204
Cu2+ 0.65 0.044
Ni3+ 3.45 0.212
P3+ 17.45 ND

Note: ND, not detected.

 Improve productivity of maize in India 5

5.0% K-sap, T4: 10% K-sap, T5: 15% K-sap, T6: 2.5% G-sap, T7: 5.0% G-sap, T8: 10%
G-sap, T9: 15% G-sap and T10: 7.5% K-sap + 50% RDF (Recommended dose of fertiliz-
ers). Treatments from T1 to T9 were supplied with 100% RDF. Since very few reports are
available on the efficacy of Gracilaria sap on different crops, no suitable concentration
could be envisaged for combination with a reduced dose of chemical fertilizer (50% RDF),
as done in case of K-sap (T10). Three sprays of seaweed saps of Kappaphycus or Gracilar-
ia were sprayed thus: V6 stage, i.e. the stage of the plant when the leaf collar of the sixth
leaf is clearly visible 33 days after sowing (DAS); second, at flowering (silking) stage (63
DAS); and the third, at the filling stage (83 DAS). The treatments were distributed in a
randomized block design with three replications.

Crop management
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The fertilizers were applied at the rate of 80:60:40 kg/ha of N: P2O5: K2O, which is the
recommended dose for this region. The sources of fertilizers were urea for N; Single super
phosphate for P and Muriate of potash for K. A half dose of nitrogen and a full dose of
phosphorus and potassium were applied as basal dose before transplanting. The remaining
half of nitrogen was applied as top dressing at 30 DAS and 60 DAS. The maize variety
used for the study was DA 61 A. Sowing of maize took place with the onset of the mon-
soon (2 May 2012). Thinning of excess plants and gap filling was carried out 15 DAS to
maintain optimum plant population. The crop was harvested at physiological maturity on
17 August, 2012.

Sampling and analysis

The plant samples, collected after harvesting the crop, were dried, ground and kept in
polythene packets after labelling for chemical analysis. Initial composite soil samples
(15 cm depth) were taken from a number of spots in the experimental area. These soil
samples were collected, thoroughly mixed, dried in shade, ground and sieved through a 2-
mm sieve and stored. Mechanical analysis of soil was done by hydrometer method [23].
Similarly, after the harvest of the crop, soil samples were collected from each plot to deter-
mine the soil fertility status. Biometric observations were carried out in maize at 30-days
interval, viz. 30, 60, 90 DAS and at harvest. All the yield parameters and yield observa-
tions were recorded at physiological maturity. The N content in seed of maize was esti-
mated from the samples collected at harvest. Standard procedures were used to determine
the N, P and K status [24,25]. Carbohydrate was extracted [26] and determined using a
spectrophotometer [27] and the protein content was determined using the Bradford method
[28]. Similarly, standard procedures were used to analyse the nutrient content in soil.

Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis of the data was achieved by the analysis of variance method [29]. The
significance of different sources of variation was tested by the ‘Error Mean Square
Method’ of Fisher Snedecor’s ‘F’-test at probability level 0.05. The significant differences
between treatment means were analysed with least significant difference at p < 0.05 and
where no significant difference was found, this was shown as non-significant (NS). The
data recorded from the experiment were analysed statistically using the MSTAT statistical
software (MSTAT-C 1991, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI).
 6 J. Layek et al.

Results
Growth and physiological parameters
The plant height of maize was not significantly influenced by the different concentrations
of two types of seaweed sap (K-sap and G-sap) up to 60 DAS. At 90 DAS and harvest,
15% K-sap and 15% G-sap, being at par with 10% concentrations of the respective saps,
recorded significantly higher plant height than the rest of the treatments. Application of
7.5% K-sap + 50% RDF recorded lowest plant height of maize (table 2). In case of dry
matter accumulation, both the treatments, 15% K-sap and G-sap, recorded significantly
higher dry matter than control at all the observed stages. At 90 DAS, significantly higher
leaf area index (LAI) over control was recorded at 15% K-sap, which was, however, at par
with 10% K-sap. Among G-sap treatments, 5, 10 and 15% G-sap concentrations recorded
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significantly higher LAI over control; but they were all at par with each other.

Yield attributes and yield

The yield attributes like length of cob and number of kernel rows/cob did not vary with
the treatments and were recorded to be statistically at par (table 3). The number of kernels/
row and kernel weight/cob were recorded to be the maximum under the highest concentra-
tions (15%) used for both the saps, which were statistically superior to control (water
spray). For both the types of sap, 15 and 10% concentration levels were statistically at par
with respect to kernel weight/cob. Application of 15% K-sap, 10% K-sap and 15% G-sap
sprays significantly increased the maize yield by 13.1, 11.4 and 10.4%, respectively, over
control (water spray). The rest of the treatments were statistically at par with control,

Table 2. Effects of different concentrations of seaweed saps on plant height, dry matter accumulation and leaf
area index (LAI) of maize.

Dry matter production Leaf area index

Plant height (cm) (g/plant) (LAI)
30 60 90 At 30 60 90 At 30 60 90
Treatments DAS DAS DAS harvest DAS DAS DAS harvest DAS DAS DAS

T1: No SAP (water 25.5 133.0 214.1 223.6 18.3 66.4 163.1 191.2 1.73 2.80 3.90
spray)
T2: 2.5% K-SAP 25.3 136.9 225.1 233.0 19.3 69.2 168.0 196.9 1.75 2.86 3.97
T3: 5% K-SAP 25.8 141.0 228.8 236.8 18.0 70.0 175.9 202.8 1.73 2.88 4.00
T4: 10% K-SAP 25.2 145.1 253.1 262.0 20.7 74.4 179.9 210.8 1.69 3.02 4.20
T5: 15% K-SAP 27.2 151.3 255.2 264.2 18.0 76.0 182.1 213.4 1.69 3.08 4.29
T6: 2.5% G-SAP 27.4 130.3 215.6 223.1 18.7 68.8 168.4 197.4 1.67 2.88 4.01
T7: 5% G-SAP 24.6 135.7 222.8 230.6 19.7 70.4 175.5 205.6 1.71 3.00 4.18
T8: 10% G-SAP 25.2 144.8 241.6 250.0 20.3 73.6 183.4 208.3 1.68 3.08 4.39
T9: 15% G-SAP 24.6 150.7 252.0 257.5 20.0 76.0 183.0 221.1 1.69 3.13 4.39
T10: 7.5% K-SAP 25.0 119.4 203.8 210.9 16.7 52.4 137.5 161.2 1.56 2.66 3.13
(with 50% RDF)
SEm± 2.3 7.6 9.3 9.0 1.2 3.2 5.9 6.7 0.08 0.10 0.09
LSD (p = 0.05) NS NS 27.5 26.8 NS 9.5 17.4 19.9 NS NS 0.26

Note: LSD, least significant difference; NS, non significant.

 Improve productivity of maize in India 7

Table 3. Yield attributes and yield of maize as influenced by different concentrations of seaweed sap sprays.

Length No of No of Kernel Grain Stover Test

of cob rows/ kernels/ weight yield yield Harvest weight
Treatments (cm) cob row /cob (g) (t/ha) (t/ha) index (g/100 seed)

T1: No SAP 16.6 12.4 30.7 141.9 4.96 14.00 0.26 293.3
(water spray)
T2: 2.5% K-SAP 16.6 13.1 31.1 144.1 5.18 14.95 0.26 304.3
T3: 5% K-SAP 18.0 13.3 33.8 153.4 5.27 15.58 0.25 305.8
T4: 10% K-SAP 18.1 13.5 33.1 163.6 5.52 15.95 0.26 305.0
T5: 15% K-SAP 18.2 13.4 35.4 165.3 5.61 16.01 0.26 310.0
T6: 2.5% G-SAP 16.2 13.0 31.0 144.8 5.02 14.65 0.26 300.0
T7: 5% G-SAP 16.5 13.0 31.6 148.1 5.11 15.02 0.25 303.2
T8: 10% G-SAP 16.9 13.1 33.4 156.8 5.37 15.36 0.26 301.0
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T9: 15% G-SAP 17.9 13.5 34.2 163.0 5.48 15.77 0.26 315.0
T10: 7.5% K-SAP 16.1 12.7 29.9 126.1 3.94 11.88 0.25 276.2
(with 50% RDF)
SEm ± 0.6 0.5 0.9 7.0 0.17 0.45 0.01 12.3
LSD (p = 0.05) NS NS 2.6 20.9 0.50 1.35 NS NS

Note: LSD, least significant difference; NS, non significant.

Table 4. Carbohydrate, protein, N, P, K concentration (%) in maize kernels and available N, P and K status
(kg/ha) after harvest in soil as influenced by different concentrations of seaweed sap sprays.

Nutrient
concentration in Available soil nutrient
Protein maize kernel (%) status (kg ha−1)
Carbohydrate content
Treatments content (%) (%) N P K N P K

T1: No SAP 56.8 10.10 1.76 0.62 0.43 250.47 7.87 228.20
(water spray)
T2: 2.5% K-SAP 60.8 10.18 1.77 0.60 0.41 249.47 7.72 223.90
T3: 5% K-SAP 61.4 10.41 1.82 0.63 0.42 247.13 7.92 221.57
T4: 10% K-SAP 66.7 10.50 1.83 0.61 0.42 247.77 7.61 222.20
T5: 15% K-SAP 65.0 10.58 1.84 0.61 0.43 247.07 7.13 218.17
T6: 2.5% G-SAP 60.2 10.12 1.76 0.63 0.44 245.83 7.70 220.27
T7: 5% G-SAP 59.8 10.27 1.79 0.60 0.44 246.83 7.69 221.27
T8: 10% G-SAP 63.8 10.58 1.84 0.63 0.43 243.93 7.65 213.37
T9: 15% G-SAP 60.7 10.58 1.84 0.61 0.42 243.23 7.19 214.33
T10: 7.5% K-SAP 64.6 9.47 1.65 0.53 0.38 236.00 6.93 208.43
(with 50% RDF)
SEm± 0.005 0.13 0.02 0.03 0.02 6.06 0.38 5.37
LSD (p = 0.05) 1.3 0.40 0.07 NS NS NS NS NS

Note: LSD, least significant difference; NS, non significant.

except for the treatment that received 50% reduced dose of fertilizers in conjunction with
7.5% K-sap application, which was found to be significantly lowest. Among different
K-sap concentrations, 15% K-sap recorded a significantly higher stover yield, but it was at
par with 10 and 5% K-sap. In case of G-sap, 15% foliar spray recorded highest stover
yield and was at par with 10% G-sap (table 3).
 8 J. Layek et al.

Grain quality parameters and nutrient status in soil

The nitrogen (N) content as well as protein content in maize grains were recorded to be
highest in 15% K-sap and were closely followed by 15% G-sap, both of which were
significantly higher than the control. On the other hand, P and K content in maize grain did
not vary significantly with the treatments. The carbohydrate content was recorded to be
significantly highest in 10% K-sap followed by 10% G-sap, which were significantly higher
than the control (table 4). Applications of seaweed sap sprays did not change the soil avail-
able N, P and K content significantly. The lowest soil available N, P and K were recorded
from the treatment of 7.5% K-sap spray as it was provided with 50% of RDF (table 4).

Discussion
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There are reports which elucidate advantages given by seaweed-based products to such
crops as wheat, tomato, greengram and several others [11,12,30–32]. The proposed
mechanisms include better nutrient mobilization, effective partitioning and translocation of
photosynthates to the reproductive plant parts, induction of systemic plant resistance,
induction of defence related genes [15], improved root length and enhanced root volume
[11], chloroplast and chlorophyll development, enhanced photosynthetic efficiency and
photosynthesis [16], and enhanced antioxidant and activity of free radical scavenging
enzymes imparting protection from cell damage [15] at times of day-to-day biotic and abi-
otic stress experienced by crops grown under uncontrolled field conditions. These reasons
may have contributed to the observed higher plant growth and yield of maize in our
experiment.
The liquid seaweed extracts increased the growth parameters measured for maize with
higher concentration treatments being significantly better (table 2). In general, a gradual
increase in plant height and dry matter accumulation was observed with increasing
seaweed extract application. This is probably caused by growth-enhancing potentials of
seaweeds and that may be attributed to the presence of carbohydrates [33], phenyl acetic
acids [34], macro- and micro-elements [35,36], plant growth regulators like cytokinin [16]
and gibberellins [37,38]. The fact that the yield attributes like length of cob and number of
rows/cob did not vary with the treatments suggested that these were not the factors that
led to the grain yield improvement observed. Apparently, the higher number of kernels
formed within the rows without concomitant decrease in their individual kernel weight, as
evidenced by NS differences in test weight, was responsible for realizing the higher kernel
weight per cob (table 3). The number of kernels per row in the cob is an attribute that is
determined in the early stages of the development in maize plants and the seaweed sap
sprays may have favourably influenced it and eventually led to higher grain and stover
yield over control (water spray).
The harvest index of maize statistically did not vary with the treatments as these charac-
ters are mainly governed by genetic factors. In our study, K-sap significantly contributed
to the increase in carbohydrate and protein content of grain. The possible reason for the
enhancement of these macromolecules may be the protective effect of quaternary ammo-
nium compounds like glycine betaines present in sap. This prevents degradation of macro-
molecules like enzymes and complex proteins and offers stability to membranes in
response to various types of environmental stress. This ultimately enhances the rate of
photoassimilation which proportionately improves the protein and carbohydrate content.
Similar observations were recorded for Vigna catajung [39] and Vigna sinensis [40] in
 Improve productivity of maize in India 9

which sugar content was increased by liquid seaweed extracts. The results were in accor-
dance with an earlier report by Pise and Sabale [41] that protein content in fenugreek was
greatly influenced by application of seaweed extract. These researchers attributed this to
the promoter effects of these extracts on root proliferation, stimulating higher uptake of
nutrients, especially, those needed as constituents in protein synthesis (nitrogen, phospho-
rus and sulphur). Similar findings were also reported for okra and wheat [11]; an improved
quality of produce has been reported as a result of the application of seaweed extract
derived from K. alvarezii. In our experiment, we found significantly higher N content in
maize grains, and this was responsible for higher grain protein content in sap treated
plants. It has been reported that activity of the enzyme nitrate reductase, which catalyses
the first committed step of the nitrate assimilation pathway, increases by application of sea-
weed extracts in Arabidopsis thaliana [42].
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Our study revealed that applications of both the seaweed saps did not change the soil
available N, P and K significantly, but there was a numerical reduction in soil available
nutrients at higher sap concentrations. This reduction might be caused by increased nutri-
ent uptake from soil through better plant growth and yield at higher sap concentrations. It
remains to be seen how the application of sap affects the nutrient status of soil in the long
run.
Both Kappaphycus alvarezii and Gracilaria edulis are tropical seaweeds that can be cul-
tivated in seawater, under near-shore and off-shore conditions. Their sap is a green product
with a low carbon foot print; cultivation in sea does not require inputs from fossil fuels
(fertilizers and pesticides). Marine cultivation does not require freshwater or any arable
land, which are among the scarce resources of the earth. Thus, application of Kappaphycus
and Gracilaria sap is a sustainable way to enhance crop productivity without significant
environmental burden. We have reported earlier that there is enhanced carbon sequestration
and energy output by 5.5 and 15.8%, respectively, because of application of pristine
Kappaphycus sap over control in maize plants and that even higher advantages in terms of
CO2 sequestration can be achieved using modified seaweed formulations [16]. Evidently,
extensive application of these eco-friendly seaweed liquid fertilizers would go a long way
towards enhancing crop productivity without significantly increasing the carbon footprint.

Conclusion

The present investigations revealed the sap of Kappaphycus alvarezii and Gracilaria edulis
seaweeds to be potential biostimulants that raised the grain yield and enhanced nutritional
quality of maize significantly over and above the use of recommended dose of fertilizers.

Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the support of CSIR, New Delhi, for this project (MLP 0016).
We also thank Dr P. K. Ghosh for helping conceive this Pan-India multi-institutional
multi-crop project and for all his personal encouragement. We also thank sincerely the
following: M/s Aquagri Processing Pvt. Ltd (the licencee of CSIR-CSMCRI’s sap
technology) for providing sap; the Marine Biotechnology and Ecology discipline,
especially Dr K. Eswaran and Dr Vaibhav Mantri for providing sap from Mandpam field
station, Tamilnadu, India and also for providing insight into seaweed cultivation. This
manuscript bears CSIR-CSMCRI communication No. 197/2014.
 10 J. Layek et al.

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