PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY

URDANETA CITY CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

1ST SEM. A.Y. 2022-2023

THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE I
RSW FN-01

COLORS IN ARCHITECTURE

GROUP 5: ARCHI-1C
 BENITO, RENIELLE IAN
 FLORES, BEATRICE
 ORIA, TANYA
 ROSARIO, JOHN PATRICK
 SY, HUBERT

AR. RUTHER DAOANA

INSTRUCTOR
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

I. HISTORY OF COLOR SCIENCE

II. THE COLOR CONCEPT
III. RELATIONSHIP OF COLORS
IV. COLOR-SPACE-ARCHITECTURE
V. COLOR HARMONIES

REFERENCES
 INTRODUCTION

In the same way that colors and forms are dependent on one another, so too are colors and
architecture.

Without selecting the appropriate color or color family, it is difficult for buildings to have a
functioning exterior and interior layout. When we discuss colors, we should not only refer to painted
surfaces or architectural components that are "colored," but also to the colors of structural materials
that have their own unique natural look (such as bricks, stone, slate, different types of wood).
Consider the light, yellowish maple wood, the reddish cherry wood, or the brownish nut wood. We
could go on and on with a long list of the colors of natural types of wood that affect how a structure
seems to be colored.

If an architect wants to design a harmonious and aesthetically pleasing building in every way,
they must be aware of all the laws that guide us in the world of color. This will allow them to select
the color scheme that best fits their vision and is both aesthetically pleasing and functionally
advantageous.

CHAPTER I

THE HISTORY OF COLOR SCIENCE

 Artists and scientists have been interested in identifying and describing colors, as well as
systematizing them, since the European Renaissance. Leonardo and Newton were also deeply
involved with the science of colours is, but the first basic work in colour science, which is regarded as
“modern” and certain elements of which still have their effects today, was “Colour Science” (Zur
Farbenlehre) by J.W. Goethe, at the very beginning of the 19 th century. The six spectral colors were
given names, and he made the assumption that colors were made up of a combination of light and
dark. According to this theory, when white is progressively darkened, yellow shows first, and when
black is gradually lightened, blue does. According to this presumption, the main colors can be
arranged in ascending brightness order.

The concept of complementarity initially emerges in Goethe's writings and subsequently in

the 19th century, when it becomes widely acknowledged, and defines the emotional content of colors.
In relation to Goethe's color theory, we must also note the name of a German painter, Philipp Otto
Runge, who adopted these ideas and developed his own color scheme, the so-called "color sphere,"
which organizes colors according to brightness and tones of gray.

The color sphere developed by a French chemist named Chevreul in the middle of the 19th
century and his book "On the laws of the assortment of colored objects and the simultaneous contrasts
of colors," which deals with contrast phenomena, particularly complementary contrasts, mark the
following significant stage in the history of color science.

Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell conducted an experiment to show that colors can mix
in the eyes as well as on a palette or canvas in 1850. An American scientist named Ogden Rood
followed up on this discovery in 1879 by stating that "if different colors are juxtaposed in the form of
lines and dots, when they are viewed from the right distance, their mixing is mostly performed by they
eyes." This discovery gave rise to the pointillism trend in painting, which is still popular today.

The German Bauhaus school and its two most influential instructors, Johannes Itten and Josef
Albers, are responsible for the development of modern color theory, which continues to have an
impact today. In their respective books, Itten's "The Art of Color" and Albers' "Interaction of Color,"
the authors shared their perspectives on colors and how they interact. These ideas served as the
foundation for contemporary color schemes, and the topic at hand is likewise founded on them.

PH. O. RUNGE: THE COLOR SPHERE

IN THE MODERN ERA

There has always been a need for color systematization since people can discern millions of surface
colors. Modern color schemes basically place the colors in a three-dimensional space. Colors are
recognized using catalogs with "color patterns," and these patterns often include a three-component
code giving hue, brightness, and saturation values.

Modern color systems are classed in the following categories:

 color systems based on additive color mixing

 color systems based on subtractive color mixing
 color systems based on equally spaced hues according to perception

Color systems based on additive color mixing

These systems regard colours as individual colours of the colour circle, and the additive mixture of
white and black.

The Ostwald System

The basic system was created in 1915.

The possible hues are groups according to the following:

 primary colors
 bright colors (primary color + white)
 dark colors (primary color + black)
 dull colors (primary color + white and black/grey)

The "Color Harmony Manual," a compendium of color schemes produced in the USA, served as the
color system's practical realization. This color scheme's flaw is that there aren't enough evenly spaced
colors, in accordance with perception.

Color system based on subtractive color mixing

According to these ideas, color is a concoction of pigments. The 1947 U.S. invention of the
"Coloriser" color scheme serves as a prime illustration. There are 1322 different color patterns in the
color collection. The color space is not uniformly spaced nor continuous.

Color system based on equally spaced hues according to perception

The model of these systems there are equal spaces between the color points.

Munsell color system (in 1915)

 hue (H)
 chroma (C)
 value (V)
 The color circle, the hue scale is divided into 100 equal parts according 10 hues of the 5
primary colors and 5 mixed colors each: R-red, YR-yellow-red, Y-yellow, GY green-yellow, G-green,
BG-blue-green, B-blue, PB purple-blue, P-purple, RP-red purple.

DIN color system

Since 1953, it has been the accepted color scheme in Germany. The saturation values of the
colors are denoted with the letter "S," and the saturation value of the achromatic point is S=0. The
system splits the color circle into about equal halves based on 24 perceptions.

The letter "D" designates the color's brightness value. The most recent collection of color
patterns is "DIN 6164 Glänzende Farbmuster," which was released in 1983 and has 571 color
patterns.

NCS (National Colour System) (1972)

White (W), black (B), yellow (Y), red (R), blue (B), and green (G) are the six main colors that
make up the visual spectrum, and all other colors are in some way connected to these six. Each color
is described by the NCS along with how similar it is to the six chosen colors. Its 1979 publication
"Color Atlas SS 019102" comprises 1412 designs in its color pattern collection.

CHAPTER II

COLOR CONCEPT

It is crucial to understand the many technical terminologies, fundamental ideas, and

fundamental properties of colors before going into depth about the rules of the world of colors.

Color Stimulus

Essentially, color is a physical concept that emits energy.

On passing through a prism white light splits up into the following colours:
~ 390 - 450 nm wavelength: violet
~ 460 - 480 nm wavelength: blue
~ 490 - 530 nm wavelength: green
~ 540 - 580 nm wavelength: yellow
~ 590 - 640 nm wavelength: orange
~ 650 - 800 nm wavelength: red

The radiation that reaches the eyes is referred to as a color stimulus. The human brain
converts color stimuli into color perception. In daily life and throughout the study of the current topic,
we initially deal with perceived color, and when we use the abbreviation "color," we always mean
this.
Determining colors

In order to determine any colour appearing in our environment we need three pieces of data,
which are the three characteristics of the given colour:

 hue
 brightness
 saturation

Hue

Since this is what is understood by "color" in common parlance, it may be considered to be

the most significant, decisive quality of color. Accordingly, it decides if a color is yellow, blue, red,
etc. A spectral color is one that has been brought on by a spectral color stimulus. White, black, or grey
are examples of neutral colors since they lack a specific hue.

Colors may be categorized into six primary groups based on their hue. Primary and secondary
colors make up the six primary colors.

Primary colors:

 yellow
 blue
 red

Secondary colors:

 green created from the mixture of yellow and blue

 violet created from the mixture of blue and red
 orange created from the mixture of red and yellow

The so-called color circle is a continuous curve that repeatedly starts as a hue change.
Different color circles were produced by various color systems (to be described later), but they all
share the same fundamental traits. (For instance, Chevreul, Goethe, and Coloroid color circles.)

The terms "warm" and "cold" colors refer to the hue of a color. Warm colors, primarily red
and orange, are seen at long wavelengths in the spectral spectrum. Cold colors are those that are
recognized at short spectral wavelengths, primarily blue and greenish blue.

Brightness

A defining quality of color that demonstrates how far away from pure white it is (in the case
of certain color system the distance from the absolute black). When subtractive color mixing is used,
brightness can be firstly improved by combining white with the specified color. Every color may be
clearly assigned to the grey of the same brightness on the grey scale by interpreting the brightness of
the color.
Saturation (Chroma)

It displays the relationship between a specific color and the gray that has the same spectral
color's brightness and hue. Since a saturated color is one that is recognized when the color content of
the triggering light stimulus is high, the saturation of a color may be modified, i.e. lowered, by mixing
it with grey of the same brightness. Unsaturated colors are also known as broken colors. (In
architecture, broken-unsaturated colors are particularly important since the use of saturated colors is
generally limited due to their striking look.)

The purpose of the inventors was to have regular lengths between the individual color points
and normal difference between the colors in color scales or color systems that are regular according to
perception.

In the case of aesthetically pleasing color scales, there are similarities between adjacent colors
that are not smaller than what is referred to as the harmony-color difference. By harmony-color
difference, we mean the smallest color difference required to use two colors in the same harmonic
color composition in a way that allows for their visual separation and aesthetic interpretation.

When more than one color is utilized, the colors are connected to one another and develop a
tension. Color contrasts are one of the many conceivable ways that colors may be related to one
another. This discrepancy is said to be in contradiction when it is at its greatest.

Color Contrasts

Hue Contrast

When two (or more) colors have differing hues, we discuss hue contrast. The complementary
contrast is the most prominent example, when the hues that make up the contrast are each other's
complimentary colors and are facing one another at the opposing ends of the color wheel, where the
hue difference between them is at its greatest.

When two (or more) colors have differing hues, we discuss hue contrast. The complementary
contrast is the most prominent example, when the hues that make up the contrast are each other's
complimentary colors and are facing one another at the opposing ends of the color wheel, where the
hue difference between them is at its greatest.

Cold and Warm Contrast

Although it is actually a specific kind of hue contrast, it is thought of as a distinct contrast

effect due to its fundamental emotional consequences and influence on the vegetative nervous system.
In layman's terms, it is a conflict between cool and warm hues. It has a powerful association impact,
and opposites like distant and close, light and heavy, wet and dry, etc. are associated with it.

Saturation Contrast

Only the saturation (amount of grey) between two colors in clear saturation contrasts with it.
Although it is rarely employed on its own, this highly exquisite and subtle contrast effect is a crucial
component of tasteful, harmonious compositions. Warm colors often provide for a more intense
perception of the contrasts in saturation and contrast than do cold colors.

Brightness Contrast

The brightness levels of the opposing colors are varied, which is a highly distinctive general
contrast effect. Even a slight change in brightness contrast may be vividly seen by human eyes. It may
provide a dynamic, intense contrast effect that, when there is enough difference, can also produce
tension in a manner similar to complimentary contrast. As you'll see later, brightness contrast is
important in architecture due to both its three-dimensional and two-dimensional distinctiveness (it
was a characteristic tactic employed in baroque art).

Quantity Contrast

Its basic argument is that since colors vary in intensity, the size and proportion of color-
carrying surfaces is crucial if the goal is to produce a harmonious, well-balanced composition. As a
primary goal of a planning architect is to achieve an equilibrium state, it is crucial that the color
appearance does not exacerbate mass and space conditions but corrects them, if necessary. The
architectural significance of this type of contrast was first recognized and studied in detail in Bauhaus.

Quality Contrast

It is a contrast effect that is commonly used in architecture, and its key idea is that the texture
or real nature of the surface that carries color can affect how that color appears. On materials of
varying qualities, such as metal, wood, glass, etc., the same color might have a varied impact. It is
crucial to consider it while choosing colors for buildings. When surfaces (textures) of varied quality
on a structure (or in an interior space) have the same color, it is not desirable
 CHAPTER III

RELATIONSHIP OF COLORS

The Psychological effect of Colors

Knowing and applying all the principles governing how colors and people interact is crucial
when constructing a color composition. People's reactions to colors may have a direct biological
impact or may have an impact on how they feel emotionally.

Color Preference

The phrase indicates that some colors are more well-liked than others and that they have a
pleasing impact. The term "personal color choice" is ambiguous but significant; it is psychologically
based, typical of a person, and one of the most crucial factors to be taken into account when planning
buildings for certain people.

Historical color Preference

Different colors were preferred during various eras of cultural history. It also refers to a shift
in color preferences: frigid colors were chosen in Gothic architecture during the Middle Ages, while
warm colors predominated in new-age architecture (Renaissance, classicism), and then cold colors
were preferred once again in modern, mostly high-tech building.

The choice for saturation also altered throughout the course of architectural history. Whereas
saturated, intense tones were more common in the Gothic style, colors "faded" and unsaturated hues
gained prominence initially during the time of classicism. In terms of brightness, the third defining
property of colors, a definite upward tendency can be seen: from the Gothic style to the modern
periods, colors brightened continuously, and light hues gained popularity. The types of color pigments
that could be created undoubtedly had an impact on the preferred colors of the various historical
periods. For instance, this explains why warm earth tones were so popular in the past since they were
the most readily accessible pigment.

Color Preference According to Age

People's preferences for colors fluctuate throughout the course of their life, therefore when
choosing colors for certain structures (such as a nursery school or an aged care facility), it's crucial to
examine how the colors relate to the age group utilizing the building. It can be shown that whereas
toddlers are initially drawn to saturated and warm colors, adults choose broken and frigid hues, and as
people age, unsaturated and dark hues take center stage.

Social/Geographical Preference
 Due to significant regional influences, certain civilizations choose particular color
combinations over others. Consider, for example, how intensely saturated the colors are in African
garments or how some Mediterranean civilizations favor warm earth tones. It's crucial for architects to
understand that, when designing a building in a foreign nation, where local color preferences may not
be as well-known as those in their own community, they must research and take these preferences into
account.

Studies on color preferences are also conducted in particular social groups, such as criminals
or mentally challenged individuals, but due to time constraints, it is not possible to describe the
findings in this topic. Nevertheless, when planning certain concrete buildings, these studies must also
be taken into account.

Two fundamental properties of the human eye (and brain) must be discussed in relation to color
perception: chromatic adaptation and color constancy.

Chromatic Adaptation

The capacity of the eyes to adjust to environments illuminated by light sources of various
luminances and hues.

Color Constancy

Color constancy is a process in which the consistency of the color experience continues
despite changes in the eye-affecting stimuli. Color constancy is mostly produced through memory (the
recalled color) and the so-called central correlation process, which is the outcome of improved neuron
function. The changi exhibits chromatic adaptation and color constancy.

A particular color can also be assessed independently of illumination within specific bounds
due to chromatic adaptation and color constancy, which prevent changes in lighting from
automatically altering the color of an item in the mind.

Biological Effect of Colors

When deciding on the colors for a setting, one must keep in mind that colors have a direct
impact on people's physiological factors. Inappropriately planned coloring may even lessen
environmental harm, whilst poorly chosen coloring may have a negative impact on physiology.

The color red stimulates the neurological system and raises blood pressure.

The digestive system functions better when exposed to orange.

The color yellow stimulates the brain.

Green lowers blood pressure and has a calming impact on the neurological system.

Blue lowers body warmth and alleviates discomfort.

Violet boosts the heart's activity and has a positive impact on cardiac function.
Emotional Effect of Colors

Colors have an impact on the mind in addition to human biology. "Experience tells us that the
individual colors all exude distinct emotions," said Goethe. Yellow, reddish yellow (orange), and
yellowish red (red lead, cinnabar red) are the colors of the positive side. People who see these colors
feel energized, vibrant, and motivated. The negative side is colored in shades of blue, reddish blue,
and bluish red. People who are exposed to these colors feel restless, tender, and longing. I don't
believe there is anything to be added to the aforementioned remark; the emotional content of colors
was just as readily perceptible and assessable two hundred years ago. The human eye finds true
delight in the color green.

Color Association

One of the most significant aspects of the interaction between colors and individuals is the so-
called color association, which is strongly tied to the phenomena mentioned above. There are three
content levels where color connection may be realized: biological, aesthetic, and symbolic.

The experiment conducted by Professor Antal Nemcsics as part of his research on color
dynamics showed that the association between red and warmth has a biological basis because the test
subjects discovered that a lower temperature in a room lit with red light was more comfortable than in
a room lit with cold-blue light. The linkages between color and biology are intimately tied to the
biological content of color association.

Aesthetic Content

Color associations are typically linked to feelings evoked by other senses, thus for instance,
colors may have musical or poetic connotations. The emotional impact of colors serves as the
foundation for the aesthetic content of color association.

Symbolic Content

Symbolic content might be of a status, political, religious, or historical character. The most
fundamental symbolic connections are made in meanings that logically emerge from the properties of
the provided colors. The genesis of the symbolic meaning of colors dates back to the prehistory of
humankind (for example, the dark blue of the sky = serenity, passivity), and it has been continually
developed by the faiths and civilizations that have been produced throughout history.

Naturally, symbolic contents change throughout time and are influenced by historical and
cultural context. Here are a few illustrations of symbolic materials produced during various periods of
cultural history:

 Green and blue were considered spiritual colors in ancient Egypt (as Amon emblems Osiris)
 In Middle Ages liturgical and heraldic color symbolism, green stood for Red was the color of
courage and optimism, respectively.

The system of color symbols used by a particular country, culture, or religion group must be
understood by the architect in order to prevent producing an entirely different impression from what
was intended.
 CHAPTER IV

COLOR- SPACE-ARCHITECTURE

After addressing the fundamental properties of colors and the important rules of interaction
between people and colors, it is time to explore the relationship between color-space-architecture,
which is the fundamental concept regulating the possibilities of employing colors in architecture.

Color and Space

First and foremost, we must discuss the ability of colors to communicate space and their
suitable application in interior spaces.

Modifying role of hues

Warm colors pull things closer together, whereas cool colors put things farther apart. J. Itten
concluded from his research that "the progression of the space defining depth impact of the six
fundamental colors coincides with extreme and mean ratios," and that "from cold and warm colors of
the same brightness, warm colors press forward, while cold colors press downwards."
 Using this formula and suitably coloring the individual limiting walls of the space, an
optically distinct effect than the actual size of the space may be achieved.

Modifying role of saturation and brightness differences

In general, rich and brilliant colors appear to be closer than unsaturated and dark colors. In the
case of saturated and very saturated colors, tiny changes in saturation have little effect on the
perception of distance. At the same time, even little changes in the saturation of typically saturated
colors have a significant impact on the perception of distance.

According to the aforementioned rules, an interior space's ceiling should be painted a cool,
unsaturated color to make it appear taller. Meanwhile, a warm, saturated floor color makes the ground
appear closer and more concrete, which has a positive impact on our sense of security. As a general
rule, it is preferable to define the floor-wall-ceiling brightness scale for interior spaces such that the
ceiling is given the brightest color and the floor is given the darkest color from a brightness
perspective.

Building mass and facade design

Additionally, the perception of mass may be affected by color. Saturated colors make objects
appear larger, but unsaturated colors make them appear smaller. Similar principles apply to light
colors: the brighter the thing, the larger it seems.

As a result, colors may be used in architecture to alter how the general public feels. The visual
scale of an excessively large building mass can be lowered with a darker, unsaturated color.
Conversely, building sections of a smaller mass that are significant at the same time and need to be
highlighted should be given a more saturated, brilliant color. Colors can also be used to draw attention
to a building's construction. Tones that aren't overly saturated are appropriate for pronouncing floors
and levels. Colorful accentuation of structural elements that have a purpose aids in giving a building's
exterior a look that exudes solidity.

Color and Function

The intended use of the structure must be taken into account while choosing the colors for it.
If you're decorating a hospital, residential home, school, or entertainment venue, choose completely
distinct colors. Avoid using bold, vivid colors or similar contrasts on expansive surfaces in places
intended for ongoing habitation.
 CHAPTER V

COLOR HARMONIES

After studying the fundamental rules of the color-people-architecture interaction, we have

arrived at the crux of the matter: how to build harmonic, balanced color compositions, what types
exist, and what requirements must be met to produce them?

The hue characteristics of the colors in harmonious color compositions can be used to classify
them. Monochromatic, dichromatic, trichromatic, and tetrachromatic harmonies, which comprise
colors from one, two, three, or four different hues, depend on the number of hues present in the
composition. Additionally, there are so-called polychromatic harmonies that comprise more than four
colors, but from the perspective of architecture, they are too "colorful" and are not included in
deliberate architectural color compositions.

MONOCHROMATIC

It is the most straightforward composition that uses color harmony. The composition's colors
all fall under the same shade.

There are three ways to achieve harmony:

a. The only difference between the colors employed in the composition is their brightness values.

b. The only difference between the colors utilized in the composition is the saturation value.

c. The colors utilized in the composition have varying brightness and saturation ratings.

If the brightness and saturation conditions of the colors are on a scale, that is, if there is an
equal distance between the brightness and saturation values of the individual elements, it is true that
the color composition has a harmonic effect in each type of monochromatic harmony (and obviously
in the case of the multicolored compositions discussed later). The harmony is better balanced as a
result.
Dischromatic Harmonies

These are harmony compositions, with colors from two distinct hues. The brightness and
saturation parameters must also be on a scale in this situation. The value of so-called complimentary
harmonies cannot be overstated; in this instance, the two colors are complementary to one another.

Compositions with colors at a 130 degree angle from one another on the color circle, such
blue and red, have a significant aesthetic component. These compositions typically also have a cold-
warm contrast. When all the varied brightness and saturation levels are taken into account,
dichromatic compositions may provide a remarkably wide range of colors.

Triad/ Trichromatic Harmonies

In this instance, there are three hues represented by the harmonies' colors. Although these
harmonies are exceedingly rich, their emotional depth is less obvious than in dichromatic harmonies.
The so-called triad harmonies, in which the colours are positioned on the color circle almost
symmetrically (i.e., at 120 degrees from one another), are of exceptional relevance since they result in
a reasonably full color composition.

Group harmonies, which are composed of two colors that are near to one another and a hue
that is 34 degrees apart from them, are also quite significant. They are harmonies with an obvious
emotional undertone because they have a dominating color that is expertly tempered by the other
colours.

Tetrad/ Tetrachromatic harmonies

In this instance, the colors of the harmonies can actually contain any of the four hues of full
color circle; as a result, they vary greatly. Tetrad harmonies, as they are known, have unique
importance and are frequently employed. The hues are ordinarily positioned on the color circle in this
instance because they are 34° 130° 230°, or 130° 230° 326°, apart.

It is also necessary to discuss tetrachromatic harmonies derived from double complementary

pairings, although it is challenging to do so without creating an uneven, variegated visual appearance.

The compositions outlined above can only achieve true color harmony on architectural
compositions if, in addition to meeting the aforementioned requirements, the laws covered in the
preceding chapters are also followed: color preference, color association, the architectural appearance,
and the function of colors express the architectural intention collectively, uniformly, on the basis of
the architect's plan.

It is clear that architectural color harmony is a complicated system, and architects must be
knowledgeable of all its components and rules in order to design a "beautiful" structure that satisfies
aesthetic objectives. They can accomplish this goal by studying color dynamics and color science.
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