Anatomical Terminology

Before we get into the following learning units, which will provide more detailed discussion of topics on
different human body systems, it is necessary to learn some useful terms for describing body structure.
Knowing these terms will make it much easier for us to understand the content of the following learning
units. Three groups of terms are:

Directional Terms
Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.

Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is part of the superior extremity).
Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity).
Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg).
Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body).
Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial side of the foot).
Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the lateral side of the foot).
Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the proximal end of the femur joins
with the pelvic bone).
Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the hand is located at the distal
end of the forearm).

Planes of the Body

Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into
anterior and posterior portions.
Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its parts into right
and left sides
Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts.
Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left
halves.

Skeletal system
The skeleton is the central structure of the body and is made up of bones, joints and cartilage.
The skeleton provides the framework for muscles and gives the body its defined human shape.

Types of joint movement

Hinge joints allow flexion and extension only.
Flexion – bending a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint decreases. For example, the elbow flexes when
performing a biceps curl. The knee flexes in preparation for kicking a ball.
 Extension – straightening a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint increases, for example the
elbow when throwing a shot put. The take-off knee extends when a high-jumper takes off (the other knee is flexed).
Ball and socket joints also allow flexion and extension.
Flexion of the shoulder joint occurs when the humerus (upper arm) moves forwards from the rest of the
body, which happens at the end of an underarm throw or bowl in rounders. Flexion of the hip joint occurs
when the femur (upper leg) moves forwards, which happens when long jumpers land or at the end of kick in football.
Extension of the shoulder occurs when the humerus moves backwards from the rest of the body, which happens
at the end of the pull stroke in front crawl. Extension of the hip joint occurs when the femur moves backwards, which
happens in the preparation for a kick in football, or in the back leg as a gymnast performs a split leap.

Ball and socket joints also allow types of movement called abduction, adduction, rotation and circumduction.
Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder joints
during a jumping jack movement.
Adduction – movement towards the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder,
returning the arms and legs back to their original position from a jumping jack movement or when swimming
breaststroke.
Flexion and extension are a pair of opposites; abduction and adduction are a pair of opposites.
Circumduction – this is where the limb moves in a circle. This occurs at the shoulder joint during an overarm
tennis serve or cricket bowl.
Rotation – this is where the limb turns round its long axis, like using a screw driver. This occurs in the hip joint in
golf while performing a drive shot or the shoulder joint when playing a topspin forehand in tennis.
To help remember the difference between rotation and circumduction, imagine there is a pen at the end of the body
part. If the pen draws a dot, it's rotation. If the pen draws a circle, it's circumduction.

The table summarizes the body locations and types of movements associated with each type of joint.
Joint Type Bones Movement Comments
Elbow Hinge Humerus Flexion, extension Biceps and triceps move
this
joint
Knee Hinge Femur, tibia Flexion, extension Quadriceps and
hamstrings
move this joint
Hip Ball and socket Femur, pelvis Flexion, extension, Not as great a range
abduction, adduction, of
rotation, circumduction movement as the
shoulder, but much more
stable
Shoulder Ball and socket Humerus, scapula Flexion, extension, Greater range of
abduction, adduction, movement
rotation, circumduction than hip, but not
quite as
stable