BUSANA4: Statistical Analysis
variables, these are variables that
Statistical analysis - identify variable
- the process of collecting and analyzing
data to identify patterns and trends,
remove bias and inform decision-making.
Statistic - a branch of applied mathematics
that involves the collection, description,
analysis, and inference of conclusions from
quantitative data. (Descriptive statistics)
 Used of number
 Create / manipulate data
 Gather data
 Analyze data
 Collecting data
 Present data
 Interpretation of data
- Mean (representation of data)
- Standard deviation
- Shape of the data
Statistics – making generalization / conclusion
based on the sample of data from population.
(inferential statistic)
Variables – any characteristics / quantity
 a characteristic that can be measured and
that can assume different values
Examples:
 course
 year level
 hair color
 religion
 sex
 gender
 grades
 height
 others
Types of variable:
1.) Qualitative variables – not measurable
- Sometimes referred to as “categorical”
variables, these are variables that
take on names or labels and can fit
into categories.
2.) Quantitative Variables – how much /
many?
- Sometimes referred to as “numeric”
represent a measurable quantity.
Quantitative:
 Discrete quantitative variable - one that
can only take specific numeric values
(rather than any value in an interval),
but those numeric values have a clear
quantitative interpretation.
 Continues quantitative variables - if it
can assume an infinite number of real
values within a given interval.
Population – total collection of data
  is the complete set group of individuals,
whether that group comprises a nation or a
group of people with a common
characteristic.
 is the pool of individuals from which a
statistical sample is drawn for a study.
Sample - is a random selection of members of a
population. It is a smaller group drawn from
the population that has the characteristics of
the entire population.
Probability sample - the selection of a sample
from a population, when this selection is based
on the principle of randomization, that is,
random selection or chance.
1. Simple random sampling - is a
randomly selected subset of a
population. In this sampling method,
each member of the population has
an exactly equal chance of being
selected.
2. Systematic random sampling -
researchers select members of the
population at a regular interval (or k)
determined in advance.
3. Stratified random sampling -
researchers divide a population into
homogeneous subpopulations
called strata (the plural
 of stratum) based on specific
characteristics.
4. Cluster random sampling -
researchers divide a population into
smaller groups known as clusters.
They then randomly select among
these clusters to form a sample.
5. Multi – staged sampling - you draw
a sample from a population using
smaller and smaller groups (units) at
each stage. It’s often used to collect
data from a large, geographically
spread group of people in national
surveys.
Non-probability sample - is a sampling
method that uses non-random criteria like the
availability, geographical proximity, or expert
knowledge of the individuals you want to
research in order to answer a research
question.
Types of non-probability sample
 Convenience sampling - is primarily
determined by convenience to the
researcher.
 Quota sampling, you select a predetermined
number or proportion of units, called a
quota.
 Self-selection sampling (also called volunteer
sampling) relies on participants who
voluntarily agree to be part of your research.
 Snowball sampling is used when the
population you want to research is hard to
reach, or there is no existing database or
other sampling frame to help you find them.
 Purposive sampling is a blanket term for
several sampling techniques that choose
participants deliberately due to qualities
they possess.  whole set of data with a single value that
Data representation - are graphics that display
and summarize data and help us to understand
the data's meaning.
Types of data representation:
 Line graphs
 Pie charts
 Bar charts
 Histograms
 Scatter plots
Measuring scale - Data can be classified as
being on one of four scales: nominal, ordinal,
interval or ratio. Each level of measurement has
some important properties that are useful to
know.
Type of measuring scale:
1.  Nominal Scale - Nominal variables (also
called categorical variables) can be
placed into categories. They don’t have a
numeric value and so cannot be added,
subtracted, divided or multiplied.
2. Ordinal Scale - The ordinal scale
contains things that you can place in
order. For example, hottest to coldest,
lightest to heaviest, richest to poorest.
3.  Interval Scale - An interval scale has
ordered numbers with meaningful
divisions. A scale which represents
quantity and has equal units but for
which zero represents simply an
additional point of measurement.
4. Ratio Scale - The ratio scale is exactly
the same as the interval scale with one
major difference: zero is meaningful. This
scale also has an absolute zero (no
numbers exist below the zero). Very
often, physical measures will represent
ratio data (for example, height and
weight).
Measures of central location/tendency -  is a
summary measure that attempts to describe a
represents the middle or center of its
distribution.
 relationship to the mean of a group of
values. 
Types of measures of central location/tendency x−x̄
Z−score=
s
 Mode - is the most commonly occurring
value in a distribution. Skewness - geometrical/ data representation
 Median - is the middle value in
distribution when the values are
 is a measure of the asymmetry of a
arranged in ascending or descending
distribution. A distribution is asymmetrical
order.
when its left and right side are not mirror
 Mean - is the sum of the value of each images.
observation in a dataset divided by the
number of observations.
Normal distribution – if skewness is 0
Measures of variation - is the way to extract
a. symmetry – other side is mirrored on the
meaningful information from a set of provided
other side of the data.
data.
Sk = 0, mean = median = mode
 The most common measures of variability
are the range, the interquartile range (IQR),
b. data is skewed to the left (negatively
variance, and standard deviation.
skewed)
Types of variation:   Sk < 0, mean < median < mode
1. Range - the spread of your data from the c. data is skewed to the right (positively
lowest to the highest value in the skewed)
distribution.
Sk > 0, mean > median > mode
2. Variant - is a measure of variability. It is
calculated by taking the average of
Kurtosis – how close / how far the data
squared deviations from the mean.
 is a measure of the tailedness of a
3. Standard deviation - is the average
distribution. Tailedness is how often outliers
amount of variability in your dataset. It
occur.
tells you, on average, how far each value
lies from the mean.
a. Mesokurtic – ku = 0
b. Leptokurtic – data is closer to the mean.
c. Platykurtic – frequency almost the same
Measures of relative dispersion - help to of occurrence.
interpret the variability of data i.e. to know how
much homogenous or heterogeneous the data
Chebyshev’s theorem -  estimates the minimum
is. In simple terms, it shows how squeezed or
proportion of observations that fall within a
scattered the variable is.
specified number of standard deviations from
the mean. 
1. Co-efficient of variation - is a statistical
measure of the dispersion of data points
1
in a data series around the mean. 1− → k =¿ 100 % sd
k2
s
¿ x 100 % Example: if k=2
x

2. Standard z-score - is a statistical 1

¿ 1− 2
measurement that describes a value's k
 1
¿ 1− 2
2

1
¿ 1−
4

3
¿ =75 %
4

Measures of positions:

 Quartile – divide the distribution into 4

subgroups. (25%)
k
Qk = (n+1)
4
K = 1 to 3
 Deciles- divide the distribution into 10
subgroups.
k
Dk = (n+1)
10
K = 1 to 9
 Percentile – divide the distribution into 100
subgroups.
k
pk = (n+1)
100
K = 1 to 99