1.

1 | Energy and Quality of Life

Overview
As an introduction to this course, we will start with some stories and anecdotes from our
ancestors and our history that show the huge value of energy and the challenges of its
use. Let us be guided with those historical accounts and perspective as we try to
understand why energy matters to us.
Within this lesson, the focus is to get you thinking about the value of energy, and how
difficult getting that energy can be—both historically and currently. You are expected to
elaborate on why energy matters to everyone on this planet even to the minute species
of this planet. And when you do elaborate and understand those reasons, you can now
appreciate and figure out the complex yet the vivid relationship between energy and the
quality of life in our society.
1.1.1 | Energy Poverty
What is energy poverty?
Energy poverty is a lack of access to modern energy services. It leads to a situation
where the well-being of large numbers of people in developing countries and some
people in developed countries is negatively affected by very low consumption of energy,
the use of dirty or polluting fuels, and excessive time spent collecting fuel to meet basic
needs. It is inversely related to access to modern energy services. Energy poverty is also
distinct from fuel poverty, which focuses solely on the issue of affordability.
According to the Energy Poverty Action initiative of the World Economic Forum, "Access
to energy is fundamental to improving quality of life and is a key imperative for economic
development (IEA)".
1.1.2 | Energy and Its Nature
Overview
In life, we always make choices and decisions that will chart the course of our future well-being.
These choices and decisions may include aspects that touch on energy, e.g., paying our electricity
bills, buying new appliances and gadgets, deciding on what mode of transportation to take, etc. The
knowledge that you gain through this course may help you in your everyday life and even in your
future career.

Science defines energy as the capacity to do work. However, to most of us, energy may simply be
the “hotness” of heat, the “glow” in light, the “gush and push” in wind, the “pound” in water, the “sound” of
thunder and the “crack” of lightning. It is the pull that keeps us, and everything else, from simply flying
apart. It is all the same, and it is all different.

Before starting our conversation about the energy industry and its role in our lives, we will first
consider the nature of energy, including its many forms and transformations. We will review systems
of measurement (like in energy and power) and even the first law of thermodynamics. In other words,
we will go over some of the basics—what it is, how much of it we use, and such things.

Definition
Energy is neither created nor destroyed. This is the prologue of the first law of thermodynamics.
Energy exists in many different forms and can morph easily from one form to another. It is heat
(thermal energy), light (radiant energy), motion (kinetic energy), and perhaps, the possibility of motion
from rest.

In science, energy is measurable depending on its form and the defined system to measure it. It can
be transformed from one form to another. By the Law of Conservation of Energy, the total amount of
energy before and after transformations is exactly the same, though it is in different forms. For
example, the energy that was in the ball resting on the top of the ramp is now in the obstacle it hit
upon rolling down.

Forms of Energy
Existing in many different forms, some forms of energy can help us do things we need to do. For
example, when it is in the form of heat, energy warms our homes, bathwater, and cars. When it is in
the form of motion, the energy carries us places in cars and trains and airplanes. When it is in the
form of electricity, it gives us light and runs our appliances and electronic devices.

There are many forms of energy, but they all fall into two categories — potential and kinetic.

Potential Energy is stored energy. It comes in several forms such as:

 Chemical energy is stored energy in the bonds of atoms and molecules of matter. It is the energy
responsible for holding these particles together. Examples of stored chemical energy include, but
not limited to, the food we eat, biomass, petroleum products, and natural gas.
 Elastic energy is stored energy in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs and
stretched rubbers are some of the examples of elastic energy.
 Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and binds it together. This energy in the
nucleus can be released when the nucleus is combined with another nucleus (nuclear fusion) or
split apart (nuclear fission). In both cases, mass is converted into huge amounts of energy that
follows Einstein’s equation E= mc2.
 Gravitational potential energy is the energy associated with the position or place of reference. For
example, a rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy because of its
position. Hydropower, such as water in the reservoir behind a dam, is another example of this
form of energy.

Kinetic Energy is the energy in motion— the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules,
substances, and objects.

 Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Together with protons and neutrons, electrons
comprise an atom as a whole. The application of force in an atom can make some of the electrons
move. Lighting is another example of electrical energy.
 Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. It includes visible light,
x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy.
 Thermal energy or heat is the internal energy in substances or objects — the vibration and
movement of atoms and molecules within substances. The faster molecules and atoms move, the
more energy they possess, and the hotter they become. Geothermal energy is an example of
thermal energy.
 Mechanical energy or motive energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to
another upon the application of an unbalanced force (Newton’s Laws of Motion). The wind is an
example of motive energy.
 Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves. It is produced when a force causes an object or substance to
vibrate. The energy is transferred through the substance in a wave.

1.1.3 | Energy Use

Uses of Energy
The primary reason why our energy system exists is for us to benefit from the services enabled by
energy. Energy allows us to be mobile and transport things from one place to another. As a temperate
country, energy helps us to cool down during the hot months. Perhaps, the list of how energy
benefits us could go on and on.

There are five energy-consuming sectors:

 The industrial sector includes facilities and equipment used for manufacturing, agriculture, mining,
and construction.
 The transportation sector includes vehicles that transport people or goods, such as cars, trucks,
buses, motorcycles, trains, aircraft, boats, barges, and ships.
 The residential sector includes homes and apartments.
 The commercial sector includes offices, malls, stores, schools, hospitals, hotels, warehouses,
restaurants, and places of worship, and public assembly.
 The electric power sector consumes primary energy to generate most of the electricity the other
four sectors consume.

Energy and Power

The terms energy and power are easily (and often) confused in casual conversation. Yes, they are
related concepts, but distinctly different. We will use them carefully throughout this course.

By definition, energy is the ability to do work while power is the time rate at which that work is
done. (In Calculus, power is the derivative of work with respect to time).

Power is measured in units of energy per time. For example, BTU/min and Joules/sec. A common

unit of measure of power is horsepower (hp). This measure can be converted to other power units of
measure expressed as energy/time. For example, 1 horsepower = 2,545 BTU/hour.

Another unit of measure for power is Watts which is equal to 1 Joule per second and one
horsepower is equal to 746 Watts. The unit of Watts is used in most of our electrical appliances at
home.

Energy Measurement
Energy is measured in various units by various industries or countries. The following are the different
units for measuring energy:

British Thermal Unit (BTU)

A unit of energy equal to the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one-pound water
by one degree Fahrenheit. It is used in heating and cooling industries.

            1 BTU = 1055 Joules (J)

Calorie or small calorie (calorie)

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius.

          1 calorie = 0.003969 BTUs

 Food Calorie, Kilocalorie or large calorie (Cal, kcal, Calorie)

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree
Celsius. The food calorie is often used when measuring the energy content of the food. Thus, it is
mostly used in nutrition.

         1 Cal = 1000 cal = 4187 J = 3.969 BTUs

Joule (J)

It is a smaller quantity of energy than calorie and much smaller than a BTU.

            1 Joule = 0.2388 calories = 0.0009481 BTUs

Kilowatt Hour (kWh)

An amount of energy from the steady production or consumption of one kilowatt of power for a
period of one hour.

            1 kWh = 3413 BTUs = 3600000 J

Therm

 A unit describing the energy contained in natural gas

            1 therm = 100000 BTUs

1.1.4 | The Philippines Energy

Demand and Supply Snapshot
1.2 | Electricity as a Modern Form
of Energy
Overview
There is an increase in the global population that has access to electricity. From 83
percent of the global population in 2010 to 90 percent in 2018, this increase in the
global population to have access to electricity is a sound result in the goal to close the
gap and disparities in access to electricity throughout the world. From 1.2 billion in
2010, as of 2018, there are about 789 million of people across the globe who remains in
the dark [1]. 
Much of the energy used in every country, and around the world, is in the form
of electricity. We certainly do not get electricity directly from nature but instead, we get
it by transforming energy from other forms into the form of electricity which is
considered as a convenient form of energy. When the electricity gets to where it is
going, it is then transformed into another form of energy to do whatever it is we need it
to do—turn on our lights, heat our water, charge our batteries, play our music. Similarly,
the engines that run our cars and equipment convert energy from one form to another—
from the chemical energy in a fuel into motion. And, all along the way, it takes energy to
manage and deliver energy.

1.2.1 | Electricity: Definition, Uses,

and Delivery
Definition
Electricity as a Secondary Source of Energy

Electricity is briefly defined as the flow of electrical charge. It is considered a secondary source which
implies that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy such as coal, oil, natural gas,
nuclear power, and other primary sources of energy.

Electricity is a natural phenomenon that exists throughout nature and may take different forms. It is
one of our most widely utilized forms of energy. Before humans are able to generate electricity,
houses were lit with kerosene-fueled lamps, food was cooled in iceboxes, and tools are used
manually.

Benjamin Franklin's investigation with a kite one turbulent night in Philadelphia is the beginning of
human’s understanding of the principle of electricity. Thomas Edison helped transform the lives of
everyone as he introduced his invention of the electric light bulb. In the late-1800s, Nikola Tesla
spearheaded the generation, transmission, and utilization of alternating current (AC) electricity, which
can be transmitted over longer distances than direct current. Tesla's creations utilized electricity to
carry indoor lighting to our homes and to power machines.
The Science of Moving Electrons

To understand the underlying principle of electricity or how electric charge moves from one atom to
another, we need to recall our understanding and knowledge about atoms.

As one of the building blocks of life and matter, atoms are made of even smaller particles. The center
of an atom is called the nucleus which is made of particles called protons and neutrons. Electrons are
another particle of the atom that spin around the nucleus in the shell and are held by an electrical
force.

The protons and electrons of an atom are attracted to each other. Both of which carry an equal
electrical charge. The proton carries a positive charge (+) and the electron has a negative charge (-).
Opposite charges attract each other. When an atom is in equilibrium, the neutrons carry no charge.

Electrons usually remain a constant distance from the nucleus in precise shells. The electrons in the
shells closest to the nucleus have a strong force of attraction to the protons. Electrons in the
outermost shells do not have a strong force of attraction to the protons. Given this scenario, these
electrons in the outermost shells can be pushed out of their orbits by applying a force. These moving
of electrons is electricity.

Users of Electricity
Residential, commercial, and industrial customers account for roughly 60 percent of the Philippines'
energy use.  The three sectors also constitute roughly 80 percent of the country's electricity
consumption. 

Reference: DOE, Power Demand and Supply Outlook 2018-2040, October 9, 2018
(www.doe.gov.ph  (Links to an external site.))

Residential Customers
The residential sector includes single- and multi-family housing. It accounts for 28.8
percent of the electricity used nationwide.  According to the results of the 2011
Household Energy Consumption Survey (HECS), almost every household, that is, 99.9
percent of households used electricity primarily for lighting. The other use of electricity reported
by the households were for electric appliances used for their recreation with 88.8 percent of the
total household, for space cooling or air conditioning (72.9%), for other electric appliances
(64.1%), for ironing (48.6%), refrigeration (41.6%), and laundry (30.7%).
Reference: DOE/NSO - 2011 Household Energy Consumption Survey -Final
Report https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/HECS%202011.pdf (Links to an external site.)

Commercial Customers
The commercial sector includes government buildings and facilities, service-providing facilities and
equipment, and other public and private organizations. This sector accounts for 24 percent of the
country's electricity consumption. The biggest single uses of electricity in the commercial sector are
lighting and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. Electricity demand in the commercial sector
tends to be highest during operating business hours; it decreases substantially on nights and
weekends.
Reference: DOE, Power Demand and Supply Outlook 2018-2040, October 9, 2018
(www.doe.gov.ph  (Links to an external site.))

Industrial Customers

Facilities, equipment, and machinery of industrial customers use electricity for processing, producing,
or assembling goods in industries such as manufacturing, mining, agriculture, and construction.
Overall, this sector uses 26.6 percent of the nation’s electricity. Manufacturing facilities use
electricity to power up various motors (machine drive). Other uses include heating, cooling, and
electrochemical processes. Electricity use in the industrial sector tends not to fluctuate through the
day or year as in the residential and commercial sectors, particularly at manufacturing facilities that
operate around-the-clock.

Delivery of Electricity
Power to the People
We all see and even experience how dependent we are on electricity in today’s time. However, we
are often skeptical about that. All it takes is a power failure or a blackout to remind us how much we
depend on it or shall I say how much we put a premium on it. Imagine your life without electricity.
Imagine your life without those businesses and industries that provide our needs. Imagine what life
could be if we go back to that period with no electricity. Will you ever survive?

Modern economies are powered by electricity. That is, electricity is indeed is crucial to a nation. Thus,
it is the responsibility of electric utilities to make sure electricity is there when we need it. Reliability,
capacity, baseload, and peak demand must be put into the table to keep our lives running.

Reliability is the capability of a utility company to provide electricity to its customers 100 percent of
the time without power failures (blackouts or brownouts).

Capacity is the total quantity of electricity a utility company has on-line and ready to deliver when
people need it.

Baseload power is the electricity generated by utility companies around-the-clock, using the most
inexpensive energy sources—usually coal, nuclear, and hydropower.

Peak demand occurs when many people want electricity at the same time. Power companies must be
ready for peak demands so there is enough power for everyone. Throughout the day, we can have
three (3) peaks— morning peak which happens usually between 11:00 am – 12:00 pm, afternoon
peak which is usually between 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm, and evening peak usually between 7:00 pm – 8:00
pm. During this peak, additional generators must be used to meet the demand. These peaking
generators run on natural gas, diesel, or hydropower and can be put into operation in minutes
because they require little start-up time.

How electricity reaches your home?

Our electricity consumption is increasing every year. One reason for this is that electricity can reach
more consumers as it can be move from one place to another. Electricity is generated through power
plants and is transmitted over a long distance through a transmission wire. Let us try to follow the
path of electricity from the generating plant to the very power outlet of your households.

First, electricity is generated at the power plant. Then, electricity is transmitted through a wire to a

transformer in a substation that “steps up” the voltage. A transformer steps up the voltage of
electricity from the 2,300-22,000 volts generated by the power plant generator to as much as
765,000 volts. Voltage is step up so that less electricity is lost along the transmission wires.

After the voltage is step up, the electricity is then sent on a nationwide network of transmission lines
called the grid. Transmission lines are the huge tower lines you may see when you are on a highway
connected by tall power towers. Then it passes another transformer located at a substation along the
lines which will reduce or steps down the voltage to 12,000 volts. Substations are small buildings that
contain the switches, transformers, and other electrical equipment.

Electricity is then carried over distribution lines that bring electricity to your home. The distribution
system may either be overhead or underground. The overhead distribution lines are the electric lines
that you see along the streets.

Before electricity enters your household’s electrical system, the voltage is again reduced at another
transformer usually mounted in an electric pole. This neighborhood transformer reduces electricity to
220-240 volts. The amount of voltage needed to run the appliances in your home.

Electricity reaches your house through a three-wire cable. The “live wires” are then brought from the
circuit breaker or fuse box to power outlets and wall switches in your home. An electric meter
measures how much electricity you use so the utility company can bill you. The time it takes for
electricity to travel through these steps—from the power plant to the light bulb in your home—is a
tiny fraction of one second.

1.2.2 | The Philippine Electric

Power Industry
Historical Overview
1890
Electricity was introduced in the Philippines
1901
Manila Electric Light and Railroad Company (MERALCO) was the electricity provider for
Manila and 57 other municipalities
1936
National Power Corporation (NPC) was created to develop hydroelectric power in the
country
1953
NPC acquired MERALCO's assets outside of Manila
1956
NPC accounted 1/3 of the country's generation capacity. The remaining 2/3 was served
by the private sector.
1960
Electrification Administration was created to expand access to electricity in the country.
Also, power distribution system franchises were awarded to the private sector.
1969
National Electrification Administration (NEA) was created. NEA was mandated to
develop the distribution networks, empowered to borrow funds and grant loans to rural
electric cooperatives (RECs), and regulate RECs for distribution of electricity in rural
areas. Ownership of distribution systems developed by NEA were devolved to RECs
which were responsible for meeting operational expenses and obliged to repay NEA for
development of the distribution networks from tariff revenue collected.
1970
Increases in oil prices, depreciation of the peso, and a substantial increase in interest
expense resulted to NPC's financial losses.
1972
NPC was granted monopoly in power generation and transmission.
1977
NPC began the construction of the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant.
1983
The government declared a moratorium on payment of foreign obligations resulting to
shortage of financing for NPC's projects.
1989
Private sector was enjoined in power generation. NEA was declared insolvent.
1993
The government arranged for NPC to enter into fast-track power project contracts with
the private sector to address the capacity shortfalls.
1996
Sharp depreciation of the peso exacerbated NPC's financial problems.
1997
NPC's contract with Independent Power Producers (IPPs) obligated NPC to pay power
producers a minimum contract amount.
2001
The Electric Power Industry Reform Act was enacted.
Electric Power Industry
The government perceived restructuring and reform as the long term solution to the problems of the
power sector in the country. The huge amount of capital requirement for new generation capacity
and the expansion of the transmission grid and distribution network has pushed the government,
given its fiscal constraints, to recognize the need for private sector participation in the power sector
of the country. Although private sector participation had been successful through the Build-Operate-
Transfer (BOT) schemes between NPC and IPPs, the power sector before 2001 was still largely a
public monopoly and inefficient. 

Thus, the enactment of the Republic Act 9136 or the Electric Power Industry Reform Act in June
2001 was geared towards the fiscal and operational efficiency of the sector. The restructuring was
focused on (a) the functional separation of generation and distribution sectors from the transmission
function through the privatization of the NPC's generation assets, (b) imposition of competition in the
generation, (c) access to the monopoly-owned transmission and distribution networks, and most
importantly, (d) the tariff structure reforms through the removal of cross-subsidies and unbundling of
the electrical bill. 

Generation
The Philippines generated 90.8 terawatt-hours of electricity in 2016. By December 2016, the total
installed in the Philippines’ generating capacity had reached 21,423 megawatts (MW)—a year-on-year
increase of 2,665 MW (16.2%) [1].

Historical resource development policies have led to each main island region (Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao) being characterized by a different fuel mix for power generation and exposed to different
risks.

In 2001, a significant block of generation capacity was developed to utilize natural gas from the
newly developed offshore Malampaya field. Natural gas sourced from the large Malampaya fields is a
dominant feature of the Luzon region.

Geothermal energy concentrated in Leyte and Negros is a distinctive feature of the Visayas region
and accounts for around half of the power generation in that region.

Highly seasonal hydro-based generation is the defining feature of the Mindanao power system.

These signature resources are supplemented by the coal-fired capacity that accounts for 40%–50% in
each of the three regions.

Oil-fired capacity remains a significant feature of the Mindanao generation mix but its peaking role in
Luzon and the Visayas has diminished in recent years due to much-improved capacity margins and
the rise of solar and wind energy.
Transmission
The Philippine Grid

As an archipelagic country, the Philippine electric power system is composed of the grid and off-grid
power systems. The main grid is composed of three major grids— the Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
Currently, Luzon and Visayas grids are connected and sharing available capacity via a submarine cable
with a maximum capacity of 440 megawatts (MW). Meanwhile, Mindanao is still an independent sub-
grid waiting for the completion and realization of the Visayas-Mindanao Interconnection Project.

The National Grid Corporation of the Philippines (NGCP) is the sole system operator of the country’s
power grid. NGCP’s transmission system network consists of 500 kV, 350 kV HVDC, 230 kV, 138 kV,
115 kV, and 69 kV high voltage lines and cables. As the sole transmission service provider, NGCP
plays a vital role in the safe and reliable transmission of electricity in response to system
requirements and market demands.

NGCP balances the supply and demand of electricity to efficiently serve all of its customers – power
generators, private distribution utilities, electric cooperatives, government-owned utilities, eco-zones,
industries, as well as directly connected customers. It is responsible for dispatching the power plants
and transmitting the generated power to the various distribution utilities which, in turn, deliver the
electricity at a lower voltage to households and other end-users. NGCP also operates and maintains
metering facilities and provides technical services, particularly system studies, and operation and
maintenance of customer facilities.

The National Grid Corporation of the Philippines placed proposals for submarine cable links between
Visayas and Mindanao, to unify the three principal grids, and between off-grid Mindoro and Luzon, to
increase power reliability in the off-grid island. While the three main grids encompass each island
group, many islands still remain off-grid, relying on localized power plants or power barges for supply.

Luzon Grid

The Luzon Grid is interconnected with the Visayas Grid through HVDC Leyte-Luzon interconnection,
a high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission line, and submarine cable with a transfer capacity
of 440 MW. The Luzon grid has the following voltage level of 500 kV, 230 kV, 138 kV, 115 kV, and
69 kV.

The bulk generation sources in the Luzon Grid are located in the northern and southern parts of
Luzon Island while the load center is in the Metro Manila area. About 53% of the total demand in
Luzon is accounted for in Metro Manila. Because of this system configuration, NGCP’s transmission
backbone must have the capability to transfer bulk power from both northern and southern parts of
Luzon to the Metro Manila area.

Visayas Grid

The Visayas transmission system is divided into five different sub-systems or sub-grids: Panay,
Negros, Cebu, Bohol, and Leyte-Samar. The sub-grids are interconnected by AC submarine cables as
follows with indicated capacity: Leyte-Cebu (2x185 MW), Cebu-Negros (2x90 MW), Negros-Panay
(1x85 MW) and Leyte-Bohol (1x90 MW). These submarine cables provide the capability of sharing
excess generation between islands to accommodate the Visayas’ growing demand. Visayas grid has
the following voltage level of 230 kV, 138 kV, and 69 kV.
The transmission backbone of the Visayas Grid extends from Allen Cable Terminal Station in Samar,
all the way to Nabas Substation in Panay. This power delivery system comprises approximately 895
kilometers of transmission lines.

Eastern Visayas (District 1) is composed of Leyte and Samar Islands. Leyte remains the power supplier
to Samar and Bohol Islands through the single-circuit Ormoc-Babatngon and Ormoc-Maasin 138 kV
lines, respectively. Also, it has a 230 kV interconnection to Cebu enabling the other islands to source
power from cheaper geothermal resources. Leyte is the site of 547 MW geothermal resources that
comprise about 30% of the total dependable capacity in the Visayas.

Central Visayas (District 2) is composed of Cebu and Bohol. Cebu can be well considered as the major
load center of the Visayas Grid. Bohol has the lowest peak load among sub-grids at 70 MW (3.96%) in
2015.

In the Island of Negros (District 3), the load center is located in Bacolod City in the northern part,
while the bulk of generation is in the southern part. A total of 95.5 MW, generation capacity was
added in the Negros Island with the entry of San Carlos Solar, Nasulo Geothermal, URC Bagasse
Cogeneration, and HPCo Bagasse Cogeneration Plant from January 2014 to August 2015.

Panay Island (District 4) had been reliant on oil-based plants until the entry of Panay Energy
Development Corporation (PEDC) 164 MW Coal-Fired Power Plant. Panay became less reliant on
power import from other islands via the 138 kV Negros-Panay Interconnection System and, at certain
times, also exports power to Negros. A total of 82.4 MW generation capacity was added in the Panay
Island with the entry of San Lorenzo Wind and the Petro Wind Nabas last December 2014 and June
2015, respectively.

Mindanao Grid

The Mindanao Grid is composed of 138-kilovolts lines for long-distance transmission, and primarily
relies on hydropower—Agus Hydroelectric Power Plant in Iligan and Pulangi IV Hydroelectric Power
Plant in Bukidnon. Mindanao grid has the following voltage level of 138 kV and 69 kV.

The Mindanao transmission system is composed of six districts: North Western Mindanao Area
(District 1 – NWMA) covers Zamboanga area and Misamis Occidental, Lanao Area (District 2 - LA),
North Central Mindanao Area (District 3 - NCMA) includes the provinces of Bukidnon and Misamis
Oriental, North Eastern Mindanao Area (District 4 - NEMA) comprised of Agusan and Surigao
provinces, South Eastern Mindanao Area (District 5 - SEMA) is the Davao Region, and South Western
Mindanao Area (District 6 - SWMA) consists of South Cotabato, Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat,
Saranggani and Gen. Santos (SOCCSKSARGEN) and Maguindanao. While the bulk of power
generation is situated in the northern part of the island, the load centers are located in the southeast
(Davao provinces) and southwest (SOCSKSARGEN) regions. Power demand from these areas
accounts for approximately half of Mindanao’s total demand.

Distribution and Retail

Distribution System
The power for the grid customers is being distributed by 23 private-owned utilities (PIOUs), 100
electric cooperatives (ECs) whose operation is supervised by the National Electrification
Administration (NEA), and two LGU-owned utilities. Power in the grid is being supplied by 199
generating facilities with an installed capacity of 21,420 MW and corresponding gross generation of
90, 798 GWh, with 70 percent from power plants being operated as baseload (48.0 percent from
coal-fired power plants, 22.0 percent from natural gas), 24.0 percent from RE. The remaining is oil-
based which are used for peaking requirements.

Off-grid power systems are commonly known as the missionary areas or small island and isolated
grids (SIIG). Electricity is being supplied by the National Power Corporation (NPC) and the private
sector through New Private Providers (NPPs) for Small Power Utilities Group (SPUG) areas and the
Qualified Third Party (QTP) providers for isolated grids. There are 23 electric cooperatives, two multi-
purpose cooperatives, three LGU-owned utilities, and one QTP in small grids. The transmission
substations with a total capacity of 170 MVA and the lines of 770 circuit-kms in off-grid are being
owned, operated, and managed by NPC.

The power is supplied by 291 NPC power plants and 30 non-NPC or private sector with a total
capacity of 406.1 MW. However, in terms of capacity, non-NPC or private sector constitutes a larger
share of 55 percent than NPC-owned power plants. The generated power has a total of 1,705 GWh
which is still largely from oil-based power plants at 96 percent and 4 percent from small and mini-
hydropower plants.

1.2.3 | Measuring and Monitoring

Electricity
Measuring Electricity
Measuring electricity is confusing because we cannot see it. We are familiar with units of measure
such as Watt, Volt, and Ampere, but oftentimes, we do have a vague understanding of these
terms. Using the flow of water as an analogy can make electricity easier to understand.

The flow of electrons in a circuit is similar to water flowing through a hose/ water pipe. If you could
look into a hose at a given point, you would see a certain amount of water passing that point each
second. The amount of water depends on how much pressure is being applied or how hard the water
is being pushed. It also depends on the diameter of the hose. The harder the pressure and the larger
the diameter of the hose, the more water passes each second. Hence, the flow of electrons through a
wire depends on the electrical pressure pushing the electrons and on the cross-sectional area of the
wire.

Voltage

The pressure that pushes electrons in a circuit is called voltage. Using the water analogy, if a tank of
water were suspended one meter above the ground with a 1-centimeter pipe coming out of the bottom, the
water pressure would be similar to the force of a shower. If the same water tank were suspended 10 meters
above the ground, the force of the water would be much greater, possibly enough to hurt you.

Voltage (V) is a measure of the pressure applied to electrons to make them move. It is a measure of
the strength of the current in a circuit and is measured in volts (V).

Just as the 10-meter tank applies greater pressure than the 1-meter tank, a 10-volt power supply (such as
a battery) would apply greater pressure than a 1-volt power supply. AA batteries are 1.5 volts; they apply a
small amount of voltage for lighting small flashlight bulbs. A car usually has a 12-volt battery—it applies
more voltage to push current through circuits to operate the radio or defroster. The standard voltage of
wall outlets in our country is 220 volts—a dangerous voltage.

Current

The flow of electrons can be compared to the flow of water. The water current is the number of molecules
of water flowing past a fixed point; an electric current is the number of electrons flowing past a fixed
point. Electric current (I) is defined as electrons flowing between two points having a difference in
voltage. Current is measured in amperes or amps (A). One ampere is 6.25 x 10 18 electrons per second
passing through a circuit.

With water, as the diameter of the pipe increases, so does the amount of water that can flow through it.
With electricity, conducting wires take the place of the pipe. As the cross-sectional area of the wire
increases, so does the amount of electric current (number of electrons) that can flow through it.

Resistance

Resistance (R) is a property that slows the flow of electrons.

Using the water analogy, resistance is anything that slows water flow, such as a smaller pipe or fins on the
inside of a pipe.

In electrical terms, the resistance of a conducting wire depends on the properties of the metal used
to make the wire and the wire’s diameter. Copper, aluminum, and silver—metals used in conducting
wires—have different resistance.
Resistance is measured in units called Ohms (Ω). There are devices called resistors, with set
resistances, that can be placed in circuits to reduce or control the current flow. Any device placed in a
circuit to do work is called a load. The light bulb in a flashlight is a load. A television plugged into a
wall outlet is also a load. Every load has resistance.

Ohm’s Law

George Ohm, a German physicist, discovered that in many materials, especially metals, the current that
flows through a material is proportional to the voltage. He found that if he doubled the voltage, the current
also doubled. If he reduced the voltage by half, the current dropped by half.

The resistance of the material remained the same This relationship is called Ohm’s Law and can be
described using a simple formula. If you know any two of the measurements, you can calculate the third
using the following formula:

Voltage = Current X Resistance

V = I x R or V = A x Ω

Electric Power

Electric power is the rate at which electricity is produced or consumed.

Using the water analogy, electric power is the combination of the water pressure (voltage) and the rate of
flow (current) that results in the ability to do work.

A large pipe carries more water (current) than a small pipe. Water at a height of 10 meters has much
greater force (voltage) than at a height of one meter. The power of water flowing through a 1-centimeter
pipe from a height of one meter is much less than water through a 10-centimeter pipe from 10 meters.

Electric power is defined as the amount of electric current flowing due to an applied voltage. It is the
amount of electricity required to start or operate a load for one second. Electric power is measured
in watts (W).

The formula is:  power = voltage x current

P = V x I or W = V x A

Electrical Energy

Electrical energy introduces the concept of time to electric power.

In the water analogy, it would be the amount of water falling through the pipe over a period of time, such
as an hour. When we talk about using power over time, we are talking about using energy. Using our water
example, we could look at how much work could be done by the water in the time that it takes for the tank
to empty.

The electrical energy that an appliance or device consumes can be determined only if you know how long
(time) it consumes electric power at a specific rate (power). To find the amount of energy consumed, you
multiply the rate of energy consumption (measured in watts) by the amount of time (measured in
hours) that it is being consumed. Electrical energy is measured in watt-hours (Wh). That is,
 energy = power x time

E = P x t or E = W x h = Wh

If you read for five hours with a 100-W light bulb, for example, you would use the formula as follows:

energy = power x time (E = P x t) = 100 W x 5 hour = 500 Wh

One watt-hour is a very small amount of electrical energy. Usually, we measure electric power in larger
units called kilowatt-hours (kWh) or 1,000 watt-hours (kilo = thousand). A kilowatt-hour is a unit that
utilities use when billing most customers.

If the cost of energy is Php 10.00 per kWh, to calculate the cost of reading with a 100-W light bulb for five
hours, you would change first the watt-hours into kilowatt-hours, then multiply the kilowatt-hours used by
the cost per kilowatt-hour, as shown below:

500 Wh x = 0.5 kWh

0.5 kWh x Php 10.00/kWh = Php 5.00

Therefore, it would cost about five pesos to read for five hours with a 100-W light bulb

Monitoring Electricity Use

Homes and apartment buildings are equipped with meters so that utilities can determine how much
electricity each residence consumes. Most homes, apartment buildings, and commercial buildings in
the big cities have digital electric meters. However, some places may still have analog meters.  

Regardless of the type of meter, the utility reads the meter once a month and charges the customer for
their electricity usage. With once a month meter reading, it is difficult for the consumer to monitor their
electricity usage. Consumers can adjust their electricity usage after they receive their bills, but it’s too late
to change their behaviors to affect their current bill.

When electricity is generated it must be used. If it is not used, that electricity is lost. Monitoring
electricity usage once a month does not help the utilities either. To better gauge how much electricity
is needed at a given time, engineers have designed new meters that more accurately measure energy
usage. This technology will allow utilities to generate enough electricity to meet their customers’
needs. These meters are called smart meters.

Smart meters measure electricity usage much like the analog or digital meters. What makes these
meters “smart” is the addition of two-way wireless communication between the meter and the utility.
Rather than sending a meter reader to read meters once a month, the smart meter sends data to the
utility every hour. Consumers can also monitor their energy usage on an hourly basis as well. Seeing
near real-time data allows consumers to make changes to their energy usage, which will have a direct
impact on their energy bill. Many utilities implementing smart meters offer services that will e-mail or
text consumers when their electricity usage is nearing a price bracket, allowing consumers to adjust
their electricity usage accordingly.

Common Electrical Appliances in our Homes

Household – a group of persons, generally but not necessarily bound by ties of kinship, who sleep in the same
dwelling unit and have common arrangements for the preparation and consumption of food.
The following situations are also considered a household:

1. A person who lives alone;

2. A person who rents bed space but plan for his own food; and
3. A group of persons who share and take their meals together but live in separate but adjacent
living quarters for convenience. 

Electricity remains the most common source of energy used by households in the Philippines.
According to the results of the 2011 Household Energy Consumption Survey (HECS), the number of
uses of electricity during the reference period March to August 2011 was approximately 18.3 million
households or 87.2 percent of the total households in the country.

Almost every household, that is, 99.9 percent of households used electricity primarily for lighting. The
other use of electricity reported by the households were for electric appliances used for their
recreation with 88.8 percent of the total household, for space cooling or air conditioning (72.9%), for
other electric appliances (64.1%), for ironing (48.6%), refrigeration (41.6%), and laundry (30.7%).

(Insert figure)

One in every five (21.2%) households using electricity reported that it was being used for cooking and
food preparation, while 15.7 percent used it for computer activity, and 4.6 percent for water heating.

In all income groups, households used electricity primarily for lighting. It was also commonly used for
recreation and space cooling.

In terms of the average consumption of electricity, the largest usage was for water pumping
registering an average consumption of 623 kWh during the reference period or about 104 kWh
monthly, followed by water heating (484 kWh), refrigeration (390 kWh), space cooling or air
conditioning (277 kWh), recreation (129 kWh), and cooking or food preparation (108 kWh). For
lighting, on average, each household consumed 60 kWh during the period or at 10 kWh per month.

(Insert figure)

A total of 16.2 million households or nine of every ten households used electricity to operate electric
appliances for household recreation. Among these appliances, the colored TV set was the most used
with 93.2 percent of households. This was followed by VHS, laserdisc, DVD or VCD players (27.9%),
stereo audio system (22.5%), and radio (12%).

(Insert figure)

The average electricity consumption for household recreation was estimated at 129 kWh per
household. Among the household electric appliances used for recreation, the karaoke or music mate
sound system emerged on top with its usage estimated at an average of 114 kWh during the six-
month reference period, followed by colored TV with 103 kWh.

(Insert figure)

Of the 3.9 million households who used electricity for cooking and food preparation, 85.7 percent
used electricity for their rice cooker. The other electric cooking equipment reportedly used by
households were microwave oven (11.4%), oven toaster (10%), blender (8.4%), and bread toaster
(4.5%).

The average HH consumption for food preparation was estimated at 108 kWh. With an average
consumption of 291 kWh, the electric stove had the highest average electricity consumption among
the electric cooking equipment during the six-month reference period, followed by an electric oven
with 174 kWh.

1.2.4 | Electricity as a Commodity

Overview
Electricity tariffs in the Philippines remain one of the most expensive in the Asian Region.
Accordingly, an overall comparison among selected cities in Asia shows that Manila has the second-
highest overall residential electricity tariff next to Tokyo [1]. Furthermore, Manila has the third-
highest generation cost and the highest grid cost in Asia based on residential electricity tariffs.

Several Asian cities, except for Tokyo, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Manila, embed subsidies in its
electricity pricing which results in energy prices that are not reflective of its true cost. While Manila’s
high energy prices can be partially attributed to the absence of energy subsidies, providing subsidies
will not be effective as this strategy has been found to exacerbate the fiscal burden of the
government and does not address the long-term affordability of energy as proven in other Southeast
Asian countries. Coxhead wrote in Asia Pathways that “ energy subsidies are a hidden tax on
economic development&rdquo, and emphasized the high opportunity cost of public spending on
energy subsidies.[2]

Hence, reforms in the electric power industry are necessary. We all know that our country’s
population is increasing and so is the number of Filipinos who still do not have access to reliable
electricity service. Serving those underserved demands will promote economic growth in our country
as what we tackled in the previous discussions.
Given the apparent need to address the long-term affordability of energy in the Philippines as well as
accessibility to reliable energy sources across the country, it is worthwhile to explore why energy prices in the
Philippines are egregiously high. We will uncover the underlying reasons behind high energy prices in the
Philippines by investigating energy cost components and how energy pricing is determined. To understand
energy pricing in the Philippines, I will also trace the history of the energy industry in the Philippines which is
fundamental in understanding the components of the energy bill and its pricing mechanisms.  

Unbundling of Electricity Rates

The unbundling of rates is the identification and separation of the individual cost for providing each
electric service to consumers. The services identified in the RA 9136 are generation, transmission,
distribution, and supply. In simple terms, it is the itemization or breaking down of the specific
components of the electricity bill to make the pricing of electricity more transparent and
understandable to electricity consumers.

Before EPIRA, you do not know exactly how much goes to each particular service you are paying
because your bill is still bundled. For instance, during that time, generation and transmission charges
are not segregated. This means that the specific value or cost for generation and transmission of
electric power is not reflected in your bill.

With an unbundled rate, the consumer will be able to know and understand the components of his
electricity bill by showing how much goes to generation, transmission, distribution, metering, supply,
and other charges. A peso-value will correspond for each component of your bill to arrive at the
amount you are going to pay to your electricity service provider.

The unbundling of rates also calls for a new rate structure as EPIRA was implemented. This new rate
structure reflects the true cost (free of subsidies) of serving each customer class of the electricity
service providers. This is because the new rates required under EPIRA are free from all inter-grid (i.e.
between Luzon and Visayas Grids) and intra-grid (i.e. within the Luzon Grid) subsidies for NPC and all
inter-class (i.e. between industrial and residential classes) subsidies for distribution utilities. Customer
classes include residential, large industrial, small industrial, large commercial, small commercial, and
street light.

Understanding Your Electricity Bills

Refer to video in module.
1.3 | Electrical Safety
Overview
Electrical mishaps and electrically initiated fires cause an extensive misfortune to every
single one of us and the community each year, ranging from death and injury to property
damage costing a large amount of money. The reasons for such mishaps and flames
extend from indiscretion or potentially numbness, through to unanticipated
maloperation of gear or machines and electrical appliances.
The significance of this dynamic and growing interest in innovation has been
underscored throughout the years. The unprecedented increase in the significance of
electrical wellbeing in our homes and workplaces needs an individual with considerable
knowledge regarding electrical safety and security.
The course expects to empower students to recognize electrical dangers to individuals
and equipment in their family dwellings units, power utility, business, or residential
establishment, along with the structure standards and working systems that are
executed to limit and eliminate the danger of electrical mishaps and fires.
1.3.1 | Electrical Hazards and Its
Danger
Electrical Safety
Electricity is undoubtedly one of the most basic needs in modern life, but electrical hazards are very
dangerous. Some of the serious injuries you can receive from electricity include electrical shocks,
electrical burns, and electrocution, which could be fatal. Electrical safety refers to any safety
precautions taken against electricity. Electrical safety is a general practice of workers or any persons
who are exposed to handling and maintaining electrically powered equipment. It is a set of guidelines
they follow to mitigate electrical hazards and prevent its dangerous effects in case of an incident.
Unable to adhere to electrical safety can lead to accidents, near misses, or even fatalities.

Electrical Hazards
An electrical hazard can be defined as a dangerous condition where a worker or any person could
make electrical contact with energized equipment or a conductor, and from which the person may
sustain an injury from shock; and/or, there is potential for the worker or the person to receive an arc
flash burn, thermal burn, or blast injury.

An electric hazard is removed when protective measures are put in place at the source (remove the
hazard or de-energize), or along the path (place electrical insulation/barrier between the worker and
the electrical hazard).

1. Poor wiring, defective electric wires, and overloaded circuits

Bad wiring can increase the chances of fires, power surges, and other serious consequences. Using
wires with inappropriate size for the current can cause overheating and fires to occur. Damaged,
worn, or corroded electrical wires can further increase the chances of electrical accidents. Also, do
not overload an outlet and use proper circuit breakers.  

Some hazards include:

 Loose or improper connections, such as electrical outlets or switches
 Frayed appliance or extension cords
 Pinched or pierced wire insulation, which could occur from, for example, a chair leg sitting on an
extension cord
 Cracked wire insulation caused by heat, age, corrosion or bending
 Overheated wires or cords
 Damaged electrical appliances
 The electrical wire that has been chewed by rodents

2. Outlets close to the water

Electrical outlets in bathrooms, kitchens, and other areas with water should install a safe distance
away from the source of water. As water conducts electricity, keeping outlets away from water
reduces the chance of an electric shock.

3. Lightbulbs

We do not often regard lightbulbs as being potential electrical hazards and by themselves, they are
not inherently dangerous. However, the potential for an electric fire arises when the lightbulbs are
near flammable materials such as beds, drapes, plastics, or other items.

4. Covered electrical cords and wires

The heavy covering of wires can make the cords overheat. Covered cords and wires can occasionally
lead to an electrical fire due to overheating.

5. Exposed electrical parts and damaged insulation

Examples of exposed electrical parts include temporary lighting, detached insulation parts on
electrical cords, and open or damaged junction boxes or receptacle outlets. These hazards can cause
potential shocks and burns. Also, defective or inadequate insulation is a hazard. Make sure to fix it
immediately.

6. Pouring water on electrical fires

A common error is pouring water on an electrical fire. If an electrical fire does happen, avoid pouring
water on the flames as water will tend to fuel the fire. Use a fire extinguisher instead of water to put
out an electrical fire.

7. Inquisitive young children

Every electrical outlet within the reach of these young children should be protected with plastic
closures. These fit straight over the socket, preventing sharp objects and fingers from going into the
socket.

8. Wet hands/ Wet conditions

Electrical appliances should never be handled with wet hands as this increases the chance of getting
an electric shock.
9. Extension cords

Extension cords should be carefully fixed in place when possible to reduce the chance of tripping or
other accidents.

10. Improper grounding

Proper grounding can eliminate unwanted voltage and reduce the risk of electrocution.

Dangers of Electricity
The primary dangers associated with electricity and its use are:

Electric Shock

Electric shock occurs when the human body becomes part of a path through which electrons can
flow. The resulting effect on the body can be either direct or indirect.

 Injury or death can occur whenever electric current flows through the human body. Currents of
less than 30 mA can result in death.
 Although the electric current through the human body may be well below the values required to
cause noticeable injury, the human reaction can result in falls from ladders or scaffolds, or
movement into operating machinery. Such a reaction can result in serious injury or death.

Burns

Burns can result when a person touches electrical wiring or equipment that is improperly used or
maintained. Typically, such burn injuries occur on the hands.

Arc Blast

Arc-blasts occur from high-amperage currents arcing through the air. This abnormal current flow (arc-
blast) is initiated by contact between two energized points. This contact can be caused by persons
who have an accident while working on energized components, or by equipment failure due to
fatigue or abuse. Temperatures as high as 35,000 F have been recorded in arc-blast research.

The three primary hazards associated with an arc-blast are:

 Thermal Radiation. In most cases, the radiated thermal energy is only part of the total energy
available from the arc. Numerous factors, including skin color, area of skin exposed, type of
clothing influence the degree of injury. Proper clothing, work distances, and overcurrent
protection can improve the chances of curable burns.
 Pressure Wave. A high-energy arcing fault can produce a considerable pressure wave. Research
has shown that a person 2 feet away from a 25-kA arc would experience a force of approximately
480 pounds on the front of their body. In addition, such a pressure wave can cause serious ear
damage and memory loss due to mild concussions. In some instances, the pressure wave may
propel the victim away from the arc-blast, reducing the exposure to thermal energy. However,
such rapid movement could also cause serious physical injury.
 The pressure wave can propel relatively large objects over a considerable distance. In some cases,
the pressure wave has sufficient force to snap the heads of 3/8 inch steel bolts and knock over
ordinary construction walls.

The high-energy arc also causes many of the copper and aluminum components in the electrical
equipment to become molten. These "droplets" of molten metal can be propelled great distances by
the pressure wave. Although these droplets cool rapidly, they can still be above temperatures capable
of causing serious burns or igniting ordinary clothing at distances of 10 feet or more. In many cases,
the burning effect is much worse than the injury from shrapnel effects of the droplets.

Explosions

Explosions occur when electricity provides a source of ignition for an explosive mixture in the
atmosphere. The ignition can be due to overheated conductors or equipment, or normal arcing
(sparking) at switch contacts.

Fires

Electricity is one of the most common causes of fire both in the home and workplace. Defective or
misused electrical equipment is a major cause, with high resistance connections being one of the
primary sources of ignition. High resistance connections occur where wires are improperly spliced or
connected to other components such as receptacle outlets and switches.

Heat is developed in an electrical conductor by the flow of current at the rate I 2R. The heat thus
released elevates the temperature of the conductor material.

Summary of Effects
EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON THE HUMAN BODY

The effects of electric shock on the human body depend on several factors. The major factors are:

Current and Voltage

Although high voltage often produces massive destruction of tissue at contact locations, it is
generally believed that the detrimental effects of electric shock are due to the current flowing
through the body. Even though Ohm's law (I=E/R) applies, it is often difficult to correlate voltage with
damage to the body because of the large variations in contact resistance usually present in accidents.
Any electrical device used on a house wiring circuit can, under certain conditions, transmit a fatal
current. Although currents greater than 10 mA can produce painful to severe shock, currents
between 100 and 200 mA can be lethal.

With increasing alternating current, the sensations of tingling give way to contractions of the
muscles. The muscular contractions and accompanying sensations of heat increase as the current is
increased. Sensations of pain develop, and voluntary control of the muscles that lie in the current
pathway becomes increasingly difficult.

As current approaches 15 mA, the victim cannot let go of the conductive surface being grasped. At
this point, the individual is said to "freeze" to the circuit. This is frequently referred to as the "let-go"
threshold.
As current approaches 100 mA, ventricular fibrillation of the heart occurs. Ventricular fibrillation is
defined as "very rapid uncoordinated contractions of the ventricles of the heart resulting in loss of
synchronization between heartbeat and pulse beat." Once ventricular fibrillation occurs, it will
continue, and death will ensue within a few minutes. The use of a special device called a defibrillator
is required to save the victim.

Heavy current flow can result in severe burns and heart paralysis. If shock is of short duration, the
heart stops during the current passage and usually re-starts normally on current interruption,
improving the victim's chances for survival.

Resistance

Studies have shown that the electrical resistance of the human body varies with the amount of
moisture on the skin, the pressure applied to the contact point, and the contact area. The outer layer
of skin, the epidermis, has very high resistance when dry. Wet conditions, a cut or other break in the
skin will drastically reduce resistance.

Shock severity increases with an increase in the pressure of contact. Also, the larger the contact area,
the lower the resistance. Whatever protection is offered by skin resistance decreases rapidly with an
increase in voltage. Higher voltages have the capability of "breaking down" the outer layers of the
skin, thereby reducing the resistance.

Path Through Body

The path the current takes through the body affects the degree of injury. A small current that passes
from one extremity through the heart to the other extremity can cause severe injury or electrocution.
There have been many cases where an arm or leg was almost burned off when the extremity came in
contact with electrical current and the current only flowed through a portion of the limb before it
went out into the other conductor without going through the trunk of the body. Had the current
gone through the trunk of the body, the person would almost surely have been electrocuted.

Many serious electrical accidents in industry involve current flow from hands to feet. Since such a
path involves both the heart and the lungs, results can be fatal.

Duration of Shock

 The duration of the shock has a great bearing on the outcome. If the shock is of short duration, it
may only be a painful experience for the person.

If the level of current flow reaches the approximate ventricular fibrillation threshold of 100 mA, a
shock duration of a few seconds could be fatal. This is not much current when you consider that a
small light duty portable electric drill draws about 30 times as much.

At relatively high currents, death is inevitable if the shock is of appreciable duration; however, if the
shock is of short duration, and if the heart has not been damaged, interruption of the current may be
followed by a spontaneous resumption of its normal rhythmic contractions.

Summary of Effects

We can sum up the lethal effects of electric current as follows:

 Current flow greater than the "let-go" threshold of an individual may cause a person to collapse,
become unconscious, and can result in death. The current flow would most often have to
continue for longer than five seconds. Although it may not be possible to determine the exact
cause of death with certainty, asphyxiation, or heart failure are the prime suspects.
 Current flow through the chest, neck, head, or major nerve centers controlling respiration may
result in a failure of the respiratory system. This is usually caused by a disruption of the nerve
impulses between the respiratory control center and the respiratory muscles. Such a condition is
dangerous since it is possible for respiratory failure to continue even after the current flow has
stopped.
 The most dangerous condition can occur when fairly small amounts of current flow through the
heart area. Such current flow can cause ventricular fibrillation. This asynchronous movement of
the heart causes the hearts' usual rhythmic pumping action to cease. Death results within
minutes.
 When relatively large currents flow through the heart area, heart action may be stopped entirely.
If the shock duration is short and no physical damage to the heart has occurred, the heart may
begin rhythmic pumping automatically when the current ceases.
 Extensive tissue damage, including internal organ damage due to high temperatures, occurs when
very large currents flow through major portions of the body.
 There are recorded cases of delayed death after a person has been revived following an electrical
shock. This may occur within minutes, hours, or even days after the event has occurred. Several
assumptions for such delayed effects are:
o internal or unseen hemorrhaging
o emotional or psychological effects of the shock
o aggravation of a pre-existing condition

1.3.2 | Electrical Safety at Home

Electrical Protective Devices
These devices are critically important to electrical safety. Overcurrent devices should be installed
where required. They should be of the size and type to interrupt current flow when it exceeds the
capacity of the conductor. Proper selection considers not only the capacity of the conductor but also
the rating of the power supply
and potential short circuits.

Types of Overcurrent

1. Overload- When you ask a 10 hp motor to do the work of 12 hp motor, an overload condition
exists. The overcurrent maybe 150 percent of the normal current. When a circuit is overloaded,
the plasticizers in the insulation are vaporized over a long period of time, and the insulation
becomes brittle. The brittle insulation has slightly better electrical insulating properties. However,
it can crack, and a fault can result.
2. Fault- When insulation fails in a circuit, the fault current in that may be from 5 times to 50 times
that of normal current. The fault occurs in two ways. Most of the time a fault will occur between
a conductor and an enclosure. This is called a ground fault. Infrequently, a fault will occur
between two conductors. This is called a short circuit.

The basic idea of an overcurrent protective device is to make a weak link in the circuit. In the case of
a fuse, the fuse is destroyed before another part of the system is destroyed. In the case of a circuit
breaker, a set of contacts opens the circuit. Unlike a fuse, a circuit breaker can be re-used by re-
closing the contacts. Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to protect equipment and facilities, and
in so doing, they also provide considerable protection against shock in most situations. However, the
only electrical protective device whose sole purpose is to protect people is the ground-fault circuit-
interrupter. These various protective devices are further discussed below.

Fuses

A fuse is an electrical device that opens a circuit when the current flowing through it exceeds the
rating of the fuse. The heart of a fuse is a special metal strip or wire designed to melt and blow off
when its rated amperage is exceeded.

Overcurrent devices (fuses, circuit breakers) are always placed in the "hot" side of a circuit (usually a
black wire) and in series with the load so that all the current in the circuit must flow through them. If
the current flowing in the circuit exceeds the rating of the fuse, the metal strip will melt and open the
circuit so that no current can flow. A fuse cannot be re-used and must be replaced after eliminating
the cause of the overcurrent.

Fuses are designed to protect equipment and conductors from excessive current. It is important to
always replace fuses with the proper type and current rating. Too low a rating will result in
unnecessary blowouts, while too high a rating may allow dangerously high currents to pass.

Circuit breaker

Circuit breakers provide protection for equipment and conductors from excessive current without
the inconvenience of changing fuses. Circuit breaker trip (open the circuit) when the current is
excessive.  

Ground-fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)

A ground-fault circuit-interrupter is not an overcurrent device. A GFCI is used to open a circuit if the current
flowing to the load does not return by the prescribed route. In a simple circuit, we usually think of the current
flowing through the black (ungrounded) wire to the load and returning to the source through the white
(grounded) wire. If it does not return through the grounded wire, then it must have gone somewhere else,
usually to ground. The GFCI is designed to limit electric shock to a current- and time-duration value below
that which can produce serious injury. GFCIs are usually set to interrupt the circuit if the leakage current is
greater than 5 mA, the accepted maximum harmless shock. Even if the leakage current goes safely to
earth/ground through an intact earth/ground wire, the GFI will trip, forcing repair of the leakage.

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter

How Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters Work

A ground-fault circuit-interrupter is not an overcurrent device like a fuse or circuit breaker. GFCI's are
designed to sense an imbalance in current flow over the normal path. It contains a special sensor that
monitors the strength of the magnetic field around each wire in the circuit when current is flowing.
The magnetic field around a wire is directly proportional to the amount of current flow, thus the
circuitry can accurately translate the magnetic information into the current flow.

If the current flowing in the black (ungrounded) wire is within 5 (±1) milliamperes of the current
flowing in the white (grounded) wire at any given instant, the circuitry considers the situation normal.
All the current is flowing in the normal path. If, however, the current flow in the two wires differs by
more than 5 mA, the GFCI will quickly open the circuit.

Testing Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters

Due to the complexity of a GFCI, it is necessary to test the device on a regular basis. For permanently
wired devices, a monthly test is recommended. Portable type GFCI's should be tested each time
before use. GFCI's have a built-in test circuit which imposes an artificial ground fault on the load
circuit to assure that the ground-fault protection is still functioning. Test and reset buttons are
provided for testing.

Grounding
GROUNDING

Grounding must be considered wherever electrical current flows. It can never be stressed too
strongly that proper grounding and bonding must be correctly applied if the system, the equipment,
and the people that meet them are to be protected.

Effective grounding means that the path to the ground: (1) is permanent and continuous, and (2) has
ample current-carrying capacity to conduct safely any currents liable to be imposed on it, and (3) has
impedance sufficiently low to limit the potential above ground and to facilitate the operation of the
overcurrent devices in the circuit.

Effective bonding means that the electrical continuity of the grounding circuit is assured by proper
connections between service raceways, service cable armor, all service equipment enclosures
containing service entrance conductors, and any conduit or armor that forms part of the grounding
conductor to the service raceway. Effective grounding has no function unless and until there is
electrical leakage from a current-carrying conductor to its enclosure. When such a ground fault
occurs, the equipment grounding conductor goes into action to provide the following:

 It prevents voltages between the electrical enclosure and other enclosures or surroundings.
 It provides a path for large amounts of fault or overloads current to flow back to the service
entrance, thus blowing the fuse or tripping the circuit breaker.

How does grounding do its job?

Proper grounding requires connecting all the enclosures (equipment housings, boxes, conduit, etc.)
together, and back to the service entrance enclosure. This is accomplished by means of the green
wire in the cord (portable equipment), and the conduit system or bare wire in the fixed wiring of the
building.

When a ground fault occurs, as in a defective tool, the grounding conductor must carry enough
current to immediately trip the circuit breaker or blow the fuse. This means that the ground fault path
must have low impedance. The only low impedance path is the green wire (in portable cord) and the
metallic conduit system (or an additional bare wire if the conduit is not used).

However, when the insulation on the black (ungrounded) conductor fails and the copper conductor
touches the case of the tool, the ground-fault current flows through the green (grounding) conductor
and the conduit system back to the service entrance.

 But what happens if the grounding does not do the job?

If the ground-fault path is not properly installed, it may have such high impedance that it does not
allow a sufficiently large amount of current to flow. Or, if the grounding conductor continuity has
been lost (as when the "U"-shaped grounding prong has been broken off the plug), no fault current
will flow. In these cases, the circuit breaker will not trip out, the case of the tool will be energized, and
persons touching the tool may be shocked.

The hazard created is that persons touching the tool may provide a path through their body and
eventually back to the source of voltage. This path may be through other surfaces in the vicinity,
through building steel, or through the earth. The dangerous ground-fault current flowing through this
high-impedance path will not rise to a high enough value to immediately trip the circuit breaker. Only
the metallic equipment-grounding conductor, which is carried along with the supply conductors, will
have impedance sufficiently low so that the required large amount of fault current will flow.
So the only way to ensure that the equipment grounding conductor does its job is to be certain that the
grounding wire, the grounding prong, the grounding receptacle, and the conduit system are intact and have
electrical continuity from each electrical tool back to the service entrance.

Electrical Safety Practices

Electrical Safety At Home

We use electrical appliances and equipment to perform countless chores and activities around the
home every day. It is easy to possibly overlook some items that make their operation safe and
reliable. The following are some things to keep in mind as your working and playing around your
home.

General Electrical Safety Reminders

 If your power goes out a lot and the lights in your home flicker, smell bad or make noise, have an
electrician inspect your wiring.
 If you have a breaker or fuse that frequently blows have a qualified electrician assess your
electric loads to make sure you do not have a potentially dangerous overloaded circuit.
 If an appliance sparks, smokes, or shocks, unplug it and do not use it until it has been repaired.
 Unplug irons and heaters when you are finished using them and let them cool before storing
them.
 Gasoline and other flammable liquids should never be used indoors and should be stored in an
approved container, away from children. Flammable liquids should never be stored in the
proximity of an ignition source such as an open flame or electrical appliance or fixture.

Overhead Power Lines

Many of your homes are supplied with electricity through overhead power lines. Assume all overhead
wires are live and therefore dangerous if you have contact with it.

 A good rule of thumb is to stay a minimum of 10 feet away from all overhead lines with your
body and any objects you may be handling.
 If you’re using tall or long objects always look up first to make sure you are a safe distance away
from any overhead wires.
 Never lift anything upright without first knowing what is above you.
 If there are any trees close to power lines that need to be trimmed or removed please call your
distribution utility to do the work for you. If the trees are interfering with or have the potential to
damage the power line, the electric utility will remove or trim the tree for free.
 Keep away from areas with HIGH VOLTAGE WARNING and DANGER signs posted.
 Do not fly kites around overhead power lines. If a kite becomes entangled in a power line leave it
and call your electric utility to have an electrical worker remove it.
 Make your children aware of the dangers involved with playing on or around electrical equipment
such as power poles, transformers, switch cabinets, fences, or substations.

Extension Cords

Avoid using extension cords whenever possible. If you must, try to follow the below tips to make
their use safer.

 All electrical cords should be in good condition, meaning they are not frayed, torn, cut, etc.
 Do not place electric cords under rugs or where they can be walked on or damage can go
unnoticed. Overloaded cords can also heat up quickly when placed under a rug causing a fire
hazard.
 Don’t tie or knot cords and don’t set furniture on top of them. Don’t run cords under rugs or
doors. Try not to run cords across frequently used walkways unless you secure the cords
properly.
 Check for cords that are broken, frayed, damaged, or tied in knots, or that have melted insulation.
Have them repaired or replaced immediately.
 Never remove a ground plug from an electrical appliance; if you only have 2-prong outlets, you
must use an adapter and follow the directions for use carefully.
 Use extension cords with three-pronged plugs for appliances that require grounding. Do not use
a three-prong adapter (if possible) and never remove the third prong to create a two-pronged
plug.
 Insert and remove plugs by grasping the plug. Pulling on the cord could damage it. Be careful not
to let fingers touch the metal prongs.
 Avoid kinking, twisting, or crushing the cord.
 Keep cords away from heat and water.
 Use properly sized (both wire size and length) extension cords to handle the load that you are
using. Remember that the longer that cord needed the larger the wire size needs to be.
 When using an extension cord, make sure it is the correct gauge for the item you are plugging
into it; the cord should have been marked with its input/maximum load rating.
 Never plug power strips or adaptors into another power strip or adaptor, called daisy-chaining,
and avoid using adaptors filled with plugs where possible.

Electrical Outlets

 Do not overload an outlet with too many lamps or appliances.

 Put safety covers over unused electric outlets. This is particularly important if you have children
in your home. Never let children play around outlets.
 All electrical outlets and switches should be covered by faceplates; replace broken faceplates
immediately.
 Use Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) electrical outlets in locations that are near water
sources such as bathrooms, kitchens, laundry rooms, garages, or the outdoors. Electrical outlets
near sinks, such as in the bathroom and kitchen, should also have a Ground Fault Circuit
Interrupter (GFCI). This is a tool that protects you from a dangerous shock when water and
electricity come together. If these are not present, an electrician can install them for you.

Electricity and Water

 Electric appliances and water can be a lethal combination. If an appliance falls into a sink or tub of
water, or if you touch an appliance with wet hands or while standing in water, you risk severe
electric shock and possibly death.
 Never use any electric appliances, radios (except small battery-powered ones), TV or hair dryers
near sinks, toilets, or bathtubs.
 Always dry your hands before touching any electric appliance.
 Keep the floor around your washer and dryer clean and dry.
 Unplug small appliances when washing them. Never immerse appliances such as rice cookers or
crock pots in the water. This could damage them and give you an electric shock.

2.1 | Energy Use and Pollution

Overview
Energy consumption increased exponentially since the start of the industrial revolution
and this has resulted in significant changes to our planet's environment. Leading the said
changes is the increase in the average concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the
atmosphere. GHGs primarily include the gases carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH4), and
nitrogen oxides (NOX).
GHGs in the earth's atmosphere acts like a blanket. They reflect back part of the infrared
radiation emitted by the earth and cause the warming of the troposphere. Climatologists
predict that the increase in GHGs will result in an increase in the average temperature of
the troposphere accompanied by regional and global climatic changes.
Other significant environmental effects of energy production and consumption are the
ecological problems caused by acid rain that has threatened the ecosystems of lakes and
rivers; ozone depletion in the stratosphere; lead contamination in the atmosphere;
nuclear waste, which is produced by the approximately 450 nuclear reactors in
continuous operation worldwide; and the waste heat rejection by all thermal power
plants to large bodies of water.
This module starts with a short section on the earth's environment and its ecosystems;
continues with the success stories of environmental threat mitigation from acid rain, lead
contamination, ozone depletion, and NOX emissions; examines the problems and possible
consequences of GHG emissions and global warming which have significant societal and
political implications; and concludes with a look at the progress of solutions for the
problems of nuclear waste, thermal pollution, and freshwater use.

2.1.1 | Environment, Ecology and

Ecosystem
Environment
To start the discussion of the environmental and ecological effects of energy use, we define the
important concepts and terms that we will use.

The environment is everything that surrounds humans and where our economic activity occurs. The
lithosphere (solid earth), the atmosphere (air), and the hydrosphere (seas, lakes, rivers, etc.) are the
three distinct components of our environment.

Climatic processes and events interact in different ways with the environment. For example, a
hurricane is formed in the atmosphere but it draws water from the hydrosphere. When a hurricane
washes over land, it dumps on the ground large quantities of rainwater. The latter causes local
flooding that erodes the soil and carries parts of the lithosphere into the sea or the lakes. These types
of interactions produce environmental changes, many of which are undesirable.

Ecology
Ecology is the study of the relationships of living organisms with one another and the relationship of
organisms to their environment. The subject incorporates concepts from various disciplines such as
the biological sciences, physics, physiology, and chemistry.
Ecosystem
Ecosystem refers to a geographic region where plants, animals and other living organisms work
together, along with the landscape and the climate, to form a bubble of life. An ecosystem includes all
the biological species and their populations in a given region, soil and water, climate and other
physical factors, and physicochemical processes such as freezing and thawing, nutrient cycles, water
flow, energy flows, and the carbon cycle.

Although related and one is often confused for the other, there is a clear distinction
between environmental and ecological changes, as well as between environmental and ecological
concerns.

Ecological concerns always involve effects on ecosystems. For example, a tropical storm will wash a
great deal of soil into the sea and will change the coastline of an entire region. If we are concerned
only with the physical process of soil erosion, the suspension of sediment in the water, and the
subsequent deposition of soil at the bottom of the sea — three purely physical processes — then we
have an environmental concern. If we are concerned with the effects of soil erosion on agricultural
crops, the loss of habitat of living organisms, or the effect of increased concentration of pesticides
that soil erosion carries into aquatic life, then we have an ecological concern.

Because ecosystems are closely related to their environment, every environmental change is
accompanied by ecological consequences. The observed increase in carbon dioxide concentration in
the atmosphere and the expected global and regional climate changes are related to environmental
changes. Their consequences in the ecosystems include altered patterns of crop production and
migration or disappearance of several species. Similarly, the discharge of pollutants, such as dioxin
and lead, is an environmental event that has ecological consequences. When one considers the
effects of industrial pollutants on subsurface organisms, the effects of the leaching of pollutants into
nearby aquifers, streams, or lakes and its ultimate effects on animals and humans that drink the
water, we behold the ecological effects of an environmental problem.
2.1.2 | Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances, materials, or contaminants into the
natural environment. These harmful materials are called pollutants. Pollutants can be
natural, such as volcanic ash, or can also be created by human activity, such as trash or
wastewater produced by factories. Pollutants compromise and damage the quality of air,
water, and soil. Things as simple as light, sound, and heat can be considered pollutants
when introduced artificially into an environment.
Pollution sources are split into point sources and non-point sources.
A point source is a single large emitter into the environment. Usually, this means a
source can be traced back, like the smokestack of a coal-fired power plant, or the
drainpipe of a factory. However, non-point sources are hard or even impossible to trace
back because their pollutants are dispersed. An example would be a runoff of fertilizers
and pesticides from farms, golf courses, and residential lawns into streams or lakes. It is
apparent that there is pollution in the streams and lakes, but it is not so
apparent exactly where it comes from.
Pollution and waste can often be confused one for another. Waste is a disposed-of
product of a once-useful system (as deemed by the user — "one man's trash is another
man's treasure"). In contrast, pollution is a harmful waste.
The distinction between pollution vs waste is subtle. However, there are ways to look at
each to distinguish between the two. First, a quick look at the definitions:

 Waste: substances which are the by-products of a process. Essentially, any unwanted
products made in the process of making a wanted, intentional product.
 Pollution: substances that are deemed harmful to animals and/or the environment

In summary:

 Pollution is always harmful

 Waste is not always harmful, but it often can be, especially when disposed of improperly
 Waste depends on perspective. If one process deems the substance as useless, for another it
may be useful!

2.1.3 | Pollutants
Overview
Pollutants are particles, molecules or elements that can harm life or ecosystems. They can be
introduced into the environment in many ways, both naturally and by human activities.

Primary pollutants are those that are introduced directly into the environment from a source. On the
other hand, secondary pollutants are not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants
(i.e., primary pollutants) react in the environment. Examples of secondary pollutants include ozone,
which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NO x) combine in the presence of
sunlight; NO2, which is formed as NO combines with oxygen in the air; and acid rain, which is formed
when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water. Various types of pollutants are discussed in
the succeeding tabs.

Carbon Dioxide (COx)

Carbon oxides (COx) are colorless, odorless gases emitted from combustion processes. Particularly in
urban areas, most COx emissions to ambient air come from vehicles that burn fossil fuels. CO x can
cause harmful health effects by reducing oxygen delivery to the body’s organs, such as the heart and
the brain, and to tissues. At extremely high levels, COx can cause death.

Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)

Nitrogen oxides or NOx are a family of poisonous, highly reactive gases that form when fuel is burned
at high temperatures. NOx gases are generally brown in color and are emitted by vehicles as well as
industrial sources such as power plants, industrial boilers, cement kilns, and gas turbines. Nitrogen
oxides produce chemical reactions in the atmosphere forming volatile organic compounds. These
reactions are the ones that produce smog.

Sulfur Oxide (SOx)

Sulfur oxides or SOx are a group of pollutants that contain both sulfur and oxygen molecules. Sulfur
dioxide, SO2 is the most common form in the lower atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is colorless but has a
distinct smell and taste that can be detected if the gas has a high enough concentration. Sulfur oxides
dissolve readily in water, and result in the atmospheric formation of sulfurous acid or sulfuric acid, a
component of acid rain.

Most sulfur oxides are produced when fuels that contain sulfur undergo combustion. The processing
of metal sulfide ores is also a major source. Natural sources, such as volcanoes, account for anywhere
between 35-65% of total sulfur dioxide emissions. Coal-burning power plants that burn high-sulfur
coal are also significant sources of SOx. Vehicles can also be a source of sulfur oxides.

Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate matter, also known as particle pollution or simply PM, is a complex mixture of extremely
small solid particles and liquid droplets that can be found in the air. They are classified as pollutants
and exists in different sizes. Some particulate matter, such as dust, dirt, soot, coal ash, and smoke are
large enough to be seen with the naked eye. As well as containing acids, particulate matter can
contain hazardous elements such as arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, and
nickel. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health effects.

Particulate matter can fall into several different categories depending on their size. These categories
include inhalable coarse particles (PM10) that are between 2.5 and 10 micrometers in diameter and
fine particles (PM2.5) with diameters of less than 2.5 micrometers. In addition, particulate matter can
be separated into 2 categories — primary particulate matter (PM that is emitted directly from sources
such as power plants) and secondary particulate matter (PM that is formed by chemical reactions in
the atmosphere).

Ground-level Ozone
Ground-level ozone is a highly reactive secondary pollutant. Ground-level ozone is not emitted
directly into the air but is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NO x) and volatile
organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight. Emissions from industrial facilities and electric
utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are some of the major sources
of ground-ozone and VOC. Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems, particularly for
children, the elderly, and people of all ages who have lung diseases such as asthma.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic molecules — specifically hydrocarbons — that are
classified as a pollutant as they produce undesirable effects in the atmosphere. They are defined as
volatile because they evaporate quickly and easily into the air. They react with nitrogen oxides in the
air to form ground-level ozone, another harmful pollutant, and they also contribute to the formation
of secondary particulate matter. VOCs occur in many forms and are emitted from both human
sources, such as power plants, and natural sources, such as trees and plants. Although natural sources
account for about 85% of the VOCs in the air, the more reactive, and therefore the more concerning
ones, are those produced by human activities. Especially in cities where there is less vegetation, the
dominant emissions of VOCs come from anthropogenic sources. These compounds play a key role in
the formation of ozone and photochemical smog, which are very harmful to human health.
Mercury (Hg)
The term mercury is ambiguous and may refer to:

Mercury (element): An element, just like oxygen or uranium, but it has many distinct properties and
uses.

Mercury (pollutant): A toxic pollutant, which in its elemental form or combined with other elements
may build up in food chains and cause tremendous biological damage.

When the energy sector releases mercury (Hg) as a pollutant, it creates environmental problems.
Both humans and natural sources release mercury; burning coal specifically releases quite a bit of
mercury.

Mercury levels in the upper layers of oceans are much higher than they were in the past, at
approximately double what they were in the pre-industrial era. This is caused primarily by human
emissions, which rise into the atmosphere and fall out into soils and bodies of water.

Mercury is released naturally from rocks, soil, volcanoes, and by vaporization from the ocean. This
contributes to about 10% of the global input of mercury into the atmosphere.

In addition to coal burning, humans emit mercury with mining and smelting, cement production, oil
refining, gold mining, and wastes from consumer products. Asia contributes to about half of the total
human input of mercury because of the extensive coal burning for electricity.

Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)

Peroxyacyl nitrates or PANs, which are also referred to as acyl peroxy nitrates or APN, are a
component of photochemical smog, produced in the atmosphere when oxidized volatile organic
compounds combine with nitrogen dioxide (NO 2). PANs are a secondary pollutant since they form in
the atmosphere after the emission of primary pollutants. Sources of the pollutants required to create
PANs include motor vehicles, tobacco smoke, and the burning of fossil fuels.
2.1.4 | Types of Pollution
Air Pollution
Air Pollution
Air pollution can be defined as dirty air that damages human health, plant and animal life or property.
The World Health Organisation defines air pollution as "substances put into the air by the activity of
mankind into concentration sufficient to cause harmful effects to health, property, crop yield, or to
interfere with the enjoyment of the property."

Sources of Air Pollution

There are many sources of air pollution. Some are natural and others are man-made. The main
sources of air pollution are:

 Household activities - Everyday activities such as heating, cleaning, painting, and decorating can
contribute to indoor air pollution. Common household products such as cleaning sprays, paints, varnish,
pesticides, grease, solvent removers, and aerosol sprays may contain harmful chemicals that pollute the
air.
 Road Traffic - Road transport accounts for a significant portion of air pollution. Due to the
increase in the use of private cars, road traffic pollution is considered a major threat to clean air.  
Traffic fumes contain harmful chemicals that pollute the atmosphere. Also, road traffic emissions
produce greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.
 Power stations - To the public, power stations are the most obvious cause of industrial air
pollution. Coal was the main source for generating electricity in most countries. It emitted a
substantial amount of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas responsible for global warming, as well as
Sulphur dioxide, an acid gas that affects human health and vegetation. Power plant emissions
have far-reaching effects and can cause long-range air pollution.
 Cigarette Smoke -Fumes from cigarette smoke contain thousands of chemicals that cause air
pollution, some of them are extremely harmful to health.
 Smells - Offensive odors and smells also contribute to the level of air pollution in our local
communities. They may be harmful to our health and affect the use and enjoyment of the
property.
 Bonfires
 Natural disasters can also cause air pollution to increase quickly. When volcanoes erupt, they
eject volcanic ash and gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic ash can discolor the sky for months.
 Burning of fossil fuels- The burning of fossil fuels contributes to the formation of smog, a dense layer of
particulate matter that hangs like a cloud over many major cities and industrial zones.
 Industry and factory emissions are also sources of air pollution.
 Greenhouse gases are another source of air pollution. Greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide and methane occur naturally in the atmosphere. In fact, they are necessary for life on Earth.
They absorb sunlight reflected from Earth, preventing it from escaping into space. By trapping heat in the
atmosphere, they keep Earth warm enough for people to live. This is called the greenhouse effect.

Air pollution contributes to respiratory problems such as asthma, lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and
other lung ailments. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides in the air contribute to acid rain, which is a form of
precipitation with a lower (more acidic) pH than normal. Acid rain harms forests, species that live in
water bodies, and degrades outdoor statues, monuments, and buildings.
Sometimes, air pollution is visible. A person can see dark smoke pour from the exhaust pipes of large
trucks or factories, for example. More often, however, air pollution is invisible. Polluted air can be
dangerous, even if the pollutants are invisible. It can make people’s eyes burn and make them have
difficulty breathing. It can also increase the risk of lung cancer.

Water Pollution
Water Pollution
Water pollution is harmful to human health and the environment. It is largely caused by human
activity influenced by energy use at times.

Sources of Water Pollution

 Agricultural processes such as uncontrolled spreading of slurries and manure, disposal of sheep
dip, tillage, plowing of the land, use of pesticides and fertilizers can cause water pollution.
Accidental spills from milk dairies can also affect the quality of water. 
 Runoffs from industrial sites and/or urban areas. Runoff disrupts the water body's natural
balance.
 Raw sewage is another type of water pollutant. When sewage gets into the drinking water
supply, serious stomach and digestive issues may result, including the spread of diseases such as
typhoid or dysentery.
 Another source of water pollution is trash. Improperly disposed of items, such as plastic bags,
fishing line, and other materials may accumulate in the water and lead to the premature death of
animals that get tangled within the garbage.
 Oil and natural gas spills
 Mining and drilling can also contribute to water pollution. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a major
contributor to the pollution of rivers and streams near coal mines. The acid helps miners remove
coal from the surrounding rocks. The acid is washed into streams and rivers, where it reacts with
rocks and sand. It releases chemical sulfur from the rocks and sand, creating a river rich in sulfuric
acid. Sulfuric acid is toxic to plants, fish, and other aquatic organisms. Sulfuric acid is also toxic to
people, making rivers polluted by AMD dangerous sources of water for drinking and hygiene.
 Buried chemical waste can also pollute water supplies. For many years, people disposed of
chemical wastes carelessly, not realizing its dangers.
 If not disposed of properly, radioactive waste from nuclear power plants can escape into the
environment. Radioactive waste can harm living things and pollute the water.
 Heat can pollute water. Power plants, for example, produce a huge amount of heat. Power plants
are often located on rivers so they can use the water as a coolant. Cool water circulates through
the plant, absorbing heat. The heated water is then returned to the river. Aquatic creatures are
sensitive to changes in temperature. Some fish, for example, can only live in cold water. Warmer
river temperatures prevent fish eggs from hatching. Warmer river water also contributes to
harmful algal blooms.

Soil/Land Pollution
Soil/Land Pollution
Soil can become polluted by industrial sources or the improper disposal of toxic chemical substances.
Common sources of soil pollution include asbestos, lead, PCBs, and overuse of pesticides/herbicides.
Many of the same pollutants that foul the water also harm the land. Mining sometimes leaves the
soil contaminated with dangerous chemicals.

Pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural fields are blown by the wind. They can harm plants,
animals, and sometimes people. Some fruits and vegetables absorb pesticides that help them grow.
When people consume fruits and vegetables, the pesticides enter their bodies. Some pesticides can
cause cancer and other diseases.

Trash is another form of land pollution. Around the world, paper, cans, glass jars, plastic products, and
junked cars and appliances mar the landscape. Litter makes it difficult for plants and other producers
in the food web to create nutrients. Animals can die if they mistakenly eat plastic. Garbage often
contains dangerous pollutants such as oils, chemicals, and ink. These pollutants can leech into the soil
and harm plants, animals, and people.

A massive landfill near Quezon City, Philippines, was the site of a land pollution tragedy in 2000.
Hundreds of people lived on the slopes of the Quezon City landfill. These people made their living
from recycling and selling items found in the landfill. However, the landfill was not secure. Heavy
rains caused a trash landslide, killing 218 people.

Some cities incinerate or burn, their garbage. Incinerating trash gets rid of it, but it can release
dangerous heavy metals and chemicals into the air. So while trash incinerators can help with the
problem of land pollution, they sometimes add to the problem of air pollution.

Light Pollution
Light Pollution
Light pollution refers to the large amount of light produced by most urban and other heavily-
populated areas. Light pollution prevents citizens from seeing features of the night sky and has also
been shown to impede the migration patterns of birds and the activities of nocturnal animals.

Sound Pollution
Sound/Noise Pollution
Noise pollution typically refers to human-made noises that are either very loud or disruptive in
manner. This type of pollution has been shown to impact the movement of sea mammals, such as
dolphins and whales, and impacts the nesting success of birds.

Summary
Summary
There are many types of pollution in the world. All of which can be mitigated at some level, yet are a
necessary byproduct of conveniences in our energy-dependent society. None of the following can be
eliminated completely, but with proactive planning, they can often be greatly diminished. Types of
pollution include:

 Air: both natural and human activities pollute the air, and this is often seen as one of the main
problems of pollution as it contributes to the pollution in the following two (soil and water) as
well.
 Soil: soil pollution may occur from the fall out of pollutants in the air, from pollutants in water, or
those that are directly within it, and is harmful to plant and animal life.
 Water: like soil pollution, air pollutants may fall into and pollute water as rain or make its way as
runoff from the land. It can be harmful to all types of life.
 Light: as a result of society making use of artificial light, it is often hard to see the night sky within
a city. This is more of a minor problem, but it can be a reminder of the pollution that was
potentially created to produce the light.
 Noise: noise pollution refers to sounds that would otherwise not be heard in a society not reliant
on energy. Examples include noise from cars and airplanes.
 Radioactive: there is radioactivity all around us, constantly bombarding the world and its
inhabitants, however, an excess concentration could be problematic, so radioactive waste is
carefully controlled.
 Thermal: introducing unnatural temperatures on an ecosystem may have adverse effects. An
example would be dumping (clean) warm water from a power plant into a nearby river that may
harm fish life.
 Littering: litter itself is a form of waste, however improper disposal of it is pollution. It is often
completely avoidable.

Through the utilization, the production of industrial goods, and the transportation of people and
these goods, the most prominent and harmful forms of pollution arise such as air, water, and soil
pollution. These can be seen daily in large cities in the form of photochemical smog, with the
pollutants contained in it often finding its way into water and soil. Water and soil pollution also occur
directly from industrial and residential sites, in which harmful chemicals find their way into the
environment.

2.2 | Electricity Generation and Its

Impact on the Environment
A power plant can affect the environment by its construction and by its operation. These
effects can either be temporary or permanent. A power plant and its auxiliary
component (e.g. natural gas pipelines, water intakes, and discharge, coal delivery and
storage systems, new transmission lines, and waste disposal sites) take up space on the
ground and in the air, use water resources, and in many cases, emit pollutants into the
air.
The plant’s footprint on the ground eliminates opportunities for others to purchase or
use the land. It can also affect the existing or future uses of adjoining and nearby lands.
For instance, a coal-fired power plant includes some relatively tall buildings and high
exhaust stacks. The plant’s height may result in safety concerns for aircraft or visual
impacts for local landowners. If the land to be used for the power plant is a greenfield
(an undeveloped parcel with mostly vegetation), there would be an impact on land use,
soil, and wildlife present on the site. Fossil fuel-fired and biomass-fired power plants
burn fuels to make either hot air or steam needed to spin power turbines generating
electricity.
The burning of fuel creates exhaust gases and other by-products, including air pollutants.
The use of water to make steam requires large quantities of water from nearby rivers or
lakes, or from local underground water aquifers.
A variety of solid wastes can be produced. The combustion of coal creates ash as solid
waste. Nuclear power plants create spent nuclear fuel rods and low-level radioactive
wastes. Power plants that use water to create steam or for cooling must often filter and
purify the water before discharging to surface waters. The filtered solids are by-products
that must be disposed of appropriately.
The water used for cooling is often run through cooling towers to reduce the heat. The
air that’s warmed by the water in the cooling tower goes into the atmosphere carrying
great quantities of water as vapor, in some cases millions of gallons per day. That lost
water vapor, obtained locally, represents significant water consumption by the power
plant.

2.2.1 | Power Plants and Its

Environmental Impacts
Coal-fired Power Plants
Coal-fired Power Plants

Coal-fired power plants produce electricity by burning coal in a boiler to produce steam. The steam
produced, under high pressure, flows into a turbine, which spins a generator to produce electricity. 

Environmental Impacts 
 Air Pollution - Hazardous air pollution released by coal-fired power plants can cause a wide range
of serious health effects in humans especially those living near the said power plant.  According
to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, coal-fired power plants emit 84 of the 187 hazardous
air pollutants in the atmosphere.
 Water Pollution- Coal-fired power plants are the biggest industrial sources of mercury and
arsenic in the air. Mercury pollutes lakes, streams, and rivers, and builds up in fish. People who
eat large amounts of fish from contaminated lakes and rivers are at the greatest risk of exposure
to mercury.
 Greenhouse Gas Emissions- Pollution from coal-fired power plants account for approximately 81
percent of the electric power industry’s greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide.
These plants also release smaller amounts of methane and nitrogen oxides.

Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear power plants produce electricity from nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is produced through
the heat-generating fission process, in which neutrons split uranium atoms to create energy. This
energy is used to make steam, which then powers generators to make electricity.

Environmental Impacts

 Water pollution- These plants use large amounts of water to carry heat, generate steam, and cool
the nuclear reactor core. Plants are usually built next to a water source from which they can draw
the water they need and return the water after use. The returned water is usually warm and may
have some buildup of heavy metals and salts.
 Radiation Exposure- An accident or failure at a nuclear power plant could result in dangerous
levels of radiation that could be dangerous to the health and safety of people working at or living
near the plant. Emergency planning defines two zones near a nuclear power plant. The zone
within 10 miles of the plant is where it is possible that people could be at risk of being harmed by
direct radiation exposure, which can cause serious illness or even death. The zone within 50 miles
of the plant is where radioactive materials could contaminate water supplies, food crops, and
livestock.
 Radioactive Waste - Unlike fuel-burning power plants, nuclear power plants do not
produce carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or other chemical pollutants.
However, they use radioactive materials, including enriched uranium. Nuclear power plants
produce spent nuclear fuel, which includes many highly radioactive byproducts of the fission
process. Plants must regularly remove and replace their spent uranium fuel. This waste remains
radioactive for thousands of years and must be properly stored and isolated. They also produce
low-level radioactive wastes that are sometimes found on workers’ shoe covers and clothing,
rags, mops, and equipment, and in reactor water residues.

Hydroelectric Power Plants

Hydroelectric Power Plant
Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-the-river plants.
Environmental Impacts 

 Land use - The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely, depending
largely on the size of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the land. Flooding land
for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact. It destroys the forest, wildlife
habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands. 
 Wildlife impacts - Although used for multiple purposes such as agricultural irrigation, flood control,
and recreation,  hydroelectric facilities can still have a major impact on aquatic ecosystems. For
example, fish and other organisms can be injured and killed by turbine blades.
 Algal Bloom- Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than normal river water. As a result, the
reservoir will have higher than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients, which can cultivate
an excess of algae and other aquatic weeds. These weeds can crowd out other river animal and
plant-life, and they must be controlled through manual harvesting or by introducing fish that eat
these plants.  In addition, water is lost through evaporation in dammed reservoirs at a much
higher rate than in those flowing rivers.
 Drying off of rivers in the downstream - In addition, if too much water is stored behind the
reservoir, segments of the river downstream from the reservoir can dry out. Thus, most
hydroelectric operators are required to release a minimum amount of water at certain times of
the year. If not released appropriately, water levels downstream will drop and animal and plant
life can be harmed.
 Low dissolved oxygen - Reservoir water is typically low in dissolved oxygen and colder than
normal river water. When this water is released, it could have negative impacts on downstream
plants and animals.
 Life-cycle global warming emissions - Global warming emissions are produced during the
installation and dismantling of hydroelectric power plants. However, recent research suggests
that emissions during a facility’s operation can also be significant depending on the size of the
reservoir and the nature of the land that was flooded by the reservoir.
o Small run-of-the-river plants emit between 0.01 and 0.03 pounds of carbon dioxide
equivalent per kilowatt-hour.
o Life-cycle emissions from large-scale hydroelectric plants built in semi-arid regions are also
modest, that is, approximately 0.06 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

Geothermal Power Plants

Geothermal Power Plant
The most widely developed type of geothermal power plant (known as hydrothermal plants) is
located near geologic “hot spots” where hot molten rock is close to the earth’s crust and produces hot
water. In other regions enhanced geothermal systems (or hot dry rock geothermal), which involve
drilling into Earth’s surface to reach deeper geothermal resources, can allow broader access to
geothermal energy.

Environmental Impacts

The environmental impact of geothermal energy depends on how it is being used. Direct use and
heating applications have almost no negative impact on the environment.

 Water Quality and Use - Geothermal power plants can have impacts on both water quality and
consumption. Hot water pumped from underground reservoirs often contains high levels of
 sulfur, salt, and other minerals. Most geothermal facilities have closed-loop water systems, in
which extracted water is pumped directly back into the geothermal reservoir after it has been
used for heat or electricity production. In such systems, the water is contained within steel well
casings cemented to the surrounding rock.
 Land subsidence - Land subsidence, a phenomenon in which the land surface sinks, is sometimes
caused by the removal of water from geothermal reservoirs. Most geothermal plants re-inject the
water into the reservoir after it has been used to prevent contamination and land subsidence.
 Air emissions - The distinction between open- and closed-loop systems is important with respect
to air emissions.
o In closed-loop systems, gases removed from the well are not exposed to the atmosphere and
are injected back into the ground after giving up their heat, so air emissions are minimal.
o Open-loop systems emit hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, and boron
into the atmosphere. Hydrogen sulfide, which has a distinctive “rotten egg” smell, is the most
common emission.
 Acid rain- Once in the atmosphere, hydrogen sulfide changes into sulfur dioxide (SO 2). Sulfur
dioxide also causes acid rain, which damages crops, forests, and soils, and acidifies lakes and streams.
However, SO2 emissions from geothermal plants are approximately 30 times lower per megawatt-hour
than from coal plants, which is the largest SO2 source.
 Mercury emission- Some geothermal plants also produce small amounts of mercury emissions.
 Land use - The amount of land required by a geothermal plant varies depending on the properties
of the resource reservoir, the amount of power capacity, the type of energy conversion system,
the type of cooling system, the arrangement of wells and piping systems, and the substation and
auxiliary building needs.
 Earthquake risk - Hydrothermal plants are sited on geological “hot spots," which tend to have
higher levels of earthquake risk. There is evidence that hydrothermal plants can lead to an even
greater earthquake frequency. Enhanced geothermal systems (hot dry rock) can also increase the
risk of small earthquakes.
 Life-cycle global warming emissions
o In open-loop geothermal systems, approximately 10 percent of the air emissions are carbon
dioxide, and a smaller amount of emissions are methane, a more potent global warming gas. 
o In closed-loop systems, these gases are not released into the atmosphere, but there are still
some emissions associated with plant construction and surrounding infrastructure.

Natural Gas Power Plants

Natural Gas Power Plant
Natural gas is a fossil fuel. Global warming emissions from its combustion are much lower than those
from coal or oil.

Environmental Impacts 

 Air pollution - Cleaner burning than other fossil fuels, the combustion of natural gas produces
negligible amounts of sulfur, mercury, and particulates. Burning natural gas does produce
nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are precursors to smog, but at lower levels than gasoline and diesel used
for motor vehicles. Exposure to elevated levels of these air pollutants can lead to adverse health
outcomes, including respiratory symptoms, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.
 Land use and wildlife - The construction and land disturbance required for oil and gas drilling can
alter land use and harm local ecosystems by causing erosion and fragmenting wildlife habitats and
 migration patterns. When oil and gas operators clear a site to build a well pad, pipelines, and
access roads, the construction process can cause erosion of dirt, minerals, and other harmful
pollutants into nearby streams.
 Aquatic Contamination- Increased risk of aquatic contamination from chemical spills or
equipment runoff, habitat fragmentation, and reduction of surface waters as a result of the
lowering of groundwater levels.
 Water use and pollution - Unconventional oil and gas development may pose health risks to
nearby communities through contamination of drinking water sources with hazardous chemicals
used in drilling the wellbore, hydraulically fracturing the well, processing, and refining the oil or
gas, or disposing of wastewater. Naturally occurring radioactive materials, methane, and other
underground gases have sometimes leaked into drinking water supplies from improperly cased
wells.
 Groundwater Contamination- There have been documented cases of groundwater near oil and
gas wells being contaminated with fracking fluids as well as with gases, including methane and
volatile organic compounds.
 Surface Water - Unconventional oil and gas development also poses contamination risks to
surface waters through spills and leaks of chemical additives, spills, and leaks of diesel or other
fluids from equipment on-site, and leaks of wastewater from facilities for storage, treatment, and
disposal. Unlike groundwater contamination risks, surface water contamination risks are mostly
related to land management and to on- and off-site chemical and wastewater management. There
is also a risk to surface water from deliberate improper disposal of wastewater.
 Water Use - The growth of hydraulic fracturing and its use of huge volumes of water per well
may strain local ground and surface water supplies, particularly in water-scarce areas. Unlike
other energy-related water withdrawals, which are commonly returned to rivers and lakes, most
of the water used for unconventional oil and gas development is not recoverable. 

Solar Power Plants

Solar Power Plant
The sun provides a tremendous resource for generating clean and sustainable electricity without
toxic pollution or global warming emissions.

The scale of the system—ranging from small, distributed rooftop PV arrays to large utility-scale PV
and CSP projects—also plays a significant role in the level of environmental impact.

Environmental Impacts 

 Land use - Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar facilities can raise concerns about
land degradation and habitat loss. Total land area requirements vary depending on the
technology, the topography of the site, and the intensity of the solar resource.
 Water use - Solar PV cells do not use water for generating electricity. However, as in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture solar PV components.
Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP), like all thermal electric plants, require water for cooling.
Water use depends on the plant design, plant location, and the type of cooling system.
 Hazardous material - The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number of hazardous
materials, most of which are used to clean and purify the semiconductor surface. These
chemicals, similar to those used in the general semiconductor industry, include hydrochloric acid,
 sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and acetone. Workers also face
risks associated with inhaling silicon dust. 
 Toxic Materials - Thin-film PV cells contain a number of more toxic materials than those used in
traditional silicon photovoltaic cells, including gallium arsenide, copper-indium-gallium-diselenide,
and cadmium-telluride.
 Life-cycle global warming emissions - While there are no global warming emissions associated
with generating electricity from solar energy, there are emissions associated with other stages of
the solar life-cycle, including manufacturing, materials transportation, installation, maintenance,
and decommissioning and dismantlement. 

Wind Power Plants

Wind Power Plant
Harnessing power from the wind is one of the cleanest and most sustainable ways to generate
electricity as it produces no toxic pollution or global warming emissions. The wind is also abundant,
inexhaustible, and affordable, which makes it a viable and large-scale alternative to fossil fuels.

Environmental Impacts

Despite its vast potential, there are a variety of environmental impacts associated with wind power
generation that should be recognized and mitigated.

 Land use - The land use impact of wind power facilities varies substantially depending on the site:
wind turbines placed in flat areas typically use more land than those located in hilly areas.
 Wildlife and habitat - The impact of wind turbines on wildlife is most notable on birds and bats
i,e. bird and bat deaths from collisions with wind turbines and due to changes in air pressure
caused by the spinning turbines, as well as from habitat disruption. However, these impacts are
relatively low and do not pose a threat to species populations.
 Public health and community - Sound and visual impact are the two main public health and
community concerns associated with operating wind turbines. Most of the sound generated by
wind turbines is aerodynamic, caused by the movement of the turbine blades through the air.
There is also mechanical sound generated by the turbine itself. Overall sound levels depend on
turbine design and wind speed.
 Shadow flicker - Under certain lighting conditions, wind turbines can create an effect known as
shadow flicker. This annoyance can be minimized with careful siting, planting trees or installing
window awnings, or curtailing wind turbine operations when certain lighting conditions exist.
 Water use - There is no water impact associated with the operation of wind turbines. As in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture steel and cement for wind turbines.
 Life-cycle global warming emissions - While there are no global warming emissions associated
with operating wind turbines, there are emissions associated with other stages of a wind turbine’s
life-cycle, including materials production, materials transportation, on-site construction and
assembly, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning and dismantlement.

Biomass
Biomass 
In terms of energy production, biomass is almost always derived from plants, and to a lesser extent,
algae. For biomass to be a sustainable option, it usually needs to come from waste material, such as
lumber mill sawdust, paper mill sludge, yard waste, or oat hulls from an oatmeal processing plant,
material that would otherwise just rot. Livestock manure and human waste could also be considered
biomass.

The use of biomass can help mitigate climate change because when burned it adds no new carbon to
the atmosphere. When biomass is burnt, CO 2 is created, but this is equal to the amount of
CO2 captured during carbon fixation.  Thus, biomass is a carbon-neutral energy source because it
doesn’t add new CO2 to the carbon cycle. 

Environmental Impacts

 Life cycle emission- The only environmental impacts are from the construction of the plant itself,
similar to that of a natural gas plant. 

2.2.2 | Global Warming and the

Greenhouse Effects
Global Warming
Global Warming
Global warming refers to the recent and ongoing rise in global average temperature near Earth’s surface. It
is caused mostly by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming is
causing climate patterns to change.

Earth’s temperature depends on the balance between energy entering and leaving the planet. When
incoming energy from the sun is absorbed, Earth warms. When the sun’s energy is reflected into
space, Earth avoids warming. When energy is released from Earth into space, the planet cools. Many
factors, both natural and human, can cause changes in Earth’s energy balance, including:

 Changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount of heat retained by Earth’s
atmosphere;
 Variations in the sun’s energy reaching Earth;
 Changes in the reflectivity of the Earth’s atmosphere and surface.

Greenhouse Effects
The Greenhouse Effect

Have you ever noticed how much hotter a car can get compared to the outside temperature? Light
energy from the sun passes through the windows and is absorbed by the surfaces in the car such as
seats and the dashboard. Those warm surfaces then radiate infrared radiation, which cannot pass
through the glass. This trapped infrared energy causes the air temperatures in the car to
increase. This process is commonly known as the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect also happens with the entire Earth. The Earth is wrapped with an atmosphere
that contains greenhouse gases (GHGs). Much like the glass window of the car, GHGs allow incoming
visible light energy from the sun to pass, but they block infrared radiation that is radiated from the
Earth towards space. The trap heat energy subsequently raises air temperature. GHGs act like a
blanket, making Earth significantly warmer than it would otherwise be. It is estimated that the
average temperature on Earth would be -18 degrees Celsius without naturally occurring GHGs.

The Main Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary GHS that is directly emitted by humans and is contributing to
recent global climate change. CO2 is a natural component of the carbon cycle, involved in such
activities as photosynthesis, respiration, volcanic eruptions, and ocean-atmosphere exchange. Human
activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, release very large amounts of
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. This increases the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere.  

Methane (CH4) is produced through both natural and human activities. For example, wetlands,
agricultural activities, and fossil fuel extraction and transport all emit methane. It is more abundant in
Earth’s atmosphere now than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years. Due to human activities,
CH4 concentrations increased sharply during most of the 20th century and are now more than two-
and-a-half times pre-industrial levels.

Other Greenhouse Gases

Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas and the most important in terms of its
contribution to the natural greenhouse effect, despite having a short atmospheric lifetime. Some
human activities can influence local water vapor levels. However, on a global scale, the concentration
of water vapor is controlled by temperature, which influences overall rates of evaporation and
precipitation.  Therefore, the global concentration of water vapor is not substantially affected by
direct human emissions.

Ground-level ozone (O3), which also has a short atmospheric lifetime, is a potent greenhouse gas.
Chemical reactions create ozone from emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds
from automobiles, power plants, and other industrial and commercial sources in the presence of
sunlight. In addition to trapping heat, ozone is a pollutant that can cause respiratory health problems
and damage crops and ecosystems.
2.2.3 | Climate Change
Climate Change Reality
Climate Change

Climate change refers to any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended
period. In other words, climate change includes major changes in temperature, precipitation, or wind
patterns, among other effects, that occur over several decades or longer.

Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere will continue to increase unless the billions of tons
of anthropogenic emissions each year decrease substantially. Increased concentrations are expected
to:

 Increase Earth’s average temperature,

 Influence the patterns and amounts of precipitation,
 Reduce ice and snow cover, as well as permafrost,
 Raise sea level,
 Increase the acidity of the oceans.

Evidence

 Global Temperature Rise

The planet's average surface temperature has risen about 1.62 degrees Fahrenheit (0.9 degrees
Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change driven largely by increased carbon dioxide and other
human-made emissions into the atmosphere.

 Warming Oceans

The oceans have absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 700 meters (about 2,300 feet) of
ocean showing warming of more than 0.4 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969.

 Shrinking Ice Sheets

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. Data from NASA's Gravity Recovery
and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost an average of 286 billion tons of ice per year between
1993 and 2016, while Antarctica lost about 127 billion tons of ice per year during the same time
period. The rate of Antarctica ice mass loss has tripled in the last decade.

 Glacial Retreat
Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world — including in the Alps, Himalayas,
Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and Africa.

 Decreased Snow Cover

Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere has
decreased over the past five decades and that the snow is melting earlier.

 Sea Level Rise

Global sea level rose about 8 inches in the last century. The rate in the last two decades, however, is
nearly double that of the last century and is accelerating slightly every year.

 Declining Arctic Sea Ice

Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over the last several decades.

 Extreme Events

The Philippines have its own tale of extreme events such as the Super Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) in
2013 that claims thousands of lives in the Central Philippines.

 Ocean Acidification

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by
about 30 percent. This increase is the result of humans emitting more carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the oceans. The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed
by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2 billion tons per year.

Climate Time Machine

Refer to links in module.

Effects
Effects

Global climate change has already had observable effects on the environment. Glaciers have shrunk,
ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier, plant and animal ranges have shifted and trees are
flowering sooner.

Effects that scientists had predicted in the past would result from global climate change are now
occurring: loss of sea ice, accelerated sea-level rise, and longer, more intense heat waves.

Scientists have high confidence that global temperatures will continue to rise for decades to come,
largely due to greenhouse gases produced by human activities. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), which includes more than 1,300 scientists from the United States and other
countries, forecasts a temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next century.

According to the IPCC, the extent of climate change effects on individual regions will vary over time
and with the ability of different societal and environmental systems to mitigate or adapt to change.

Future Effects

 The change will continue through this century and beyond

 Temperatures will continue to rise
 Frost-free season (and growing season) will lengthen
 Changes in precipitation patterns
 More droughts and heatwaves
 Hurricanes will become stronger and more intense
 Sea level will rise 1-8 feet by 2100
 The Arctic likely to become ice-free
2.3 | Mitigating the Environmental
Effects of Energy Use
Is it too late to prevent climate change?
We have caused major climate changes to happen already, and still, we have set into
motion the possible drastic changes to continue to happen. In fact, even if we stopped
emitting GHG today, the global temperature rise would continue to happen, perhaps, for
at least several more decades or centuries. Why is this so? This is because it takes a
while for the planet to respond and because carbon dioxide, which the predominant
heat-trapping gas, stays in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. Subsequently, this
established the time lag between what we do and when we feel it.
With the latest estimates, global temperature is on track to rise by an average of 6 °C (10.8 °F) in
the absence of major action to reduce emissions. This could be already unfolding right as of the
moment. Our Earth is passing one or more tipping points which are abrupt and irreversible.
But it may not be too late to avoid or limit some of the worst effects of climate change.
Responding to climate change will involve a two-tier approach:
Mitigation – reducing climate change – involves reducing the flow of heat-trapping
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by: 

 reducing sources of these gases (for example, the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat,
or transport) 
 enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests, and
soil).

The goal of mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with the climate system,
and “stabilize greenhouse gas levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally to climate change, ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable
economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner” (from the 2014 report on
Mitigation of Climate Change from the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, page 4).
Adaptation – adapting to life in a changing climate – involves adjusting to actual or
expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of
climate change (like sea-level encroachment, more intense extreme weather events, or
food insecurity). It also encompasses making the most of any potential beneficial
opportunities associated with climate change (for example, longer growing seasons or
increased yields in some regions).
2.3.1 | Climate Change Mitigation
and Adaptation in the Energy
Sector
Mitigation and Adaptation as a Global Effort
Global Effort with the UN on the Driver Seat 

When the United Nations recognized climate change as a serious issue in 1992, negotiations among
countries have produced notable accords, including the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement. But
leaders have struggled to maintain momentum and failed to slow global temperature rise.

TO READ

 Key Milestones in the Evolution of International Climate Policy  (Links to an external site.)

As the sector producing the largest share of GHG emissions, the energy sector would be substantially
affected by policies aimed at meeting the internationally agreed 2°C target for global warming.  
Although challenging, a few mature options exist that can, if scaled up, result in substantial mitigation
of the sector’s GHG emissions. Pathways compatible with the 2°C target typically envisioned
decarbonization of the energy industry. It is likely that ‘negative emissions’ – technologies that absorb
CO2 from the atmosphere – will also be needed in the energy industry. 

Options for mitigation include:

Cutting emissions from fossil fuel extraction and conversion

Fossil fuel extraction and distribution currently contribute 5–10% of total fossil-fuel related GHG
emissions.  Mitigation options include:


o Reducing emissions associated with fuel production and transport through higher energy
efficiency and the use of low-carbon energy sources in mines, oil and gas fields, and
transportation networks,
o Capture and utilization of methane from coal mining,
o Reducing venting and flaring from oil and gas exploration, production, and transportation.

Switching to lower-carbon fuels, for example from coal to gas

Replacing a higher-carbon fuel with a lower-carbon alternative can reduce overall emissions. For
example, shifting from a current world-average coal-fired power plant to a modern natural gas
combined cycle (NGCC) unit can halve emissions, provided, that fugitive methane emissions are
controlled.

Improving energy efficiency in transmission and distribution

Improving energy efficiency in power transmission and distribution could help reduce GHG emissions.
Increased use of improved transformers and distributed power generation would reduce losses, while
new technologies such as dynamic loading, gas-insulated transmission lines and high voltage DC
transmission (HVDC) could offer reductions

Increasing the use of renewable energy technologies

Renewable energy (RE) sources have significant potential for reducing GHG emissions and are
becoming more competitive. RE provides just over one-fifth of the world’s electricity supply, and in
2012 accounted for just over half of the new electricity generating capacity added globally.
Generation from wind grew five-fold and from solar photovoltaics 25-fold in the period 2005–2012.
But only a small fraction of renewable potential has been tapped so far. Hydropower is currently the
largest single RE contributor, but solar, wind, and bioenergy are expected to experience the biggest
incremental growth.

Increasing the use of nuclear energy

Nuclear energy could make an increasing contribution to a low carbon energy supply, but a variety of
barriers and risks exists. Continued use and expansion of nuclear energy worldwide will require
greater efforts to improve the safety, economics, uranium utilization, waste management, and
proliferation of materials. 

Introduction of carbon capture and storage (CCS), and an extension into CCS plants that use
bioenergy crops (BECCS) as an approach to achieving ‘negative emissions’

Carbon capture and storage technologies are capable of significantly reducing the CO 2 emissions of
fossil fuel-fired power plants. Global warming is unlikely to be kept under 2°C without the
introduction and widespread adoption of CCS, and the cost of mitigation would be higher in the
absence of CCS. However, while all the components of integrated CCS systems already exist, it has
not yet been applied to a large, commercial fossil fuel-fired generation facility.

Even with swift adoption of CCS and other mitigation measures, scenarios indicate that the 2°C
target is likely to be missed unless ‘negative emission’ technologies (also known as carbon dioxide
removal, or CDR) are introduced. Producing electricity and heat by burning bioenergy crops, then
capturing and storing carbon emissions (BECCS) is one of the few options available.

However, the technology carries risks, mainly associated with the large-scale production of bioenergy
crops. These include unreliable supply (particularly given projections of changes to precipitation and
extreme weather events under climate change), impacts on biodiversity, and competition with other
land uses including food production.

Reducing final energy demand

Demand reduction in energy end-use sectors is a key strategy for mitigation (and for achieving wider
sustainability objectives), and largely determines the scale of the mitigation challenge for the energy
supply side. Limiting energy demand has multiple benefits, including:


o The ability to maintain a wide portfolio of energy technologies
o Reducing the need for new low-carbon energy supplies
o Avoiding lock-in to new, or potentially premature retirement of, carbon-intensive
infrastructure
o Maximizing co-benefits for other policy objectives
o Reducing risks associated with supply-side mitigation (e.g. bioenergy crops)
 o Increasing the cost-effectiveness of the transition.

Mitigation and Adaptation in the Philippines

Mitigation and Adaptation of the Philippines' Energy Sector

According to the World Resources Institute Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (WRI CAIT), the
Philippines’ GHG emissions in 2012 were dominated by the energy sector of 54%, followed by the
agriculture of 33%, industrial processes (IP) of 8%, and waste of 7% (USAID, Greenhouse Gas Emissions
in the Philippines,2016). 

The Philippines is included in the non-Annex I Country Party to the UNFCCC. This means that the
country does not have any responsibility to reduce its anthropogenic emissions of GHG. However,
the country has been proactive in responding to the call for climate change mitigation, that is,
reducing one’s GHG emission. In fact, it has undertaken several programs and activities in addressing
climate change concerns even before the signing of UNFCCC.

Energy Sector

The following are the approaches and initiatives undertaken by the Philippines in reducing GHG
emissions:

Renewable Energy Act (RA 9513) (Links to an external site.)

The country’s effort to reduce GHG emissions in the energy sector is centered on RA 9513 or the
Renewable Energy Act of 2008. This law is providing the legal mandate to develop, utilize, and
commercialize renewable energy in the country.

The RE Act identifies different mechanisms to promote the generation and utilization of electricity
from RE sources. On the supply side, the RPS and the Feed-in Tariff (FIT) are designed to work
together to stimulate the production of RE. The Net Metering System also allows the consumers
themselves to become RE producers and participate in a generation. On the demand side, the Green
Energy Option (GEO) allows consumers to choose or source their electricity consumption from RE
sources. These four mechanisms are explained in detail below:

 The Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) is a regulatory mechanism that mandates electric power
industry participants to source a percentage of electricity from renewable sources.
 The Feed-in Tariff (FIT) is a market-based mechanism that complements the RPS in stimulating
RE investments. Electric power industry participants are mandated to source their power supply
from RE at a fixed price over a period of time as defined by the ERC in consultation with the
NREB. The FIT covers wind, solar, ocean, riverine hydropower, and biomass but not geothermal
energy.
 Net Metering allows households and buildings that are equipped with solar PV systems to offset
consumption from the DUs. The program encourages end-users to participate in RE generation.
 The Green Energy Option (GEO) program is designed to encourage demand for RE. End-users can
opt to source their consumption from RE sources.

Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act (RA 11285) (Links to an external site.)

This law is geared to:

 Institutionalize energy efficiency and conservation as a national way of life geared towards
efficient and judicious utilization of energy
 Formulate, develop, and implement energy efficiency and conservation plans and programs to
secure sufficiency and stability of energy supply in the country and cushion the impact of high
prices of imported fuels to local markets 
 Protect the environment
 Promote and encourage the development and utilization of efficient renewable energy
technologies and systems to ensure optimal use and sustainability of the country’s energy
resource

Building Human Capacity

Capacity building is one of the most important activities that cut across different stages of reducing
emissions from energy industries. This is achieved by offering a graduate degree in energy and
engineering in some leading universities in the country to help create a pool of professionals with
technical know-how, and anew graduate program focusing on RE is in the pipeline to build local
expertise.

Transport

To address emissions in the transport sector, the Administrative Order 254 (Links to an external

site.) was issued on 30 January 2009 mandating the DOTC to lead the program called the National
Environmentally Sustainable Transport Strategy (NESTS) program. The program promotes a low-
carbon intensity transport system including Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, expansion of the urban
rail network in Metro Manila, deployment of hybrid vehicles in the public transport fleet, and the
acceleration of fuel switching in public transportation.

Road Transportation

 Promotion of BRT system for metro cities

 Use of alternative fuels (biofuels as transport fuels, natural gas for public transport), and autogas
(LPG) program
 Jeepney modernization
 Fuel efficiency and adoption of Euro regulations
 Tricycle Management, replacement of 2-stroke tricycles
 Intelligent Transport Systems
 Electric Vehicles
 Road User’s Tax Law-special fund for air pollution control

Water-borne Navigation

 Phasing out of ozone-depleting substances both as refrigerant gases and in firefighting systems
 Prevention of air pollution in the form of cargo vapors and exhaust gas
 Adopting strict limits for NOx and SOx in the ship exhaust gas
 Reduction of the amount of energy needed to transport a given unit of cargo

Air Transport

Recognizing the need to expand GHG reduction initiatives in the air transport sector, DOTr issued an
order which calls for the development and implementation of efficiency and emissions reduction
measures to address CO2 from aviation. It establishes a joint steering committee headed by the Civil
Aviation Authority of the Philippines (CAAP) with members including all airport authorities, the Civil
Aeronautics Board, and other relevant stakeholders. It is tasked to develop the Philippine Action Plan
on CO2 Emission Reduction Activities consistent with the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) Assembly resolution A38-18. In addition, it is also mandated to develop mechanisms for the
voluntary participation of air operators in the various schemes under the Global Market-Based
Measures (GMBM), such as the trading of carbon credits, purchase of credits, route optimization,
greater use of carbon-neutral and more fuel-efficient engines and lighter aircraft materials.

Mitigation and Adaptation as a Personal Advocacy

Climate change affects everyone

Our lives are connected with our climate reality. History had shown us how human societies have
adapted to the relatively stable climate we have enjoyed since the last ice age a thousand years ago.
A warming Earth brings climate changes and alters our normal routines as a modern society.   This
climate reality can affect our water supplies, agriculture, power and transportation systems, the
natural environment, and even our own health and safety.

We can reduce the risks brought by climate change by making informed choices that reduce
greenhouse gas pollution and preparing for the changes that are already underway. Our decisions
today will shape the world our children and grandchildren will live in.

Step Up and Act

You can take steps at home, on the road, and in your office to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
the risks associated with climate change. Many of these steps can save you money. Some, such as
walking or biking to work, can even improve your health! You can also get involved in a local or state
level to support energy efficiency, clean energy programs, or other climate programs.