Ethical Thoeries

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Ethical Foundations
Ethical Philosophies Ethical Values are heavily influenced by one’s cultural
(Moral Theories) background…
❑ aka cultural relativism.
What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon society’s
moral guidelines
These guidelines vary from place to place and from time
to time
A particular action may be right in one society at one
time and wrong in another society or at another time …
Ethical Foundations Ethical Theory

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Non-Western Western Common values

• Japanese • Individual • Respect for In the discipline of philosophy, ethics
Living and working liberty human dignity encompasses the study of
together for the common • Egalitarianism • Respect for
good (equal basic rights the actions that a responsible individual
• Hindu opportunity) • Good should choose,
The fulfilment of inherited• Political citizenship
duty Participation the values that an honorable individual
• Buddhist • Human rights
The importance of limited should espouse, and
desires the character that a virtuous individual
• Muslim
The duty to give alms to should have (Loui and Miller, 2008).
the Muslim poor.
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Ethical Theory Ethical Theory

This is also known as philosophical ethics, An Ethical Theory is a
ethical theory, moral theory or moral
philosophy. theoretical account of what
It involves systematising, defending and ethical thought and practice
recommending concepts of right and are.
wrong conduct.
B. Williams, (Ethics and the Limits
It often addresses disputes of moral of Philosophy)
diversity.
Some Ethical Philosophies/Moral

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories
137
Theories
◻ We often face difficult The right action is the action that:
situations/dilemmas. is performed by a virtous person (Aristotle)
◻ Many common theories/traditions have a true judge would feel approbation (approval) for
emerged over time. (Hume)
◻ These ethical theories serve as the accords with the moral law (Kant)
foundation for ethical solutions to our To you, moral law may be e.g. the 10 commandments.
dilemmas. To Kant, moral law is implemented through the
We hold ethical values that guide us Categorical Imperatives.
in ethical decision making. produces the greatest happiness for the greatest
number (Utilitarianism).
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Definitions
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Categories of Ethical Philosophies/Moral ◻ Moral agent: a being who is capable
Theories of acting with reference to right and
Teleological, Deontological wrong. Voluntarily.
and Virtue Approaches ◻ Moral agency: an individual's ability
to make moral judgments based on

some notion of right and wrong and
to be held accountable for these
actions.
Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

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Can be categorised ◻Teleology

◻A teleological approach is one
under: which is based on consequences.
◻Derived from the Greek words
Teleology
telos meaning end and logos
Deontology meaning “science”, “word,”
“reason,” or “plan”.
Virtue ethics
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◻Teleology ◻ Consequentialism
◻In a teleological view, everything has a ◻ A teleological approach.
purpose/end. ◻ We determine whether an action is moral or not
◻You have an explanation behind every

by
◻ ONLY
action you take.
◻ weighing the action’s consequences against a
◻This explanation gives the purpose/goal
desired outcome.
of the action.  i.e.
only the action’s consequences/outcomes matter
◻A teleological explanation is one with when considering if it is moral or not.
an appeal to ends. ◻ The most well known form is utilitarianism.

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◻Deontology ◻Deontology cont…

◻A deontological approach is based ◻M o r a l i t y i s b a s e d o n c e r t a i n
on a set of rules or absolutes. duties/obligations;

certain actions are inherently right or wrong,
◻Derived from the Greek words deon regardless of the consequences following
and logos. those actions.
◻ The actions are right or wrong in themselves.
◻“Deon” implies duty, obligation,
◻ What makes an action right or wrong is its
ne c es si t y, ( d eo nt - th a t wh i c h i s compliance with a moral norm.
binding).
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Deontology cont… ◻ Virtue Ethics

Therefore, an agent’s duty is to comply with a
◻ Approach to Normative Ethics based
moral norm regardless of the effects of not
complying (which may actually be beneficial). on Greek Philosopher Aristotle’s work.
E.g.: ◻ The ethical action is the action a
Parents must take care of their kids… virtuous person would take.
… regardless of the fact that NOT doing so might
have financial benefits for them (greater savings). ◻ A virtuous person is one who has/shows
(Moral agent: a being who is capable of acting with a high moral standard.
reference to right and wrong. Voluntarily.)

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Q: List some virtues: ◻ Vices include:

Justice Greed
Courage Selfishness
Patience
Teetotalism Jealousy
Wisdom ?
An even temper ?
Generosity ?
Kindness.
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Aristotlean philosophy According to Aristotle:

Virtue Ethics origin: Aristotle writing his thoughts human beings have a purpose/final cause...
on morality to his son. Our purpose/ultimate goal in life is to achieve
He believed that everything that exists has an end eudaimonia.
or purpose. Eudaimonia is the state or condition of 'good spirit’,
To know the final purpose of a thing is to know (usually translated to 'happiness' or 'welfare’).
what it is to be a good one of its kind. It is the highest human good.
If you know a thing’s purpose you can determine A good/excellent human being is one who
what it needs to meet its purpose (in order for it successfully fulfils that purpose.
to be a good one of its kind).

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“To know a thing’s final purpose is to know what it

◻
is to be a good one of its kind and to be able to

As a virtuous person you will always go
determine what it needs to meet its purpose.” with virtue
◻ What we pursue is a life well lived, a life full of Any act you perform is because it’s the
happiness. right thing to do.
◻ Anything that facilitates the successful attainment of our
You will do something because it is
purpose as human beings (i.e., to achieve eudaimonia)
is part of the good for being a human being. virtuous/the right thing to do
◻ To achieve this central purpose of human life, we must not because of what it makes you
cultivate virtue. achieve.
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◻Ethics is not about actions or ◻Are we born with morals?

consequences, but about agents. ◻Can we be taught morals?
◻We live an ethical or good life by
◻I t i s s a i d t h a t c h a r a c t e r s a r e
h a vi ng the a pp r op ri a t e m or a l
developed in childhood.
character which comes from having
◻I f t h i s i s t h e c a s e , i t i s t h e
the right character traits (virtues).
◻We d evel op an d de mon stra te responsibility of adults to instill good
virtues and avoid vices. character traits (virtues) in children.

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Aristotle believed eudaimonia is not simply virtue

or pleasure – it is the exercise of virtue.
◻With deontology, we learn,
According to Aristotle, you are given all the then practice, moral rules.
opportunities through life to get the virtues. ◻W i t h v i r t u e e t h i c s w e
Each time you encounter a moral dilemma and
have to make a decision you get an opportunity develop good character
to acquire the virtue habits and avoid bad
Each decision makes you virtuous (or not, based
on the decisions you make each time). character traits/vices.
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◻Virtue Ethics: ◻Cultural relativism

Weaknesses ◻May lead to different
◻Cultural relativism cultures regarding
◻Competing Virtues different character traits
◻Context as virtues.

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◻ Context
◻ Competing Virtues
◻ Related to Competing Virtues.
◻Good character traits/virtues may
◻ Virtuous traits can be displayed in the course
compete/be in conflict with each other. of an immoral action.
◻ Honesty requires us to be truthful.
◻ Take a courageous robber. Is there such a
◻ Kindness requires us to be compassionate. thing?
◻ What if telling someone the truth hurts them? ◻S/he is living according to the moral
◻ Being kind may require you to lie/be silent.

standards set by a virtuous person (courage).
◻ However s/he is breaching the virtue of
honesty
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Teleology vs D eontology vs V irtue Ethics: A Specific theories are numerous.

Summary They include:
To determine if an act is moral or not: ❑Egoism
Consequentialism focuses on the act’s consequences. ❑Natural law
Deontology focus on the act itself. Acts are inherently ❑Consequentialism (including utilitarianism)
right or wrong. The end DOES NOT justify the means.
❑Respect for persons
Virtue ethics focuses on the agent’s character.
❑Kantianism
A virtuous agent will act morally.
❑Care Ethics
Character is what matters most.
❑Contract Theory
Ethical Philosophies
Ethical Philosophies Egoism
Egoism ❑ Actions are to be judged in terms of

the extent to which they promote a
Thomas Hobbes - 17th C person’s self interest.
philosopher: ❑ Look after #1.
all our actions are ultimately ❑If you don’t look after yourself no
motivated by selfishness. one else will.

❑ All human behaviour is motivated by
We are inherently selfish
self-interest.
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Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Egoism
❑ Egoism ❑Egoists must consider if their actions

❑ The only moral obligation we have is to
act in our self-interest.
disintegrate society
❑ What is best for a given individual is right ❑Because that could work against
❑ Those actions are right that contribute to them.
my interests.
❑No enforced benevolence
❑W e d o o n l y w h a t m a k e s u s ( a s
individuals) happy. ❑E.g. why should I pay tax to
support others?
Ethical Philosophies Ethical Philosophies

Egoism Egoism
No paternalism
❑
❑ We do NOT pursue the best interests of others

❑ Conduct is not forbidden
when they cannot do so themselves i.e.: just because someone
❑ forcing others to do something for their own
good, e.g.: thinks it’s immoral …
❑motorcycle helmet law en masse
❑developing drug laws to help addicts. ❑no laws against e.g.
❑Such drug laws would only introduced to
prevent crime
pornography, gambling.
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Egoism - Problems Egoism - Problems
1. Fails the impartiality test: 2. Difficult to define self-interest.

❑To what extent do I recognise your
equal right to pursue your well-being? 3. Apparently impossible to do
❑A fundamental morality principle is that good actions for family and
we should treat each others as equal. friends for their sake
❑Instead of discouraging discrimination, ❑r a t h e r t h a n w h a t t h e i r
ethical egoism acknowledges giving welfare contributes to us.
yourself preferential treatment.

Egoism - Problems Natural law
4. May not be appropriate to the ❑ Associated with Thomas Aquinas:

ethical goal of resolving ❑we should follow God’s law.
disputes. ❑We are born with the tools to
5. Allows every person/institution know what is good.
to commit crimes to benefit ❑Instinct and reason point us to
themselves – not viable. the natural law.
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Natural law Natural law
❑ God wants us to want good things which are ❑ The primary goal of life is to achieve as fully as
good for us. possible our potential as human beings.
❑ These are 7 basic goods: ❑ The Natural Law states that we should act in a way
1.Life that conforms to the natural inclinations of human

2.Reproduction beings, e.g.:
3.Educating your offspring ❑preserve and promote our own health and life
4.Seeking God ❑Life is good. Murder and suicide are wrong.
5.Living in society ❑propagate (produce children)…
6.Avoiding offense ❑Sterilisation, homosexuality, and artificial
7.Shunning ignorance contraception are wrong (anti-procreation).

❑ … natural inclinations of human beings (cont)… ❑ Anything unnatural is immoral.

❑ develop our own unique human intellectual faculties
❑ There is an objective standard for morality
❑ Stifling of intellectual curiosity is wrong
existing separately from ourselves.
❑ pursue knowledge of the world and God
❑Ethical relativism is invalid.
❑ Lack of religion is wrong.
❑Cer ta i n a ct i on s a re ri g ht o r wro n g
❑ be part of a social group (pursue close relationship
with other people) regardless of the consequences.
❑ E.g. friendship and love are good. ❑E.g. you can’t push any passengers
❑ Slander/gossip/lies are not morally permissible. overboard even if doing so saves the
❑ submit to legitimate authority. lives of your own people.
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❑ You can’t compare the good of one single ❑Humans have free will and they decide to
life with the good of several lives. act or not.
❑ The Fat Man version of the Trolley ❑ When making a moral judgement for a
Problem is not a dilemma any more - person committing an act, we must include
you will not push anyone. an evaluation their intentions.
❑ We cannot lie: ❑e.g. donating to charity to establish a
❑We have a duty not to act against good reputation in the community:
another person’s natural law right to ❑good consequences but not morally
know the truth. admirable.
Natural law - Problems Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories
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1. Is lying right if you’re a natural ◻Utilitarianism

liar? ◻A theory in normative ethics
2. What is human nature? (the ethics that define the morality
3. W h a t s h o u l d w e d o w h e n of actions)
sterilisation is necessary to
◻ Proposed by Jeremy Bentham and
prevent a life-threatening
pregnancy? John Stuart Mill.
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◻ Utilitarianism ◻ The morally right action is the one that

◻ The greatest happiness principle. maximises utility/good consequences.
◻ States that a moral action is one that ◻ The amount of happiness or suffering
maximises utility for the greatest your actions cause is what matters most.
number of people. ◻ We do something that produces more
u t i l i t y = h a p p i n e s s , w e l f a r e ,
total happiness than anything else.
wellbeing

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◻An action is right if and only if it ◻ Classical and modern utilitarians

maximises the good (happiness) or define ‘the good’ as pleasure or well-
minimises the bad (causes the least being.
The former include Bentham and Mill
suffering).
◻ This approach is aka hedonistic
◻To get this outcome you may need
utilitarianism;
to break a traditional moral rule.
ideas of good are associated with
pleasure or happiness.
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Utilitarianism Utilitarianism
❑ Actions are to be judged in terms of the extent to ❑ Nothing but utility is good in itself.
which they promote the greatest total amount of
welfare for humanity. ❑ Particular actions and general rules must
❑A moral action is that which produces the
greatest total utility. be evaluated by their consequences.
❑ Your well-being is of no greater value than ❑Murder, rape, theft, fraud etc are not
someone else’s.
❑ Unlike egoism.
wrong in themselves;
❑ Utilitarians go for what produces the greatest ❑they are only wrong because they do
total utility as opposed to the greatest distribution
of utility. not produce as much utility as
alternative behaviours.
Ethical Philosophies The Doctrine of Negative

Utilitarianism
Responsibility
❑ People do terrible things, yes. ❑ This is known as the
❑ If we are in the midst of a terrible situation
consequentialist doctrine of
and are given the chance to make things
better, we MUST take the opportunity. negative responsibility.
❑Even if it means we get our hands dirty in ❑When faced with a moral
the process.
dilemma, you are responsible
❑If you don’t do something your hands are
still dirty ... for not taking any action.
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Objection to Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism
❑ Bernard Williams, the 20 th Century British

philosopher developed two thought Video:
experiments to illustrate his objections to
utilitarianism, particularly the consequentialist
doctrine of negative responsibility. 20th century brit philosopher’s
❑George, the unemployed Ph.D in Chemistry Bernard Williams thought
offered a job in a biological and chemical
warfare manufacturer. experiment: Jim in the Village
❑Jim in the Village
Objection to Utilitarianism Utilitarianism
❑ “...if I am ever responsible for anything, then I must ❑ Jeremy Bentham developed the original concept of
be just as much responsible for things that I allow or utility as: All actions are directed toward gaining
fail to prevent, as I am for things that I myself, in the pleasure or avoiding pain.
more everyday restricted sense, bring about” ❑“It is for them [pain and pleasure] alone to point out
❑ (Williams) what we ought to do” and determine the “standard of

❑ The negative responsibility doctrine states that Jim is
right and wrong.”
responsible for NOT taking any action. ❑ According to John Stuart Mill “actions are right in
❑ A utilitarian would have to kill the one Native proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as
American to save the other nineteen. they tend to produce the reverse of happiness,”
❑ However, is killing the morally right thing to do, even if ❑happiness being “pleasure and the absence of pain.
lives are saved?
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❑ Utilitarianism therefore caters for ❑ There’s no distinction between active

and passive acts:
self-actualisation;
❑S a y y o u r c a n c e r p a t i e n t w a n t s
❑you will probably make your euthanasia.
greatest contribution to society’s ❑administering a lethal injection vs
well-being by doing work that ❑not administering life-sustaining
gives you the greatest medication
satisfaction... ❑ Both are morally equivalent actions (you
have killed the patient.)

❑ Your right to be considered is based on your ❑ Individual freedom is supported;

❑ability to experience pain and enjoyment and
❑having rationality and self-consciousness. ❑It leads to the discovery of truth.
❑ Thus abortion can be ok as the fertilised egg
❑T h i s p r o m o t e s t h e g r e a t e s t
immediately after conception is unaware of
anything satisfaction for people.
❑Thus has no rights to be considered.
❑ “the truth shall set you free.”
❑The serious interests of the mother usually
supersede the basic interests of the foetus.
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Utilitarianism Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories
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❑Morally permissible to perform ◻Utilitarianism

medical experiments on
mentally challenged children; ◻Two types:
❑the total benefits outweigh Act utilitarianism
the total harm.
Rule utilitarianism
❑Hitler experiments?
Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Act Utilitarianism

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An act utilitarian justifies actions simply by

◻
directly appealing to the principle of utility Video

(happiness, welfare, wellbeing)… 1 healthy individual vs 5 patients
◻ i.e. Act Utilitarianism = Bentham and Mills’s
Classical Utilitarianism:
◻ in any given situation, choose the action that
produces the greatest good for the greatest

number of people.
◻ Is t hi s al wa y s r ig ht ? S e e v id e o o n o rg an
harvesting.
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◻Act utilitarianism: ◻Before acting, an act utilitarian

does NOT generalise the act.
◻The principle of utility is - or
◻S/he considers it as a single
ought to be - applied to action with a single outcome.
particular acts in particular S/he weighs the possible
circumstances. consequences each and every
time s/he acts.

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◻ Action-type vs Action-token: ◻ Action-type vs Action-token Example:

◻A c c o r d i n g t o t h e S t a n f o r d ◻ If we say lying is wrong, we are saying
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: ALL lies are wrong.

Generalist view.
◻ The distinction between a type and its
◻ If we say that lie is wrong, we are saying
tokens is … one between a general
a particular lie is wrong.
sort of thing and its particular concrete
Particularist view.
instances.
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◻ A particularist utilitarian is an act utilitarian. ◻ A generalist utilitarian is a rule utilitarian.

 S/he tests each and every token action (e.g., ◻ When faced with a decision, s/he:
telling a particular lie) against the utilitarian 1. uses the utilitarian principle to check the
principle (the greatest happiness for the
action-type and generates rules then
greatest number of people).
◻ For the Act Utilitarian, if by lying they will
2. tests action-tokens against these rules
clearly be advancing the utilitarian principle, Action-type: All lying is wrong
they will break the rule as, for them, rules do Action-token: Telling this lie is wrong.
NOT have a deontological force.

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Act utilitarians consider themselves

◻
clever;
◻E.g.:
they can make decisions WITHOUT ◻If someone is a serial
blindly applying rules as:
◻ Blindly applying rules to specific killer should we kill
situations can have unforeseen him/her?
negative consequences…
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◻ Rule utilitarianism Disadvantage ◻ Rule utilitarianism Disadvantage cont…

◻ Possible injustice/violation of rights  What if Onyancha is not a killer but is extremely
irritating and everyone he interacts with intensely
◻ If once he is let go he will kill more people, then
dislikes him?
he will produce unhappiness for the majority of  If he dies, won’t the majority of people be happy?
the people.
 Then we should kill him.
 We should kill him.
◻ What produces happiness for the majority may be an
◻ If he will not kill anyone then we should not kill act of injustice/violation of a person’s rights.
him. ◻ Blindly applying rules to specific situations can have
unforeseen negative consequences

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◻ Act Utilitarianism Disadvantage ◻ Rule utilitarianism

◻ Double standards: ◻ Theory that
An act utilitarian considers it useful for
the principle of utility is - or ought to
everyone but themselves to follow "good"
rules … be - the source of rules of conduct,
For themselves they have the right to decide and
whether or not it is smart to apply those rules such rules determine whether particular
in a specific situation.
acts are right or wrong.
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◻ Before acting, a rule utilitarian thinks ◻We avoid doing acts that
about the consequences of people maximise utility in the short term.
following that rule.
◻Instead we follow rules that
◻ If the outcome is considered positive,
s/he might decide that it's good to maximise utility in the long run.
follow that rule in general.
s/he will apply it in future.

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◻ Thus rule utilitarianism is seen as more ◻ Rules may be justified by their

practical that Act-U. general utilitarian consequences.
◻H o w e v e r , s o m e t i m e s , i n s o m e
◻ It also answers the anti-utilitarian
argument that no one can, or wants to, particular circumstances, these very
rules may require actions that DO
spend their time weighing each and NOT maximise utility …
every possible outcome each and
◻ Can we then justify rule utilitarianism?
every time they need to act.
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◻ Yes. ◻ It is in our nature as human to struggle

◻ Despite such cases, overall utility is with being impartial about utility (or
m axim ise d by a ru le -f ol lo wi ng anything else) in matters involving our
system… self-interest.
as compared to the alternative cf Egoism
(having individuals decide on their ◻ Rules are inflexible, thus they impose
conduct in particular circumstances). a degree of objectivity.

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◻ Rules must be consistent: ◻ Act Utilitarianism

◻ In any given situation, we should choose
◻ You apply them in the same way to
the action that produces the greatest
relevantly similar circumstances. good for the greatest number of people.
◻ Problem: ◻ Rule utilitarianism
◻ what is relevantly similar may be ◻ We ought to live by rules that in general
ambiguous. are likely to lead to the greatest good for

the greatest number of people.
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◻Rule vs Act Utilitarianism: ◻ A rule utilitarian will say:

"ifpeople stick to the rule and do not
An example: cross red lights everyone is safe while
waiting for a short while good
◻A person driving at night consequences ”.
approaches a junction and ◻ They will then apply that rule to
themselves and wait for the light to
the traffic light is red. turn green.
Rule vs Act Utilitarianism: Example cont... Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

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◻ An act utilitarian may say ◻ Utilitarianism vs Consequentialism

“I sure hope that people - not me though - in ◻ Share many principles.
general follow that rule and do not cross red ◻ Sometimes used interchangeably.
lights, but
1. there's no one around who will be influenced by ◻ However:
my act, ◻ Consequentialism does not specify a
2. there are no cops in the vicinity to fine me, and desired outcome
3. I would see an approaching car since it is dark…
◻ Utilitarianism specifies good as the
I might as well cross right now."
desired outcome…
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◻ Rule utilitarianism is the same as rule ◻U t i l i t a r i a n i s m v s

consequentialism except…
◻ Rule utilitarianism specifies that decisions
Consequentialism
should follow rules promoting the most ◻Utilitarianism is a consequentialist
good moral theory.
◻ Rule consequentialism specifies that rules
should promote a certain desired outcome. ◻A utilitarianist’s desired outcome is
the maximum good.

Respect for Persons Respect for Persons
❑ Those actions are right that treat human beings as ❑ We should act in a way that equally respects
an end and not a means to an end. the dignity of every human being.
and ❑Actions are judged by whether they treat
human beings as free moral agents who can
actions are right if everyone adopts the moral rule
presupposed by the action: order their lives by their own purposes and
values.
❑ An action is right if you can consent to
❑ Do unto others as you would have them do unto
everyone’s adopting the moral rule
presupposed by the action. you.
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❑ All persons possess a divine spark that gives ❑ People are not mere things.
them fundamental human dignity and equality. ❑ They should not be manipulated in a way that
❑ We must distinguish between persons and

disregards their states as moral beings, e.g.:
❑ slavery is wrong - it treats people as commodities.
things.
❑ sexual harassment: treating someone as a “mere sex
❑ Humans are an end in themselves; they may object” is treating the person as a thing rather than
serve as a means towards an end, but not as as a person.
mere means. ❑Seduction also uses the person as a mere means;
❑it reduces their ability to act effectively as a
❑ They have autonomy and rationale and goals.
goal-pursuing agent…

❑ Persons vs things: ❑ For a person to act as a moral agent they must

have freedom or voluntariness…
❑people can accomplish their ❑Moral agency: an individual's ability to make
own goals; moral judgments based on some notion of

right and wrong and to be held accountable
❑things have their purposes for these actions.
❑Moral agent: a being who is capable of
determined from the outside. acting with reference to right and wrong.
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❑ Moral agency requires purposiveness ❑We have a duty not to

and well-being where a person destroy/harm our health.
❑sets goals for themselves and ❑I n c r e a s i n g o u r g e n e r a l
❑has the abilities (good character knowledge and education will
and practical skills) and physical promote our abilities to pursue
goods (good job) to achieve them. our goals.

❑ Treating others as a mere means = When faced with a dilemma:

you losing your rights to freedom and ❑Determine which action constitutes
well-being proportional to the rights the least serious violation of the
of others that you trespass. moral agency of others.
❑ Always ask yourself if you have ❑Ask: whether the action overrides
assisted others in achieving their your/others freedom or well-being.
freedom and well-being.
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Kantian Ethics Kantian Ethics
240
◻ Immanuel Kant: deontologist. ◻ A key insight: the Categorical Imperative:

◻ His philosophy is based on respect for persons. ◻ It has two formulations:
◻ The right action is the one motivated by universal ◻ 1. The Universalisability Principle
principles that treat everyone with respect. ◻ Act only according to that maxim by which you can at
◻ Deontology, as it is the principle behind the action the same time will that it should become a universal law.
that matters the most, not its results. ◻ 2. The Formula of Humanity
◻ Being motivated by the right principles enables us ◻ Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own
to overcome our animal instinct and act ethically. person or in that of another, always as an end and
◻ All actions are moral and "good" if performed as never as a means only (mere means).
a duty. 239

Kantian Ethics Kantian Ethics: Problem
241
◻ It is best known in its first formulation. ◻ Categorical Imperative: Act only according
Basically “act in such a way that your maxim to that maxim by which you can at the same
could be a general law.” time will that it should become a universal
■Maxim: general principle or rule law.
◻ E.g. you can’t lie; ◻ Problem:
◻ if everyone lied all the time, then no one ◻ Imagine a Nazi man who is genuinely and
would believe anyone, therefore lying conscientiously willing to universalise his
would be impossible. principle/maxim: Kill the weak …
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Kantian Ethics: Problem Kantian Ethics
244
◻ Kant: “But if you were weak you wouldn't want others to ◻ The Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative:
kill you". ◻ 2. The Formula of Humanity
◻ Nazi man: ◻ Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own
 "Better to die than live as a sniveling weakling," person or in that of another, always as an end and
 "I would want someone to kill me." never as a means only.
 "Do the right thing and put me out of my shame." ◻ Mere means = you are using something only for your
◻ The Categorical Imperative in this case actually own benefit without bothering about that thing’s
approves his maxim… interests/benefit.
◻ Immoral? ◻ Which is fine if it isn’t human.

Kantian Ethics Kantian Ethics: Problem
245
◻ Kant’s Second Categorical Imperative: The Formula of ◻ How do you know when you're using someone
Humanity merely as a means?
◻ Humans are ends in themselves. ◻ You: “Is the second hand car salesman who sells me a
 We are not objects existing to be used by others as mere piece of junk using me only as a means to line his
means. pockets?”
 We are rational and autonomous ◻ Salesman: "Let the buyer beware".
 We have the ability to set our own goals and work towards ◻ He didn't make you not take it to a mechanic to get
them. it checked out.
■When you lie to me so that you can get something from me ◻ Instead he respected your freedom to be a sucker
that you want, you have robbed me of the autonomy to who didn’t do your own due diligence.
make that decision to help you because my decision is
based on false information.
29
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Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

Care Ethics Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories
247 248
◻ The right action is the one that builds, ◻ Contract Theory

◻ Contractarianism states that our morality is a set of
strengthens and maintain strong rules which we implicitly agree to abide by
 as if we had signed a contract.
relationships. ◻ The right acts are those that do not violate the free,
◻ Emphasis is on our relationships. rational agreements that we have made.
◻ What matters most is the agreements rational people
◻ We must therefore care for others would choose to be bound by.
and the relationships they are a part E.g let’s not overlap/misbehave on our
roads.
of. ◻ Not necessarily about character (virtue), principles
(deontology), or consequences (teleology).
Ethical Foundations Ethical Foundations

❑ There are many ethical models of how ❑ People go through several stages of moral
human beings apply their chosen evolution before they settle on one level of
ethical philosophies to the decisions ethical reasoning.
and choices they have to make daily ❑ Having reached this level your actions are
in their work and other areas of their guided by self chosen ethical principles
lives. ❑ not by fear, guilt, social pressure etc.
❑ E.g. the behavioural stage theory … ❑c f K o h l b e r g ’ s S t a g e s o f M o r a l

Development
30
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Ethical Principles Ethical Principles

In general, there are ethical principles The Golden Rule – Do unto others as you would have
that have survived throughout recorded them do unto you
history Universalism – If an action is not right for all situations ,

then it is not right for any specific situation
Their roots are in many cultures. Slippery slope – If an action cannot be taken
repeatedly, then it is not right to take at all
Which one to follow depends on you as
A slippery slope argument takes an initial premise
an individual. and sees it through a chain of consequences until
you arrive at an unacceptable, undesirable, or
These principles include… disastrous outcome.
Ethical Principles Ethical Principles

Collective utilitarian principle – take the action New York Times Test (Perfect information rule) - assuming
that achieves the greater value for all society that the results of your decision or action will be the lead
article on the News media next day, will the reaction of the
Risk aversion – take the action that produces readers be positive or negative and would all those close to
the least harm, or least potential cost you be proud of your action(s).
No free lunch – assume that all tangible and Social contract Rule – would you like to live in a society
intangible objects are owned by someone else where the principle you are supporting would become the
principle of the entire society?
unless there is a specific declaration and if
useful, then you should assume the creator Social Contract Theory: People live together in society in
accordance with an agreement that establishes moral and political
requires compensation for it rules of behaviour.
31
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References
❑ Bentham, J. (1999, April 30). An Introduction to the Principles of
Morals and Legislation (J. H. Burns, Ed.). Clarendon Press.
https://doi.org/10.1604/9780198205166
❑ D. (n.d.). Utilitarianism : Past, Present and Future. Retrieved
November 1, 2022, from https://www.utilitarianism.com/
❑ Loui, M. C. and Miller, K. W., (2008), Ethics and Professional
Responsibility in Computing, University of Illinois, Springfield, Wiley
Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering, John Wiley
and Sons Inc, 2008
❑ Mill, J. S. (1863) Utilitarianism 1 ed. London: Parker, Son & Bourn,
West Strand.
❑ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). Retrieved November 1,
2022, from https://plato.stanford.edu/
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Ethical Foundations Ethical Theory

Non-Western Western Common values

Ethical Theory Ethical Theory

Some Ethical Philosophies/Moral

to make moral judgments based on

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

Can be categorised ◻Teleology

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

purpose/end. ◻ We determine whether an action is moral or not

◻You have an explanation behind every

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

◻Deontology ◻Deontology cont…

on a set of rules or absolutes. duties/obligations;

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

Deontology cont… ◻ Virtue Ethics

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

Q: List some virtues: ◻ Vices include:

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

Aristotlean philosophy According to Aristotle:

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

“To know a thing’s final purpose is to know what it

is to be a good one of its kind and to be able to

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

◻Ethics is not about actions or ◻Are we born with morals?

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

Aristotle believed eudaimonia is not simply virtue

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

◻Virtue Ethics: ◻Cultural relativism

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

◻ Being kind may require you to lie/be silent.

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

Teleology vs D eontology vs V irtue Ethics: A Specific theories are numerous.

Egoism ❑ Actions are to be judged in terms of

motivated by selfishness. one else will.

❑ Egoism ❑Egoists must consider if their actions

Ethical Philosophies Ethical Philosophies

❑ We do NOT pursue the best interests of others

Ethical Philosophies Ethical Philosophies

1. Fails the impartiality test: 2. Difficult to define self-interest.

Ethical Philosophies Ethical Philosophies

4. May not be appropriate to the ❑ Associated with Thomas Aquinas:

Ethical Philosophies Ethical Philosophies

1.Life that conforms to the natural inclinations of human

4.Seeking God ❑Life is good. Murder and suicide are wrong.

5.Living in society ❑propagate (produce children)…

6.Avoiding offense ❑Sterilisation, homosexuality, and artificial

7.Shunning ignorance contraception are wrong (anti-procreation).

Ethical Philosophies Ethical Philosophies

❑ … natural inclinations of human beings (cont)… ❑ Anything unnatural is immoral.

Ethical Philosophies Ethical Philosophies

1. Is lying right if you’re a natural ◻Utilitarianism

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

◻ Utilitarianism ◻ The morally right action is the one that

Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories Ethical Philosophies/Moral Theories

◻An action is right if and only if it ◻ Classical and modern utilitarians

Ethical Philosophies Ethical Philosophies

Ethical Philosophies The Doctrine of Negative