Summary

Paradigm Shifts in Physics

Workshop Organized
by
the Science, Technology and Innovation Forum,
Tigray Bureau of Science & Technology

ጥሪ 30; 2014 ዓ.ም /TC

መቐለ, Tigray
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 Outline
The Importance of Physics to Society
Paradigm Shifts in physics
Kuhnian Revolution
Classical Mechanics & Classical Theories
Quantum Mechanics & Quantum Theories
Complexity Science & Complex Systems
The Law of Entropy
Chaos Theory
Fractals
Quantum Cognition
Conclusion

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 The Importance of Physics to Society
• Physics is the study of matter, energy and the interactions of the two - is an international enterprise, which
plays a key role in the future progress of humankind.
• Physics education and research in all countries is important because: It /is
a) an exciting intellectual adventure that inspires young people and expands the frontiers of knowledge
about Nature.
b) generates fundamental knowledge needed for the future technological advances that will continue to
drive the economic engines of the world.
c) contributes to the technological infrastructure and provides trained personnel needed to take
advantage of scientific advances and discoveries.
d) an important element in the education of chemists, engineers, computer scientists, as well as
practitioners of the other physical and biomedical sciences.
e) extends and enhances our understanding of other disciplines, such as the earth, agricultural, chemical,
biological, and environmental sciences, plus astrophysics and cosmology - subjects of substantial
importance to the world.
f) improves our quality of life by providing the basic understanding necessary for developing new
instrumentation and techniques for medical applications, such as computer tomography (CT), magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), ultrasonic imaging, laser surgery etc.
• Hence physics is an essential part of the educational system for an advanced society. 3
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Paradigm Shifts in Physics
 A “paradigm” is a specific theoretical orientation, based upon a
particular epistemology and research methodology, reflective of a
particular scientific community at a particular time in history.
 A paradigm shift is a concept, identified by the American physicist and
philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996), which is a fundamental change
in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific
discipline
 Kuhn, in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962),
fundamentally argues that “science” does not progress as a linear
accumulation of new knowledge, but undergoes periodic revolutions
called “paradigm shifts.”

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 Paradigm shifts…
• Kuhn’s book is considered as one of the most important books on the
history of science in the 20th century.
 Many late nineteenth-century scientists/physicists agreed with the
well-known words of physicist Albert Michelson, who proclaimed in
1894 that “it seems probable that most of the grand underlying
principles have been firmly established and that further advances are
to be sought chiefly in the rigorous application of these principles to
all phenomena which come under our notice.”
 However this could not stay longer with the emergency of quantum
physics by renowned physicists such as Max Planck , Albert Einstein,
Luis De Broglie, Rontgen and several others.

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 Paradigm shifts…
 For Kuhn, a new paradigm entails both resistance to the paradigm and
reasons for why individual scientists adopt it.
 Paradigm shifts tend to be most dramatic in sciences that appear to be
stable and mature, as what happened in physics at the end of the 19th
century.
 According to Max Planck, "a new scientific truth does not triumph by
convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather
because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up
that is familiar with it.“

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 Kuhnian Revolution
• On the other hand Kohn stated that," though history is unlikely to record
their names, some have undoubtedly been driven to desert science
because of their inability to tolerate crisis. "
• As more and more anomalous and incongruent results build up, the
paradigm of the scientific community reaches a “crisis.”
• This seems to hold true in our long history and politics as Tigrians in this
region which in my opinion has reached its climax at this moment
because of our improved “understanding” and information
• At this point a new paradigm could emerge and become accepted by the
community, which subsumes the old results along with the anomalous
results into one new paradigm framework, and this is termed
“revolutionary science.”
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 Kuhnian Revolution…
• Kuhn also argues that rival paradigms are “incommensurable,” i.e., it is
not possible to understand one paradigm through the conceptual
framework and terminology of another rival paradigm.
• As a member of a scientific community, our “reality” is determined by the
paradigm through which we see the world.
• Usually it is only when we reach a certain level of “crisis” a change in
paradigm comes forth.
• Science and its discoveries are not on a consistently steady evolutional
track, but a series of puzzle games, marked by transformative revolutions.

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 Kuhnian Revolution…
• Thomas Kuhn:
Normal science:
 It is based on a paradigm: a set of theories, methods, metaphysical
and epistemological theses that scientists, at a certain point in
history, accept.
 The paradigm dictates what puzzles science will work on, and what
counts as an adequate solution to those puzzles, how science
should be practiced, and what the aim of science is.
 Paradigms often have anomalies: predictions not fulfilled,
inconsistencies and so on.

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 Kuhnian Revolution…
• Thomas Kuhn: ….
Normal science:….

Revolutionary science:
 It involves sweeping away the whole old paradigm, its theories,
methods and standards, starting from scratch.
 Revolutionary scientists paint over the canvas, to draw in a new
outline, which new normal scientists will go on to fill in within the
new paradigm

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 Kuhnian Revolution …
 Many have claimed that also the shift from classical to quantum
mechanics should be viewed in Kuhnian terms.
 At that time classical physics seemed to be a discipline filling in the last
few details of a largely worked out system.
 However this sort of relief did not stay longer with the development of
quantum mechanics
 A prototypical example of a paradigm shift is the world-view that seems
to be depicted by quantum theory which is to be radically different from
the one of classical physics.

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 Kuhnian Revolution …
 While according to classical mechanics the universe is made of particles
and waves (and fields), the quantum world seems to be populated by
mysterious objects that can be particles and waves at the same time
(wave particle duality), and in general by entities that appear to be able
to be in more than one places at once.
 Whether we actually have a paradigm shift going from classical to
quantum mechanics is going to depend on what we understand quantum
mechanics to be.

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 Classical Mechanics & Classical Theories
 Classical Mechanics & Classical theories consider that:
• The world is made of particles.
• The clear metaphysics of the theory grounds a scheme of explanation
that arguably allows to determine the properties of macroscopic
physical objects in terms of the behavior of the fundamental objects in
the theory
• In CM any physical body (gases, fluids, and solids) and their
macroscopic properties can be satisfactorily described in terms of
collections of particles.

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 Classical Mechanics & Classical Theories
 Granting that reductionism is possible, this is how it is supposed to work:
• why a table is solid: because it is composed of particles that interact
electromagnetically such that it is impossible for another object to
penetrate them.
• Why a pair of glasses is transparent: because the electromagnetic
forces acting between the particles composing the glasses, that are
such that incoming light-rays will completely pass through them.
• Why water is liquid: because there is a very weak interaction between
the particles of water, and this allow water to change shape with the
container.

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 Classical Mechanics &Theories…
• Why gases expand: because they are composed of non-interacting
particles colliding with one another.
• Why air is compressible: because it is composed by non-interacting
particles, so that it is possible to reduce the distance between them
almost as much as we want.
 These examples show how in the classical framework we have a clear and
straightforward scheme of explanation of macroscopic phenomena given the
particles at the microscopic level, one can employ what now are standard
methods to determine the properties of familiar macroscopic objects

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 Quantum Mechanics & Quantum Theories
 Quantum mechanics is the study of very small things and explains
the behavior of matter and its interactions with energy on
the scale of atomic and subatomic particles.
 By contrast, classical physics explains matter and energy only on a
scale familiar to human experience (usually macroscopic scale)
 Applications of quantum mechanics include the laser, the transistor,
the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

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Quantum Mechanics & Quantum Theories…
 A special class of quantum mechanical applications is related
to macroscopic quantum phenomena (Bose-Einstein condensation:
BEC) such as superfluid helium and superconductors at very low and
very high temperatures respectively.
 The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and
the transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics.
 Here we have to abandon such clear schemes we reached a
conclusion on CM once we consider quantum mechanics:
• we need to change our paradigm, otherwise we seem to have
too many unexplained and unexplainable anomalies.

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 Quantum Mechanics &Theories…
 Several extremely strong assertions have been made about
quantum theories:
• it is impossible to be realist if quantum mechanics is true (QM is
probabilistic where as CM is deterministic),
• the “old,” classical way of understanding the world we just
described is not suitable any longer in specific cases (or at the
quantum world)
 How did it happen that people get convinced of these things?

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 Quantum Mechanics &Theories…
 Many will not feel at ease (have a problem) to grasp the quantum world
at least at the initial encounter.
 Let us briefly recall the history of the development of quantum
mechanics:
• At the end of the 19th century, the Newtonian picture of the world
was commonly accepted, even if there were several puzzles;
• Some of them suggested the idea of quantization

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 Quantum Mechanics &Theories…
 Other results suggested instead a change in the ontology (the branch of
philosophy that deals with nature of existence):
Some experiments were taken to show that particles sometimes
behave like waves (the quantum idea of wave- particle duality
emerged).
In addition, since in the quantum world superpositions are
possible, the laws of classical logic do not hold any longer

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 Quantum Mechanics &Theories…
 In CM, the fundamental equation is Newton's equation, and it
describes the temporal evolution of point-particles in three
dimensional space.
 We therefore conclude that CM describes the behavior of point--like
particles.
 In QM the fundamental equation is Schrödinger's equation, and
given it is an equation for the temporal evolution of the wave
function, we are entitled to take the wave function to represent
physical objects as well.

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 Quantum Mechanics &Theories…
• Hence we move from the classical, common-sensical view that there are
microscopic objects in regular three-dimensional space (particles and
fields) that compose macroscopic familiar objects, to the quantum view
in which we all live together in configuration space which is one of the
greatest paradigm shifts in physics which brought dramatic changes to
the world .
• More recently, paradigm shifts are also recognised in applied sciences:
 In medicine, the transition from "clinical judgment" to evidence-
based medicine
 In software engineering, the transition from the Rational Paradigm to
the Empirical Paradigm.
 In Artificial Intelligence, the transition from a knowledge-based to a
data-driven paradigm
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 Complexity Science & Complex systems
• Science in the 21st century is in a transition phase , and the century is
also known as the Century of Complexity (Nowotny, 2013 ; Hawking,
2000).
• Yet scholars of science in general, as well as scholars of complexity
science in particular, have great problems to deal with the problem of
complexity as a deep problem for science itself
• It seems to be the case that we are still running into the hard wall of
complexity (Barabási, 2003).

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 Complexity Science & Complex systems…
• Complexity Science is the study of systems with many interdependent
components.
• It is new branch of science that investigates the properties of
complex systems
• Complexity is when some situations, facts or events cannot be
described and explained with a straightforward line of thought.
• Science seems unable to solve the deep problem of complexity in the
Age of Complexity.
• It is the central goal of complexity science to understand the
connection between local and global behaviour in many-body
systems.

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 Complexity Science & Complex systems…
• The fundamental and foundational problem for science in the 21st
century is to solve the hard problem of complexity for science in the
Age of Complexity.
• A complex system is a system that exhibits nontrivial emergent and
self-organizing behaviors.
• Complex systems display a nontrivial collective behaviour of the
constituents.
• Complex systems often exhibit behaviour which is extremely difficult
to quantitatively predict.
• The study of Complex Systems considers the ability of individual
components of a large system to work together to give rise to
dramatic and diverse behaviour.
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 Complex systems…
• A complex system is simply a system in which many independent
elements or agents interact, leading to emergent outcomes that are
often difficult (or impossible) to predict simply by looking at the
individual interactions.
• Complex systems are all around us and can be created by nature,
such as ant colonies, gene networks, ecosystems, and brains.
• Others were created by us, such as political systems, stock markets,
language, technology, and cities.
• Complex systems can be considered as more than the sum of their
parts

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 Complex systems…
• Solving the hard problem of complexity seems not possible within the
sciences.
• Hence we first need to become aware that we may need a new
paradigm to become able to solve the problem of complexity as a
fundamental and foundational problem for science in the Age of
Complexity.
• Complex science is sometimes considered as physics beyond physics

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 Entropy (order and disorder)
• In thermodynamics, entropy is often associated with the amount of
order or disorder in a thermodynamic system.
• Entropy can be defined as a thermodynamic property which serves as a
measure of how close a system is to equilibrium, i.e., to perfect
internal disorder.
• Entropy is the measure of disorder; the higher the entropy the greater
the disorder

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 Entropy (order and disorder)…
• The value of the entropy of a distribution of atoms and molecules in
a thermodynamic system is a measure of the disorder in the
arrangements of its particles.
• According to the third law of thermodynamics, at nearly absolute
zero temperature(T→ 0K), crystalline structures are approximated to
have perfect "order" and zero entropy.

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 Chaos Theory
• The concept of chaos implies a state of confusion, or disorder.
• Chaos theory is the mathematical/physical approach that aims to explain the
state of such systems .
• These are dynamic systems with apparent random states of irregularities and
disarray, in which the states are governed by deterministic laws.
• Chaos theory is an interdisciplinary scientific theory which focuses on underlying
patterns and deterministic laws highly sensitive to initial conditions in dynamical
systems that were thought to have completely random states of disorder and
irregularities.

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 Chaos Theory
• Chaos theory states that within the apparent randomness of chaotic complex
systems, there are underlying patterns, interconnectedness, constant feedback
loops, repetition, self-similarity, fractals, and self-organization
• Naturally, the presence of chaos means the absence of order, and this is where
chaos can pose a problem.
• Chaotic systems are predictable for a while and then 'appear' to become random.
• In common usage, "chaos" means "a state of disorder“
• Small differences in initial conditions, such as those due to errors in
measurements or due to rounding errors in numerical computation, can yield
widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems, rendering long-term
prediction of their behavior impossible in general

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 Chaos Theory…
• Chaotic behavior exists in many natural systems, including fluid flow, heartbeat
irregularities, weather /climate.
• It also occurs spontaneously in some systems with artificial components, such as
the stock market and road traffic
• Chaos theory has been used for many years in cryptography
• Robotics is another area that has recently benefited from chaos theory.

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 Fractals
• Fractal means "broken" or "fractured", and used it to extend the concept
of theoretical fractional dimensions to geometric patterns in nature
• A fractal is a complex geometric object with fine structure at arbitrarily small
scales, perhaps with some degree of self-similarity.
• Fractals commonly appear in nature.
• An object whose irregularity is constant over different scales ("self-
similarity") is a fractal, which is infinitely long yet encloses a finite space
and has a fractal dimension .
• Biological systems such as the branching of the circulatory and bronchial
systems proved to fit a fractal model.

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 Fractals
• Fractals are of particular relevance in the field of chaos theory because they show
up in the geometric depictions of most chaotic processes (typically either as
attractors or as boundaries between basins of attraction).
• Many real and model networks have been found to have fractal features such as
self similarity:
• Example of a fractal with a topological dimension of 1

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 Quantum cognition
• Quantum cognition is an emerging field which applies the
mathematical formalism of quantum theory to model cognitive
phenomena such as information processing by the human
brain, language, decision making, human memory, concepts and
conceptual reasoning, human judgment, and perception
• The brain is definitely a macroscopic physical system operating on the
scales (of time, space, temperature) which differ crucially from the
corresponding quantum scales (the macroscopic quantum physical
phenomena, such as the Bose-Einstein condensate, are also
characterized by the special conditions which are definitely not fulfilled
in the brain.

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 Quantum cognition…
• As is commonly accepted in brain science, the basic unit of
information processing are the neurons.
• Quantum cognition uses the mathematical formalism of quantum
theory to inspire and formalize models of cognition that aim to be an
advance over models based on traditional classical probability theory.
• It is based on the quantum-like paradigm or generalized quantum
paradigm or quantum structure paradigm that information processing
by complex systems such as the brain, taking into account contextual
dependence of information and probabilistic reasoning, can be
mathematically described in the framework of quantum information
and quantum probability theory.

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 Quantum cognition…
• The field focuses on modeling phenomena in cognitive science that
have resisted traditional techniques
• Some scientists think quantum mechanics can help explain human
decision-making.

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 Few References
• Routledge Companion Philosophy of Science
• Oxford handbook of Philosophy of physics
• The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
• Discontinuity & Complexity in Nonlinear Physical Systems
• Generative Complexity in a Complex Generative World: A Generative
Revolution in the Making, New York: Springer Publishers
• An Introduction to Complex Systems- Making Sense of a Changing
World​
• Human Dynamics- A Complexity Science
• Quantum physics in neuroscience and psychology: a neurophysical
model of mind–brain interaction
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የቐንየለይ

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