INTRODUCTION

Gas sensor is a device which can determine amount of one or various gases in specific volume at
a time. They can detect gases by either physical or chemical interaction between Gas or any
matter (like ceramic or polymer) and noting any change in physical properties before and after
the action. Just like we detect the targeted gas in electrochemical gas sensor by oxidizing or
reducing at an electrode by the help of electrical current. Chemical sensors are of different
classification. They can be electrical, electrochemical, optical, magnetic, thermometric and can
also be radiative based on other physical properties. In chemical sensors, electrical sensors are
based on producing change in their electrical properties, when a reversible redox reaction
(process) occur by the interaction of one or more gases with sensible material. A market is full of
sensors, but their usage is different in different devices like transistors, transducers, diode etc.
Each of these gas sensors are different in their mechanism, their principles, and their workings.
In all these sensors, resistive sensors are used widely all over the world due to their vast
applications and their simple way of working. The resistive type is the most popular on the
market since it only requires two terminals to complete the circuit, has a large sensing area, and
produces a nonlinear response with a significant amplitude without the need for an integrated
electronic amplifier. Although there are other criteria that may be used to describe sensor
performance, only those whose effects can be influenced by the substance utilised as the sensible
material are taken into consideration here. There are some defined below as

 Sensitivity is the output signal per concentration of gas. Slope of calibration curve
 Selectivity is whether the sensor react to selective gases or to chosen gas.
 Stability is the property to keep good performance in a specific period of above
parameters.
 Detection limit is the lowest amount of gas that can be measured under specific
conditions
 Response time is the concentration of gas changes from zero to specific value
 Recovery time is the backing of output signal to the initial value without gas
 The temperature at which a sensor's maximal sensitivity is attained is known as the
operating temperature.
  Resolution is the smallest change in gas concentration that a sensor can distinguish
between.
 Hysteresis is the greatest difference in output signal

 Inefficiency in Gas Sensors

Different morphology nanostructured sensor has been synthesized. The main problem in gas
sensors are their sensibility, selectivity, stability, lower operating temperature, and their response
time. For good sensing these parameters must be the priority in every sensor. The more reliable
these parameters, the more efficient the gas sensor will be. The benefits of these nanomaterials
and their gas sensing method depend on several technical factors, including their form,
compositions, dimensions, physicochemical characteristics, etc. Due to its high aspect ratio, less
agglomerated structure, and slow electron/hole recombination rate, ceramic nanomaterials have
recently attracted a lot of attention. The purpose of this chapter is to examine and comprehend
how these technological elements of ceramic nanoparticles have enhanced and optimized the gas
sensing mechanism in actual use. The initial author created every unique figure in this chapter.
  Basic Aspects of Nanostructured Ceramic Materials
Ceramic material can be prepared by action of heat and subsequent cooling rate. The structure of
ceramic material can be crystalline, semicrystalline and can be amorphous. For the gas sensor
semiconductor oxides-based metals are effectively used as active material in sensing
applications. Nanostructured can have 1D, 2D, and 3D structure with size range between 0.1 to
100 nm. Graphene now a days provide possibility of developing nanostructured gas sensors.
Their advantages are greater sensitivity, less sensing material needed in terms of size and
quantity, quicker response and recovery times, lower operating temperatures, and less power
usage. Their drawbacks include the need for post-treatment following synthesis, the need for
sophisticated characterization and synthesis methods, and limited repeatability and
reproducibility. Due to their extraordinary combination of physical and chemical properties,
ceramic nanomaterials are excellent choices of semiconducting materials for manufacturing
high-performance gas sensors. They are also valuable additives that give gas sensors new
functionality by enhancing and optimizing their sensitivity, selectivity, stability, response time,
and operating temperature.
FIGURE

Web-chart that illustrates the advantages achieved in gas sensors based on nanomaterials
(depicted as blue lines) on those based on bulk and/or micro-materials (illustrated with green
lines).

Ceramic materials have improved the parameters we discuss above. The performance of gas
sensors may be improved by employing ceramic nanoparticles by shape, composition, size, and
physicochemical characteristics.

 Resistive or Conductometric Gas Sensors

The basic gas sensing mechanism is the redox reaction at the surface of sensitive material, which
did change the depletion layer of material that produces change in electrical resistance due to
adsorption of gases on the surface of materials. As a result of the abundance of oxygen vacancies
in the surface of nanostructured materials, improved gas sensing characteristics can be attained.
Since interaction with the target gas might modify the conductivity or resistivity of the sensitive
material to the gas of interest, resistive or conductometric data are studied here. They are to
determine the toxic gases like CO, CH, NO, NO2, and hydrogen. In n-type semiconductor,
electrons are majority carriers and reducing gases increase the conductivity of sensitive
materials. In p-type, holes are majority carriers and oxidizing gases increase the conductivity of
sensitive materials.

Type of Gas Sensor Detection of Reducing Gases Detection of Oxidizing Gases

p-type Conductance increase Conductance decrease
n-type Conductance decrease Conductance increase
Fourier series;

A=Amplitude T=period of input signal t=time

High number of n allows a better approach

Figure shows ideal output of signal expressed as a function of Fourier series

Time required from low level to high level is called rise time. And from high level to low level is fall
time. Between certain transitional levels, such as 5% and 95% or 10% and 90%, rise and fall periods are
monitored.

 to Optimize the Sensitivity

It is the main parameter related to the response time of gas sensor. It is the slope of graph that show the
electrical parameter like current, voltage and resistance versus the concentration of gas.

𝑆 = 𝑅𝑎 / 𝑅𝑔

The reversible effects of chemisorption of gas molecules, the creation of space charge regions, and
changes in the concentration of charge carriers on the subsurface layer all contribute to the sensitivity of
semiconductor oxides. Structural characteristics of oxides like size, structure and agglomeration
determines the amplitude of output signals. Electrical conductivity highly dependent on surface
composition.

Since semiconductor metal oxides are sensitive to chemical components, surface modification, the
microstructure of the sensing layer, temperature, and humidity, they have a significant impact on the
surface reactions of gas sensors. ZnO nanowires and nano disks can sense acetone with high sensitivity.
And SnO2 enhanced response to isopropanol vapor and also better the selectivity and fast response time
and recovery time for gas sensing. The surface area of the gas sensing material is increased by the
presence of several metal oxides due to the additional active sites for gas adsorption. Nanostructured due
to high surface-to-volume ratio increase the sensitivity to different gases when operating temperature is
adequately adjusted. Insignificance response at low temperature due to chemical activation. The reaction
is decreasing at very high temperatures because adsorbed gas molecules escape before complete charge
transfer can take place. In order to detect gases, nanostructures must be able to absorb oxygen species
within a certain temperature range. As a result, the form of nano catalysts may be used to modify their
reactivity and selectivity since shape dictates which crystallographic facets will be exposed on the surface
of the sensitive material to the target gas.

 How to Optimize the Selectivity

Selectivity is much difficult to achieve than sensitivity. Ability to react to a particular gas in presence of
other gases. Figure demonstrates that hydrogen has a greater response than methane, carbon monoxide,
and hydrogen; nitric oxide is not picked up. This gas sensor is hence sensitive to particular gases. A
sensor must be able to detect a specific gas due to a very high selectivity, and a maximum response is
greatly desired.

Main strategies to improve selectivity are:

o altering the oxide nano crystallites' chemical makeup and size.

 o Using catalysts and changing catalyst density or concentration to increase molecule reactivity
o Using doping to change the active material's surface that is employed in the sensor.
o Combining two or more oxides to boost the sensor's surface activity.
o Managing the working temperature of the sensor. AND Using catalytically active and passive
filters
o Modifying the sensor architecture and the shape of sensitive material

Numerous applications demand gas sensors with great selectivity, thus the choice of the sensitive
materials must be made with care. It is crucial to note that high selectivity implies limited reversibility
since large binding energies are required. Since weak interactions exist between the analyte and the
sensitive material in change, complete reversibility may be easily obtained.

 How to Optimize the Stability

The ability of sensor not to change easily. Semiconductors materials have good stability in air.
Semiconductor based oxide gas sensors have long life in terms of application. So good methodology
required to improve the stability over long period with good performance. There are two different types of
sensor stability: active stability, which is related to the reproducibility of sensor characteristics over time
and under predetermined working conditions, and conservative stability, which is related to the
preservation of sensitivity and selectivity over time and under typical storage conditions like
environmental.

To try to adjust for sensor drift, Romain and Nicolas evaluated three different approaches: signal pre-
processing (containing the response variable's base line signal), univariate sensor correction, and
multivariate array correction.

A suitable housing is necessary to counteract this impact since the humidity of the ambient gas stream
greatly affects a gas sensor's long-term stability. Water absorption reduces the gas sensor's baseline
resistance (also known as initial resistance or resistance at air), which makes the gas sensor less stable. It
does not provide electrons to the detecting layers.

One-dimensional materials have lengths that are equivalent to the Debye length, making them more
thermodynamically stable than nanograins and more conducive to the long-term steady functioning of gas
sensors. With their easy fabrication, open surfaces, high gas sensitivity, and long-term stability,
nanostructured materials including nanobelts, nanorods, nanowires, and other nanostructures constitute
great design platforms for the next generation of gas sensors.