Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Research Papers

Thermal management of a lithium ion battery pack connected to a solar

panel using a comparison of two cavities filled with phase change materials:
Oval and rectangular
Mohammed N. Ajour a, Ahmad H. Milyani a, Nidal H. Abu-Hamdeh b, c, d, Arash Karimipour e, *
a
Center of Research Excellence in Renewable Energy and Power Systems/Energy Efficiency Group/Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
c
K. A. CARE Energy Research and Innovation Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
d
Energy Efficiency Group/Center of Research Excellence in Renewable Energy and Power Systems, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
e
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Astronautica, Elettrica ed Energetica, Sapienza Università di Roma, Via Eudossiana 18, Roma 00184, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this paper, the temperature of three 18,650 lithium-ion battery cells in an air duct is studied using a numerical
Sustainability of natural resources method. The batteries are housed in a PCM pack with two different oval or rectangular shapes. This battery pack
Battery cell and PCM are placed in the air duct with (Re) 50 or 150. The aim of this study was to investigate the temperature
Phase change material
of all three battery cells, the maximum temperature (T-MX) of the battery cells and the amount of frozen PCM at
Temperature control
Numerical work
different times. For this study, help was obtained from Comsol software. The results of this study showed that the
use of battery pack and PCM in the shape of an ellipse, compared to the rectangular shape caused a lower
temperature on all battery cells. Also, the use of PCM ellipse pack has resulted in lower average and T-MX for the
battery cell and more solid PCM volume fraction than the rectangular shape of PCM pack. Using (Re) 150 instead
of 50 causes the battery cell temperature to be much lower and also the amount of solid PCM to be higher. The
(Re) change in airflow, as well as the shape of the battery pack and PCM, affects the first battery cell more than
any other battery cell.

1. Introduction
The importance and necessity of energy saving in the country has
been discussed for many years, but achieving a logical and clear solution
is still one of the main challenges and problems of the economy. The
rapid growth of energy consumption in the last two decades has caused
serious problems for the security of domestic energy supply. Saving
energy has numerous benefits for the economy, while avoiding some
costs as well as side effects [1,2]. In general, energy consumption over
the past two decades has been subject to factors such as economic
growth, population growth and urbanization, low relative energy prices,
the development of energy-based industries, rapid growth of the trans­
port fleet and non-compliance with energy saving regulations in con­
struction [3–7]. One way to reduce energy consumption and reduce
carbon dioxide emissions has been to use electric vehicles. The impor­
tance of electric vehicles is growing rapidly. These cars not only reduce
pollution and noise; Rather, they can be used to reduce dependence on
fossil fuel-based transportation. Because the driving power in this sort of
vehicle is given by fuels other than oil.
Electric cars may also help to cut down on greenhouse gas emissions.
Electric cars must be powered by non-fossil sources such as nuclear
energy and other energy sources in order to produce zero carbon dioxide
emissions. Concerns about global warming are growing [8,9]. The
emission of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels causes global
warming, which is considered to create a slew of issues, including
climate change and rising sea levels, which threaten many of the world's
coastal towns. One of the most effective measures to reduce environ­
mental pollution is the widespread use of electric vehicles. The neces­
sary infrastructure for the entry and use of this equipment is charging
stations. Due to the problems that these stations have in terms of long
charging time, fast charging stations are the best option to solve the
problem [10–14]. The most important difference between general solar

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: arashkarimipour@gmail.com (A. Karimipour).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105061
Received 31 March 2022; Received in revised form 1 June 2022; Accepted 3 June 2022
Available online 10 June 2022
2352-152X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

charging stations and other stations. Charging system is that this type of
system will charge the energy storage system for 1 to 2 h. A storage
system consisting of serial banks and parallel lithium-ion batteries will
be used to deconstruct the station. Because of its high energy density,
minimal self-discharge, and extended life, lithium-ion batteries are
frequently utilized in electric cars [15,16]. Battery packs are packaged
to achieve high energy density and driving range [17–20]. Electric cars
often contain multiple batteries. Due to the compact structure, heat loss
has become a major problem [21,22]. Studies have shown that batteries
continuously generate considerable heat during the charging and dis­
charging process, reducing battery performance and energy life, and
even deforming them [23–27].
The use of air cooling, liquid, and (PCM) are the three main tech­
nologies for thermal management [28]. However, due to the technical
level or defective characteristics of PCM, another cooling method is
commonly used to fill the gaps in various forms of liquid cooling systems
or PCMs to improve heat transfer efficiency [29–33]. Various methods
have recently been considered by researchers [34–36]. Recently, re­
searchers have considered the use of nanofluids in the cooling system
and suggested the use of this type of fluid in different energy systems
[37]. In recent researches, various numerical and experimental methods
have been studied by researchers [38,39], among which the use of nu­
merical methods is one of the engineering tools that can provide
Fig. 1. Geometry studied consists of three 18,650 lithium-ion batteries housed
acceptable results for use in industry [40]. in an air duct.
The thermal-electrical characteristics of a lithium-ion battery system
were examined by Yang et al. [41]. Using a hybrid PCM and liquid-
3. The governing equations
cooled system, they investigated the battery's thermal management.
They evaluated the influence of water velocity on the electrochemical
As stated in the definition of the problem, this problem involved
performance of batteries by connecting a series of batteries. Their
three different physics. The first physics is airflow, the governing
findings demonstrate that when cell distance or separation increases, the
equations of which are expressed as follows.
T-MX difference decrease, while the drop rate falls when the gap sur­
The stability of the mass is represented by the equation of mass
passes 4 mm. Furthermore, when water velocity increases, the T-MX
conservation equation, which has a differential formulation in the form
drops while the temperature differential rises. To study the unequal
of Eq. (1).
discharge, he used a theoretical calculation model, which revealed that
the polarization of the diffusion in the electrolyte is a major factor in the ∂ρ ( →)
+ ∇. ρ V = 0 (1)
discharge imbalance between the cells of the battery module, which may ∂t
be addressed by the suggested combined cooling. Solai et al. [42] used
laboratory data to validate a battery thermal management system, and The momentum survival equation is the vector differential version of
Wang et al. [43] looked into the lithium battery cooling system. They Newton's second law of force transfer (2). This equation is reduced to the
used an air-cooled cooling system to study the thermal management of following form by using the Boussinesq assumption and the stability of
the battery and to cool the battery electrode tabs. Yang et al. [44] the problem:
compared the cooling system of a lithium battery using two cooling (→)
∂ V (→→) ( / ( → →T ) ) (T − T0 )→
systems, PCM and one liquid-cooled system. Their findings revealed that + ∇. V V = −
∇p
+ ∇. μ ρ ∇ V + ∇ V − g (2)
the suggested PCM cooling system outperformed the water cooling ∂t ρ T0
system in terms of heat dissipation capacity, temperature uniformity,
pumping energy consumption, and no requirement for pump power, The energy conservation equation for the airflow around the PCM and
making it ideal for battery cooling. the batteries is:
Batteries are widely used in everyday life as well as in various ∂T (→ ) ( )
important industries [45–47]. Due to this issue, this article also exam­ + ρ∇. V T = ∇. keff ∇T (3)
∂t
ines the temperature control of three battery cells, despite the air flow in
one channel and the presence of PCM. Battery and PCM cells form a In the second part, we will explain the equations governing battery
package housed in an air duct. The airflow collides with this package current. According to Table 1 the governing equations are expressed.
with two (Re) 50 and 150. PCMs around the batteries are also placed in
two shapes, oval and rectangular, and the effect of these two package
Table 1
shapes has been studied in a period of 10 min for PCM freezing time.
Equations governing battery and electrochemical process.
( )
∂ ρ Cp T Battery thermal and electric field
2. Definition of problem − ∇.(k∇T) = σ+ |∇Φ+ |2 −
∂t differential equations
σ− |∇Φ− |2 + q̇ECH + q̇Short + q̇abuse
The geometry studied consists of three 18,650 lithium-ion batteries q̇total = q̇joule + q̇entropy The entire amount of heat produced by
housed in an air duct. Around the batteries is a PCM package in either an the battery.
oval or rectangular shape. A view of both geometries studied is provided q̇joule = I(Vocv − V) = I2 /σ Internal resistance of the cell generates
heat.
in Fig. 1. The (Re) was an inlet air of 50 or 150, which entered with a )
( ∂Vocv i Heat is produced when the entropy of a
constant temperature of 293.15 Kelvin and exited the channel with a q̇entropy = − IT
∂T
= − TΔS
nF chemical process changes.
pressure equal to the standard conditions. The PCM used is Gallium. The ∂ΔG ∂Vocv Entropy changes
ΔS = = nF
melting temperature of this PCM is 28.98 ◦ C and its latent heat is 80.16 ∂T ∂T
ΔG = − nFVocv Gibbs energy variations
kJ/kg. Also, its thermal conductivity is 33.49 W/m K [48].

2
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

The equations for studying PCM are as follows. This simulation is

k
based on the following hypotheses: →
u = − ∇p (15)
μ
* Temperature has no effect on the thermophysical characteristics of
the solid and vane regions.
* The melting of PCM was Newtonian and incompressible. 4. Numerical method, grid study and validation
* The effects of radiation, as well as the losses of viscosity and con­
vection, are not taken into account in the energy equation in three Mathematical relations have many applications in problem solving
dimensions. in various disciplines [49–53]. Hence, researchers in mathematics have
* PCM is isotropic and homogenous. sought to find new relationships And many researchers have used these
As a result, in the chamber, the equations are written in two di­ relationships for their studies [54–58]. There have also been many at­
mensions as follows. The following is a two-dimensional energy equa­ tempts to expand mathematical solutions over the years [59,60]. The
tion for the PCM solid region: equations are solved using the finite element technique. Comsol soft­
ware was used to develop the geometry and meshing for this project. The
ρC P
∂T
+ ∇.( − k∇T) + ρCP →
u ⋅∇T = 0 (4) meshing done for both forms of the battery package was in finer quality.
∂t From this meshing onwards, no noticeable changes were seen on the
The following are the density variations in PCM that may be influ­ results, therefore, this type of meshing was selected as the main mesh­
enced by temperature: ing. In order to validate the article, a laboratory work by Ling et al. [61]
has been used. The results of this comparison are shown in Fig. 2. This
ρPCM (T) = ρS + (ρl − ρs ).λ(T) (5) study was performed for a period of 3000 s, which shows the amount of
The volume fraction of a fluid that varies with temperature is battery temperature. Based on the comparison with the article by Ling
denoted by the letter λ: et al. [61] and observing the small amount of error between the two
⎧ works, the results obtained from this article are also valid.
⎪
⎪ 0 T < (Tm − ΔT)
⎪
⎨
T − Tm + ΔT 5. Result and discussion
λ(T) = ( Tm − ΔT) ≤ T < ( Tm + ΔT) (6)
⎪
⎪ 2ΔT
⎪
⎩
1 T > ( Tm + ΔT) As it was demonstrated, a great number of articles reported the fluid
flow and heat transfer in various conditions and geometries [62–77]; but
PCM thermal capacity: present work aims to simulate the lithium ion battery pack connected to
( ) a solar panel using a comparison of two cavities filled with phase change
Cppcm (T) = Cps + Cpl − Cps .λ (T) + Lf D(T) (7) materials. Fig. 3 shows the temperature contour on the battery pack and
Lf denotes latent heat D (T), which is defined as follows: PCM at 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 min for two elliptical and rectangular packages
in (Re) 50 and 150. It is generally seen that over time, the temperature of
⎛ ⎞
the PCM package with the batteries inside decreases from the front to
⎜− (T− Tm2 )2 ⎟
⎜ √̅̅̅̅̅̅ ⎟ eventually reduce the temperature of the entire package.
⎝ π⋅ΔT 2̅ ⎠
ΔT

In the oval package, the temperature has started to decrease from the
D(T) = e (8) beginning, and in the rectangular package from the front corners, the
temperature has started to decrease. In both cases, the PCM battery pack
The Dirac delta is represented by the function D (T). The temperature
freezes around the battery later than the other parts. Especially around
of PCM was averaged at Tm. This temperature's primary use has been to
the third PCM battery is the later part that turns solid. At lower (Re), air
compute Lf near the melting point. The phase of Pcm affected its thermal
is seen in both forms of the battery pack, with temperature values at all
conductivity:
times greater than at the (Re) 150. Higher (Re) means more airflow in
kpcm (T) = ks + (kl − ks ).λ (T) (9) the duct, and an increase means more air passes through the battery

The momentum equation is written as:

∂u
ρ + ρ(u.∇) − μ⋅∇2 →
u = − ∇P + Fb + Fa (10)
∂t

The buoyancy force is defined as follows using the Boussinesq approx­

imation:

Fb = − ρL (1 − β(T − Tm ) )→
g (11)

And Fa force is defined as follows:

Fa = − A(T).→
u (12)

The following equation is used to define A (T):

C(1 − λ(T) )2
A(T) = ( 3 ) (13)
λ (T) + q

The following is written for a pressure gradient laminar flow:

− C(1 − λ(T) )2 →
∇p = .u (14)
λ3 (T)

u is defined as follows:
→
Fig. 2. Comparison of results with laboratory work of Ling et al. [61] at
different times.

3
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

Fig. 3. Temperature contour on the battery and PCM package in 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 min for two oval and rectangular packages in (Re) 50 and 150.

pack. More air flow allows the air to transfer heat with a greater ca­ At lower (Re), more time is required for air to pass through the batteries,
pacity. In this way, more heat is taken from the battery pack in higher to cool the temperature with the PCM, and to cool it. During the 10-min­
(Re), and in less time, the air flow can absorb the heat stored in the PCM. ute study period at the (Re) 150, the amount of frozen PCM around the

4
M.N. Ajour et al.
Fig. 3. (continued).
batteries reached 100 %. In the (Re) 50, for 10 min, the amount of
molten PCM still remains around the batteries.
Fig. 4 shows the isothermal lines on the channel and the battery pack
and PCM for the two shapes of the elliptical and rectangular pack in (Re)
50 and 150 over a period of 10 min. These lines represent parts with
constant and equal temperature, around the battery and PCM package
and in the channel. In the early times, the temperature lines in front of
the PCM package and the battery are tight, the temperature changes in
5
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061
the PCM itself are small. Over time, with the air hitting the battery pack
and PCM, the temperature changes in it have increased, which has
caused the number of lines with different temperatures in this area to
increase. Since in a rectangular package the temperature starts to
decrease from its corners, in the early times, the density of isothermal
lines in these parts is compressed. Isothermal lines are greatly influenced
by airflow lines. Creating air flow with higher speed next to the package,
has caused a wider heat transfer in these parts, which is also evident
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

Fig. 3. (continued).

with the high density of isothermal lines. In contrast, behind the bat­ rectangular shapes of the battery package and PCM.
teries, where airflow is low and there is little heat transfer in this area, As shown in Fig. 5, PCM freezing counters are observed at 2, 4, 6, 8,
isothermal lines are further apart. This situation is due to the low tem­ and 10 min at (Re) 50 and 150 for elliptical and rectangular battery
perature gradient in this part and this can be seen for both oval and packs. In both the battery pack and the PCM package, the PCM

6
M.N. Ajour et al.
Fig. 3. (continued).
solidification process can be started from the front. But the extension of
the freezing process to other parts has been package-dependent. In the
ellipse package, the same process has continued from left to right, and
PCM has continued its freezing process to the right until it is all solid.
Finally, the PCM around the last battery is solidified and there is no
molten PCM left. But in the rectangular package, the freezing process in
the corners of the rectangle is faster than other parts and then goes to the
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Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061
inner parts until eventually all the PCM inside the package is solid. The
(Re) number is also very effective in this process, so that in the (Re) 150,
where the amount of air flow is higher, the speed of this process is faster
and it is completed in less time. In contrast, at (Re) 50, more time is
needed to complete this process. Once the PCM solidification process is
complete, PCM thermal management can be used alone to apply battery
thermal management by turning off the fans.
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

Fig. 4. Isothermal lines on the channel and battery pack and PCM for two shapes of oval and rectangular package in (Re) 50 and 150 in 10 min.

8
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

Fig. 4. (continued).

9
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

Fig. 4. (continued).

10
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

Fig. 4. (continued).

11
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

Fig. 5. PCM freezing counter, in 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 min, at (Re) 50 and 150 of oval and rectangular battery packs.

12
M.N. Ajour et al. Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061

2 minute 2 minute

4 minute
4 minute

6 minute 6 minute

8 minute
8 minute

10 minute 10 minute

Rectangular (Re=50) Rectangular (Re=150)

Fig. 5. (continued).

13
M.N. Ajour et al.
Fig. 6. Maximum battery cell temperature in 10 min at (Re) 50 and 150 for
elliptical and rectangular battery and PCM packages.
Fig. 6 highlights the T-MX of battery cells in 10 min in two (Re) 50
and 150 for battery packages and elliptical and rectangular PCM.
Regardless of the shape of the battery pack and PCM, increasing the (Re)
number means that the T-MX of the battery cells is lower at all times.
Especially when all the PCM inside the package is solidified, a sharp
drop in the T-MX of the battery occurs. As the entire PCM solidifies, the
air only absorbs the temperature of the other batteries. The temperature
of the batteries is drastically reduced after the energy stored in the PCM
is exhausted, and as a result, after the PCM freezes, the air fan system is
turned off so that the PCM can control the temperature of the battery
alone. In both (Re) studies, it can be seen that the battery pack and PCM
in the shape of an ellipse cause the T-MX to be lower than the rectan­
gular package.
Fig. 7 shows the average temperature (T-AV) of the first battery cell
for up to 10 min, for two battery packages and an elliptical and rect­
angular PCM, in two (Re) 50 and 150. This battery is the first battery in
battery cells to cool faster than other batteries. The main reason for this
drop in temperature is the faster freezing of the PCM around the battery
in less time, because the air hits the batteries from this side, so the
battery was colder. In both battery and PCM package forms, the (Re) 150
has a lower cell temperature and a shorter temperature drop in the
battery. At (Re) 50, where the airflow rate is lower, it takes longer for all
Fig. 7. The T-AV of the first battery cell from the input side, up to 10 min in
two (Re) 50 and 150 and two shapes of elliptical and rectangular battery pack.
14
Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061
the PCMs around the battery cell to solidify, resulting in longer tem­
peratures for the battery cell. In both (Re), the oval battery pack has a
lower temperature than the rectangular battery pack and PCM. Also, in
less time, a sharp drop in temperature occurred on the temperature of
this battery cell in the ellipse battery package, compared to the rectan­
gular battery package. It can be seen that during the 10 min of the study,
the T-AV of this battery in the oval and PCM package, from the battery in
(Re) 150 to less than 289 Kelvin. This battery was colder than other
batteries in 10 min.
According to Fig. 8, the T-AV of the second battery cell is given from
the current inlet for up to 10 min in two (Re) 50 and 150 and two shapes
of elliptical and rectangular battery packs. The process of temperature
changes of this battery is very similar to the first battery cell. The only
difference is that everything that happens to the first battery cell is
delayed for this battery. Because the PCM around this battery takes
longer to freeze completely. So the temperature also needs more time to
decrease. In the (Re) 50 and rectangular package, the battery did not
have enough time for 10 min to solidify the entire PCM, and as a result,
the temperature of the battery did not drop sharply during this time.
Also in this battery cell, the temperature of the battery for less than 10
min, in the (Re) 150 and the oval battery pack, has reached less than
293 K, which is slightly warmer than the temperature of the first battery
on the input side, at the same time. PCM freezing is very important in the
process of changing battery temperature. So the sooner the batteries
around the PCM solidify, the sooner they will experience a sharp drop in
temperature, as well as lower temperatures.
In Fig. 9, the T-AV of the third battery cell is revealed from the
airflow inlet, at (Re) 50 and 150 for up to 10 min, for two battery
packages and an elliptical and rectangular PCM. This battery shows the
highest temperature because it is the farthest from the input side
compared to the other two batteries. The PCM around this battery
freezes in the latest possible time compared to the other two batteries. So
it has a higher temperature than the other two battery cells. In the (Re)
50, it can be seen that in neither of the two forms of the battery package,
a sharp drop in temperature has occurred. Because some molten PCM is
left next to this battery, which prevents the temperature of this battery
from decreasing significantly. At (Re) equivalent to 150, but this sharp
drop in temperature occurred in both the oval and rectangular battery
pack shapes. In this battery cell, the oval battery package has a lower
temperature than the rectangular battery package. The temperature of
this battery cell for the oval shape of the battery pack, at (Re) 150, in 10
min, was more than 295 K, which was the highest temperature among
three battery cells.
Fig. 10 depicts the T-AV of all three battery cells for up to 10 min, for
Fig. 8. The T-AV of the second battery cell from the input side, up to 10 min in
two (Re) 50 and 150 and two shapes of elliptical and rectangular battery pack.
M.N. Ajour et al.
Fig. 9. The T-AV of the third battery cell from the current inlet, at (Re) 50 and
150 for up to 10 min, for two battery packages and elliptical and rectan­
gular PCM.
Fig. 10. T-AV of all three battery cells for up to 10 min, for two (Re) 50 and
150, for two battery pack shapes and elliptical and rectangular PCM.
two (Re) 50 and 150, for two battery pack shapes and PCM elliptical and
rectangular. This diagram shows the T-AV of all three batteries, which
means that the temperature of the first battery cell, which is cooler,
decreases this average, and the third battery cell, which is warmer, in­
creases it. The sharp drop in temperature in this chart is less than the
previous charts. This is due to the effect of the temperature of the third
battery cell, which has caused the T-AV of the battery pack to remain
high. A sharp drop is only seen at high times, in the (Re) 150, where the
entire PCM is frozen and even the third cell battery temperature has
dropped. The use of (Re) 150 air in the duct makes the T-AV of the
battery cells lower. The passage of more air flow past the batteries has
caused this decrease in temperature. Also, the use of the elliptical
package in both (Re) studies caused the T-AV of the three battery cells to
be lower than the rectangular shape of the battery.
As can be seen in Fig. 11, the volume fraction of molten PCM in
elliptical and rectangular battery and PCM packages is presented for up
to 10 min in two (Re) 50 and 150. The PCM freezing process begins by
creating airflow in the duct and air hitting the battery packs. So the
amount of molten PCM is constantly decreasing and the frozen PCM is
constantly increasing. So in the (Re) 150, where the airflow in the duct
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Journal of Energy Storage 52 (2022) 105061
Fig. 11. Melt PCM volume fraction in elliptical and rectangular battery and
PCM packages, up to 10 min in two (Re) 50 and 150.
was faster, the freezing process was faster, and at the same times, such as
6 or 8 min, the amount of frozen PCM in the (Re) 150 was higher than
50. It is also generally seen that the use of the battery pack and the PCM
in an oval shape created a more solid PCM at different times than the
rectangular package.
6. Conclusion
In this paper, a numerical study is performed on the temperature of
three battery cells located in an air duct, with PCM around the batteries.
This research has been done in two oval and rectangular shapes of PCM
package located around the batteries, in two (Re) 50 and 150 air ducts in
the air duct. In this research, the temperature of all battery cells, the T-
MX of three batteries and the volume fraction of molten PCM have been
studied and the following results have been obtained.
1. The PCM freezing process starts from the oval battery pack from the
beginning of the right side of the PCM housing and in the rectangular
battery pack from the sharp corners of the air inlet, and finally
completes with the PCM solidifying around the last battery from the
inlet.
2. In (Re) 50, the T-MX of batteries in both forms of the battery package
was more than 302 K in 10 min, while in (Re) 150 this value was less
than 299 K for both forms of the battery package.
3. The T-AV of the battery cell is higher from the inlet to the outlet of
the flow. Increasing (Re) means that all battery cells have a lower
temperature.
4. Using the oval package for the battery and PCM causes the temper­
ature of the battery cells to be lower and the PCM to be completely
solidified in less time than the rectangular battery package.
5. In (Re) 150 compared to (Re) 50, the amount of molten PCM was
less.
6. The effect of (Re) changes and the shape of the battery pack on the
temperature of the first cell of the battery is more than the other two
cells of the battery.
Availability of data and material
The data and material are available and can be presented in the case
of needed.
Code availability
N/A
M.N. Ajour et al.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mohammed N. Ajour: Funding acquisition; Project administration;
Writing - review & editing.
Ahmad H. Milyani: Project administration; Writing - review &
editing.
Nidal H. Abu-Hamdeh: Formal analysis; Writing - review & editing;
Methodology.
Arash Karimipour: Methodology; Writing - original draft; Valida­
tion; Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
There is no conflict of interest.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgment
“The Authors acknowledge the support provided by King Abdullah
City for Atomic and Renewable Energy (K.A.CARE) under K.A.CARE-
King Abdulaziz University Collaboration Program. The authors are
also thankful to Deanship of Scientific Research, King Abdulaziz Uni­
versity for providing financial support vide grant number (KEP-MSc-23-
135-1443).”
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