FOUNDATION NING OTECHN ICAL ENGI EERI32 Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering 32.1. INTRODUCTION ‘An earthquake is sudden shaking of the earth surface caused by a source of disturbance inside the Earthquakes occur due to sudden mass shifting in bedrock caused by forces within the earth. Shifts bedrock occurs along faults. Such earthquakes are called tectonic earthquakes. Besides tectonic there are other types of earthquakes such as volcanic earthquakes, nuclear explosion earthquakes and collapse earthquakes, but such earthquakes are small. The discussions herein are limited only to earthquakes. There is sudden release of strain energy in the zone where the shifting in bedrock occurs. waves are generated due to release of energy. These shock waves are propagated outward from the source. When these waves reach the earth surface, its shaking occurs. The movement of the bedrock along the fault ‘occurs at a point called the focus (or hypocenter) tral Distance (Fig. 32.1). The focus is generally 5 to 50 km —_ Epicenter Place a below the earth surface but may be deeper in some Interest cases. The epicenter is the point on the earth surface vertically above the focus. The distance between the epicenter and the focus is called the focal depth. The distance between any point on the earth surface and the epicenter is known as the Focu: epicentral distance. Earthquakes cause one of the most destructive Fig. 32.1. Basic Terminology natural disasters leading to heavy losses of life and property. Unfortunately, the earthquakes are, so far unpredictable and unpreventable. The only course left to engineers is to design and construct the structures im such a manner that the damages caused by the earthquakes are minimum. Earthquake engineering deals with the design and construction of structures that are earthquake resistant ‘The various structural components are designed to withstand the earthquake forces. Geotechnical earthquake engineering is a young branch of earthquake engineering that developed in the last two decades or so. It is concerned with geotechnical aspects of earthquake engineering, such as the type and depth of foundation soil, amplification of earthquake's intensity by soil deposits, liquefaction of soils, etc. This chapter discusses the basic concepts of the geotechnical earthquake engineering. 32.2, HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA. India is one of the seismic countries of the world. Some of the severe earthquakes of the world occurred in India. The earthquake of the highest magnitude, represented as M and defined later, occurred in Assam (india) on the 12th of June, 1897. The earthquake was of a magnitude of 8.7 on Richter’s scale. That earth- quake caused extensive damages in Assam. In the period from 1905 to 1950, four severe earthquakes of magnitude greater than 8.0 occurred in India. —GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 39 “These earthquakes occurred in Kangra in 1905 (M = 8.6), Bihar in 1934 (M = 8.4), Andaman in 1941 and ‘Assam in 1950 (M = 8.6). Besides these earthquakes, there were some less severe earthquakes. In the period from 1951 to 2000, seven moderate earthquakes of magnitude between 6 and 7 occurred. These earthquakes occurred at Anjar in 1956 (M = 6.1), Koyna in 1967 (M = 6.5), Bihar-Nepal border in 1988 (M = 6.6), Uttarkashi in 1991 (M = 644), Killari (Latur) in 1993 (M = 6.2), Jabalpur in 1997 (M = 6.0), and Chamoli in 1999 (M = 6.6). The Killari (Latur) earthquake was the worst, which caused about 10,000 deaths. In the beginning of this century, on 26th January, 2001, a strong earthquake with a magnitude of 7.9 occurred in Bhuj (Gujarat). It caused heavy damages and mote than 20,000 persons died and about 1,67,000 persons were injured, About 3,00,000 houses were destroyed and huge losses of property occurred. ‘The Bhuj earthquake has demonstrated the vulnerability of various Indian regions to earthquakes. It has very clearly shown that most construction in the seismic regions do not comply with the required safety requirements. The general public has become more concerned about earthquakes and the great damage they tan cause. It is a major challenge to ensure that our constructions are made earthquake resistant to limit the damages in future. 32.3, SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA ‘The severity of earthquakes in different parts of India is different. The seismicity at a place is assessed by its distance from the active fault in the rock formation, It is also decided from the earthquakes already cecurred in that region, In general, the seismic zoning of a country depends upon the seismic history of different regions unless some significant changes in tectonic features occur. ‘As per IS: 1893 (Part 1): 2002, India has been divided into four zones, designated as Zone Tf, IH, IV and V. The erstwhile zone I has now been merged in zone If. The zone numbers increase as the seismic severity increases. Thus zone II has the lowest seismicity and zone V has the highest seismicity. Zones TV and V are located in the northern and north easter regions of the country, the Kutch and Maharashtra area and ‘Andaman, The rest of the country has only zones II and IL About 60% area of India is in zones IV and V. For details, see IS: 1893-2002. Various zones indicate the regions in which the seismicity would be approximately same. However, the severity of the earthquake in a zone may be different because of local site conditions, 32.4. MAGNITUDE OF AN EARTHQUAKE {fan earthquake is a quantative measure of its strength in terms of energy released at focus. It has a unique value for an earthquake. Charles Richter developed the first scale for magnitude in 1935. Magnitude is defined as the logarithm (to ‘base 10) of the maximum trace amplitude (A) of the ground motion recorded in microns ( =10%m) ata distance of 100 km from the epicenter on a Wood-Anderson ‘Type Torsion Seismograph having damping equal to 80% of the critical damping, natural period of 0.85 and magnification of 2800. Thus M = logA 4:B2.1) where, 'M is magnitude on Richter’s scale, A is amplitude of ground motion at a distance ‘of 100 km from the epicenter Since the distance of the instrument from the epicenter may not be always 100 km, the following modified equation can be used to estimate the magnitude. microns. M = logioA ~ logioo G22 a) or M = logy A + distance correction (32.2 b) where A and Ag.are usually measured in millimetres (= 07 m). ‘The quantity (-logio Ao) is known as the distance correction. The distance correction can be obtained840 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 6-—T™ T1T TM T41T TT. a 4 a a) < B64 For ‘teleseisms| 2 surface waves} aL with time period 20 s: a for near gs earthquake 32 ez, se 4 $e a é a 0 . 1 0 100 1000 10000 Distance in km Fig. 32.2. Distance Correction from Fig. 32 may be used GD it = tog A - 2.48 + 2.76 log A where A is the epicentral distance (km) For a distance of 100 km, the distance correction is +3. Alternatively, the following equation +5823) For illustration, if the amplitude of the ground motion at a distance of 100 km is 10‘um (= 10 mm), GRRE a1 = tog.) 10' = 40 CRAEMTAAD, o = togyo 10 + 30 = 40 Grom Bg 323) = ogi 10 - 2.48 + 2.76 login 100 = 4.04 Table 32.1 gives a typical classification of earthquakes based on their magnitudes. The table also gives the annual average number of earthquakes across the Earth in each of these groups. GEBIBAAYCHotal occurrence of earthquakes of different magnitudes Magnitude Group Annual average number of globel occurrence @ and higher Great 1 7-79 Major 18 6—69 ‘Strong 120 5—59 Moderate. 800 4—49 Light 6200 (estimated) 3—39 Minor 49,000 (estimated) ess than 3 Yery Minor ‘About 9000 per day ( = 3:285 x 10° per year) Earthquakes with a magnitude of 3 or less are not felt. Earthquakes with a magnitude less than S normally do not cause significant damage. The maximum magnitude of the earthquake occurred so far was 8.7 (Assam, 1897). ‘The magnitude corresponding to the original formulation proposed by Richter is also called the localGEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING sat sagnitude (M,). In addition to the local magnitude, three more magnitude scales have been proposed. The ody wave magnitude (Mj) is based on the compressional body waves (or P-waves). The surface wave magnitude (3,) is based on the surface or Rayleigh (R) waves. The seismic moment magnitude or the wave energy magnitude (M,) is based on the seismic moment. For small earthquakes, all the four magnitude scales give almost the same value, but for large earth- quakes, the values of magnitudes on different scales may be different. For example, for the 1964 Alaska Earthquake, the estimated magnitudes were M, = 6.8, M, = 8.6 and M, = 9.2. Although there are some } advantages in these magnitude scales, probably the Richter scale is still quite popular and is commonly used im practice. "A relationship between the amount of the strain energy released by an earthquake and its magnitude is given by Richter as logo E = 14 + 15M G24) where E is the energy released in ergs (I erg = 107 J) and M is the magnitude of the earthquake. Earthquakes release huge amount of energy. An earthquake of magnitude 6.3 would release energy equal to about 8 x 10” ergs, which is equal to that of the atomic bomb dropped at Hiroshima in 1945. Fortunately, the most of energy released by an earthquake is dissipated inside the earth into heat and fracturing of rocks. ‘Only a small fraction of the energy goes into seismic waves that cause shaking of the ground surface. Tt may be noted that with an increase of one on the magnitude scale would result in an increase in amplitude of ten times and an increase in energy of 31.6 times. ‘The affected area and the duration of the earthquake increase with an increase in magnitude of the earthquake. The affected area depends upon a number of factors such as the depth of focus, type of strata, tic. The affected areas by the earthquakes of magnitudes 6, 7 and 8 respectively would be of the order of £60,000, 120,000 and 200,000 square kilometres. The corresponding duration of earthquakes would be of the ‘order of 15, 30 and 45 seconds. For example, the Koyna earthquake of 1967 (M = 6.5) affected an area of sbout 400 km radius, with an area of about 126000 sq. km. 32.5, INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKES _The intensity ofan earthquake is measured qualitatively in terms of damages caused by it at a particular locaton: Inrgeteral the larger the earthquake, the greater is the intensity "For the same carta, he “seni sees the epee dns of he etn Ines, Thin de mean, tery of a ‘carthquake is near its epicenter. Several intensity scales have been proposed by different investigators. Generally, modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale is used in practice. JS: 1893-2002 also recommends the use of Comprehensive Intensity Scale (MSK 64). Both MMI and MSK 64 scales are similar. However, MSK 64 scale gives more detailed and specific descriptions of the damages sae dese recs ine) twelve classes or degrees.’ Tn general, the greater the intensil ‘cation, the greater would be the damage caused tu A AW by the earthquake. Table 32.2 gives an abridged version of the MMI scale. Fig. 323. Isoseismal map of the 2001 Bhuj (India) Earthquake (MSK intensity)842 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING Intensity | Evaluation Description ] Magnitude on Class Richter’s scale T | Insignificant Not felt by humans, detected by instruments only 1-19 | Very tight Felt only by sensitive humans; delicately suspended objects may | | 2— 2.9 swing Mm | Light Felt noticeably indoors; small vibratory motion 3-39 1V__ | Moderate Felt by many persons; windows and doors make cracking sounds. | 4 — 4.9 Vv | Slightly strong _| Felt by almost everyone; some panic; minor damages s—s9 vi | Strong | Fel by all; many frightened; some damage to ordinary structures | 5 — 5.9 vit | Very strong Everbody runs outdoors; negligible damage to wel-built structures; | 5 — 59 considerable damge to other structures Vit | Destructive Slight damage to well-built structures; serious damage to ordinary | 6 — 6.9 sinuctures 1x | Ruinous | Considerable damage to well-built structures 6—69 X | Disastrous | Serious damage to welL-built structures; almost total destruction of | 7 — 7.9 non-scismic resistant structures X1 | Extremely disastrous | Almost total destruction; broad fissures in ground 7-79 XI__ | Catastrophic ‘Total damage; waves seen on ground; objects thrown into the air. | 8 —86 On-the-spot study of the damages caused by an earthquake is made soon after its occurrence. The locations with different intensities are marked on the plan of the area. The isoseismal lines are then drawn by joining the points of the same intensity. The procedure is similar to that of drawing of elevation contours from the elevations of different points. Fig. 32.3 shows the isoscismal map of the Bhuj earthquake of 2001. The maximum intensity observed was X. The contours of intensity IX, VIII, VI are also marked. From the MMI scale, it can be observed that the earthquake was of intensity classified as disastrous. The difference between the magnitude and the intensity should be carefully noted. While the magnitude of an earthquake has a unique value, the intensity decreases as the distance from the epicenter increases. in other words, for a certain earthquake, the intensity varies with the distance, Sometimes, a sound source (or an electric bulb) analogy is used to demonstrate the difference between the magnitude and the intensity. While the strength of the sound source (or electric bulb) is constant, the intensity of sound (or light) decreases as the observer moves away from the soures 1. Relationship between magnitude and maximum intensity ‘The Gutenberg-Richter relation is commonly used in practice; according to which, the magnitude and intensity are approximately related as ---B25) where M is the magnitude of the earthquake, and Jy is the maximum intensity on MMI scale (expressed in Arabic numerals). Table 32.3 gives the commonly used values of intensities for different magnitudes of earthquakes. ‘Table 32.3, Values of the maximum intensities for different magnitudes of earthquakes. ‘Magnitude (M) 2 3 4 5 6 7 | 8 Maximum intensity on | 1, IL m | WV viva | vi,vm | ixX,x | XL MMI scale | |GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 843 che structures and assess the liquefaction characteristics of soils. The exact value of the maximum seismic acceleration cannot be theoretically determined with present state of knowledge. The following expression is sometimes used to estimate the peak ground acceleration from the intensity 2f the earthquake at any location: L - 05 (32.6) loging = 3 ‘here a is the peak ground acceleration in cm/s’, and J is the intensity on MMI scale (expressed in Arabic sumerals), It is the usual practice to represent ground accelerations in terms of the acceleration due to gravity (g). Table 32.4 gives the approximate values of the peak ground acceleration for different intensities of sarthquake as given by Bolt (1993). (GBB Peak ground accelerations for different intensities of earthquakes Intensity on MMI scale v vi vil vu 1x x Peak — ground acceleration | 003-0.04 | 006-007 | 0.10-0.15 | 025-030 | 050-055 | > 0.60 (PGA) (in terms of g) According to IS: 1893: 2002, the basic zone factors (2) given in the code are reasonable estimates of effective peak ground acceleration for the design of various structures. Table 32.5 gives the zone factors for different seismic zones. ‘The intensity as per MSK 64 broadly associated with the various zones is also given, (GRRE torensty and Zone factors for diferent sismie Zones Seismic zone u | I Iv Vv Intensity as per MSK 64 scale Vi or less Vil Vill 1X and above Zone factors (in terms of g) 0.10 { 0.16 | 024 036 32.6. EFFECT OF GROUND MOTION ON STRUCTURES An earthquake produces seismic waves that cause the earth’s crust to vibrate. These waves impart a ‘momentary acceleration tothe earth’s crust_and_it starts moving in the direction in which the wave is travelling at that instant uch as intensity, duration, etc., at any location the magnitude of earthquake the depth of focus the epicentral distance the characteristics of the material through which the seismic waves travel Inertia Force When the ground motion occurs, the foundation of the structure must also move. with it to avoid its rupture. When the foundation moves, the structure on it tends to stay back because of inertia. Consequently, the structure is subjected to inertia forces. In the earthquake-resistant design of structures, the inertia forces Cue to earthquake are considered in addition to the normal loads and forces. To get a clear idea about the inertia forces, let us consider that 2 person is sitting upright in a railway zain not in motion. When the train suddenly starts moving, his lower body on the seat moves with the train but his upper body tends to stay back because of inertia. An inertia force acts on his upper body in the backward direction and his head may strike the back of the seat According to Newton's second law of motion, the inertia force is equal to the product of the mass and acceleration, and it acts in a direction opposite to that of the acceleration. Thus the horizontal inertia force is given by the expression844 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING Fi, = Mass x acceleration or Ae ( al (yg) = WA, 82.1) where Ay, is the seismic coefficient in the horizontal direction, and W is the seismic weight. ‘When the horizontal shaking FLOOR SLAB of the ground occurs, the hori- zontal inertia forces are generated at the level of the mass of the structure, which is usually assumed to be concentrated at the floor levels (Fig. 32.4). These inertia forces are transferred from the floor slab, through. the walls (or columns), to the foundation, and finally to the strata below the foundation. In the earthquake- resistant design, it is ensured that each of the structural elements, including floor slabs, walls, columns and foundations, can safely transfer the inertia forces through them. Moreover, the connections between the various structural elements are properly designed and constructed. Response spectrum If the building were rigid, then every point on it would move by the ‘Same amount as the ground, and consequently, the inertia force would be equal to the mass multiplied by the ground acceleration. But the buildings are flexible, and different parts move back-and-forth by different amounts during ground shaking. ‘The natural period of vibration of a structure is the time period of its undamped, free vibration. The fundamental natural period of vibration is that for the first (or fundamental) mode of vibration of that structure, Each structure has a unique fundamental period of vibration at which it tends to vibrate when it is allowed to vibrate freely without any external excitation. The fundamental natural period depends upon the form and configuration of structure, the stiffness (or flexibility) of the various structural members, the type and material of construction, etc. Methods for the determination of the fundamental period of a structure are outside the scope of this text. However, IS: 1893-2002 gives the empirical formulae for the estimation of fundamental natural period of vibration for buildings that can be used (see Sec. 32.8) For the estimation of seismic forces in structures, the response spectra are commonly used in practice. ‘The response spectrum of a structure shows the maximum response induced in the structure by the ground motion. It is usually plotted in terms of the maximum absolute acceleration against natural period, although sometimes the maximum relative velocity or the maximum relative displacements are also used. While plotting the response spectrum, it is assumed that the structure has single degree of freedom and it may have different damping. In other words, the maximum response spectrum represents the maximum acceleration of an idealised single degree freedom systems having a certain natural period of vibration and damping when it is subjected to earthquake ground motion. FOUNDATION EARTHQUAKE SHAKING Fig. 32.4. Inertia force on a simple structureGEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 4s ig. 32.5 shows the maximum res- | ponse spectrum for a typical structural 0-5 % Damping system with a certain natural period and damping. Z 03 The following points may be noted: 1. The response of the system decreases as the damping of the Q 9| system increases. In buildings, usually 5% damping 2 is assumed = or 2. As the natural period increases, # the acceleration first increases to % 9.9 a maximum value and then it 00 1-0 2-0 30 decreases. For the structural system shown, the greatest acceleration occurs Fi 325. The maximum response specrum of a ypiil structural sytem when natural period is about 0.3 s. 3. It is the usual practice in the earthquake-resistant design to represent the structural response by the response factor or spectral coefficient in the normalised form as S./g. 4, The response spectrum helps the earthquake engineer to predict how a particular structure with a certain natural period will respond to the earthquake. 5. The response spectra are commonly used in the estimation of seismic forces, as discussed later. 32.7. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN Some of the general principles of the design of earthquake-resistant design of structures are discussed below. For more details, a reference may be made to IS: 1893-2002. 1, Design basis earthquake. In the earthquake-resistant design, it is not the objective to make the structure absolutely earthquake proof that will not suffer any damage during the rarest of the earthquakes. A fully earthquake-proof structure will be very huge and highly expensive. Instead, an attempt is made that the structure should be able to withstand the minor earthquakes that occur frequently in that region. Moreover, the structure should be able to resist moderate earthquakes, called design basis earthquakes (DBE), without significant structural damage. Such earthquakes could occur once during the life of the structure. Even a major earthquake, called the maximum considered earthquake (MCE), with its intensity greater than that of the design basis earthquake, would not cause complete collapse of a properly designed and constructed structure and the losses would be limited. 2, Pseudo-static analysis. Earthquakes cause dynamic loading on structures. However, for the design of ‘carthquake-resistant structures, the dynamic analysis is usually not carried out. Instead, a pscudo-static analysis is used in which the earthquake forces are replaced by equivalent static forces. These forces are considered in addition to the normal loads on the structure for its design. It is assumed that the forces due to earthquake are not likely to occur simultaneously with other occasional forces such as wind loads, maximum flood forces or maximum sea waves forces. 3. Components of acceleration. Earthquakes can cause acceleration in any direction. It is the usual prac- tice to consider the components of acceleration in the vertical direction and in two perpendicular horizontal direction. Moreover, the acceleration components can be either positive or negative in these three directions. Since the three components of earthquak acceleration may not act at the same time with their maximum magnitude, the code recommends that when the maximum response from one component occurs, the response from the other two components can be 30 percent of their maximum values. All possible combinations, including plus or minus signs, should be considered in the design. Generally, the horizontal acceleration is the most predominant. ly846 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 4, Increase in permissible stresses. The vertical component of acceleration can increase the normal vertical loads on the structure. Because of the provision of adequate factors of safety used in the normal design of structures, most of the structures are able to resist the additional momentary vertical loads due to earthquakes, According to the code, when earthquake forces are considered along with the normal design forces, the permissible stresses in materials in the clastic method of design can be increased by one-third. However, for steel having a definite yield stress, the increased stress may be limited to the yield stress, and for ste! without a definite yield point, the stress may be limited 0.80 percent of the ultimate strength or 0.2 percent proof strain, whichever is smaller. 5. Increase in allowable bearing pressure. The allowable bearing pressure in soils can be increased by 25 10 50%, depending on the type of soil and type of foundation as per details given in the code. However, for soils that are liable to liquefaction, this increase is not applicable. Soils falling under Indian Standard Classification category SP (i.e., poorly graded sands), with standard penetration test (SPT) N-values less than 15 in seismic zones IM, IV and V and less than 10 in zone II may become liquefied. Suitable measures for prevention of liquefaction, as discussed later, are adopted. 6. Horizontal and Vertical inertia forces. The predominant direction of ground motion is usually horizontal, Therefore, the horizontal seismic forces are most important for the earthquake-resistant design. The methods for the estimation of horizontal seismic forces are discussed in the next section According to the code, the vertical inertia forces are to be considered in the design unless checked and proven that they are not significant. When effects due to vertical earthquake loads are to be considered, the design vertical acceleration spectrum is taken as two-thirds of the design horizontal acceleration spectrum, Vertical inertia forces are important for structures in which stability is a criterion for design, such as retaining walls, cantilevered members and prestressed horizontal members. Reduction in gravity forces due to vertical component of ground motion can be detrimental in some structures. 7. Resonance. According to the code, resonance of the type as visualized under steady-state conditions will not occur because the earthquakes have irregular motion of short duration in which there is not adequate time to build up the required amplitudes. However, if the structure’s fundamental period is close to that of site, resonance may occur. Such conditions have been observed for some tall buildings on deep soft soils. 8, Base shear. Inertia forces generated in the structure due to an earthquake are assumed to be transferred to the base of the structure as the base shear. The base transfers these forces to the foundation, which, in turn, transfers them to the ground. All the components of the structure and foundations are designed to resist these forces in addition to the normal forces. ‘The distribution of the seismic forces in different structural elements is done by the methods of structural analysis beyond the scope of this text. 32.8. DESIGN SEISMIC COEFFICIENT ‘The design horizontal coefficient A, for a structure can be determined from the following expression: an EDEN es Z = Zone factor of the seismic zone (For seismic zones Il, Il, IV and V, the values of zone factor are taken as 0.10, 0.16, 0.24 and 0,36, respectively). r 1'= Impgrtance factor. It depends upon the functional use of the structure. The value of J is 1.5 for important service community buildings, such as hospitals, schools, railway stations, fire stations cinetha halls, etc. For all other buildings, its value is 1.0.GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 347 R= Response reduction factor. It depends on the perceived seismic damage performance of the struc- ture. The value of R varies from 1.5 to 5.0 for different types of buildings. For ondindty R.C. moment-resisting frames, its value is 3.0. The ratio VR should not be greater than 1.0. Si/g = Average response acceleration coefficient. It indicates the average smoothened plot of maximum acceleration. It depends upon the type of strata and natural period. ‘The code gives the chart for values of (S,/g) for rock (or hard soil), medium soil and soft soil sites for 5% damping. For other values of dampings, the code gives the multiplying factors. The maximum value of Se is about 2.50 between a time of period about 0.1 s to 0.5 s for rock. As the of time period increases, the value of S,/g decreases. (For more details, see IS: 1893-2002.) For determining the value of (S,/g) for 2 given structure, its natural period of vibration is required. The following approximate formulae for the computation of the fundamental natural period of vibration (T,) are used ae si ee baa PAPE aan) frame buildings T, = 0.075 n° (32.9) (id) Stee! frame buildings T, = 0.085 1°" (32.10) 7 = 009k 7, = 28 --GB211) where, 7, = natural period of vibration, in seconds. he = height of building, as specified in the code, in metres. d = base dimension of the building at the plinth level along the direction of the lateral force, in metres. For any structure with T, <0.1 s, the value of 4, is not taken less than (2/2), whatever be the value of WR. 32.9, DESIGN SEISMIC FORCES ‘The design seismic forces are computed as explained below: : he total design lateral force acting on the structure is equal to the product of the design horizontal coefficient (A,) and the seismic weight of the structure, The seismic weight of a building is equal to the sum of the seismic weights of all the floors of the building. The seismic weight of each floor is equal to its full dead load plus an appropriate fraction of the imposed load, as specified in the code. While computing the seismic weight of any floor, the dead weight of columns and walls in any storey is equally distributed to the floors above and below them. ‘The design seismic base shear acting on the structure is equal to the total design lateral force and is given by the expression Vp = AW : (32.12) where Ai, = design horizontal seismic coefficient W = seismic weight of the building = design base shear848 SOIL. MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING ‘The design base shear is distributed to different floor levels, as specified in the code, The horizontal force acting on the foundation is equal to the design base shear. Since the design vertical coefficient is equal to the two-thirds of the design horizontal coefficient Ay. the design vertical force is given by the expression F, 3 AWW (32.12 a) where W is the seismic weight of the building, and F, = design vertical force. ‘The design vertical force is transferred from the structure to its foundations © Desi Buildings and por wereof should be designed and constructed to resist the effect of design seismic forces. Since the seismic fo it it is essential to avoid construction Practices that lead to brite i behave in a ductile manner so that Complete collapse of the structure is avoided even during severe earthquakes. Actual design is beyond the scope of this text, @ Design of foundation Since the earthquake-resistant designs are generally performed by pseudo-static analysis, the seismic loads on the foundation are considered as static loads: These loads are capable of producing settlements like other loads, [The code permits an increase in allowable bearing pressure depending on the soil-foundation system. The srerrase in allowable bearing pressure is 25 or 50 percent. In soil-foundation systems, where small settlements ar likely to occur during earthquake, the increase in allowable bearing pressure is larger, and vice-versa. For cxampl. forall types of foundations on rocks or hard soil, the permissible increase is 50%, For sc soils, the Parana eg increase for piles resting on hard rock or hard soils and the raft foundations is SOM, whos that for other types of foundations, it is 25%, 32.10. SITE-SPECIFIC RESPONSE SPECTRA ? 4 a i i 5 5 BR as they depend upon the type of strata at the site. Based on calculation for soft soils 0-4] § s i 2 ° ° 1985 Mexico - soft soits Peak horizontal Ground surface 00 OF 0203 04 05 06 oF Peak horizontal acceleration in bedrock (9) (Redrawn after Idriss 1990) Fig 32.6. Effect of site conditions on the peak horizontal acceleration th ng 3p coGEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 849 Seismic waves travel differently through soils and rocks. Therefore, the ground shaking at sites underlain by soil is different from those underlain by rock. Tt was observed during the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake that the sites underlain by deep deposits of soft soils experienced peak ground acceleration two to three times greater than that at nearby sites on stiff soils or rock, The structures founded on soft soils collapsed, whereas adjacent buildings founded on stiffer soils withstood the shock without collapsing. Similarly, in the 1985 Michoacan Earthquake, the damages to buildings in Mexico city, 350 km from the epicenter, were much worse than in other cities that were much closer. The reason for this difference is attributed to the difference in site conditions. The buildings in Mexico city were underlain by deep deposits of soft clay. Fig, 32.6 gives a simplified, approximate relationship for different soils (Seed, et al 1976, and Idriss, 1990). Even in Mexico city, the spectral acceleration for different sites was different (Fig. 32.7). The observed response at rock and hard soils was fairly low, and the damage caused was negligible. 09 5% DAMPING scT Site (depth _to hard layer) D=37m CAO Site (D=58 m) ACCELERATION - 9 0-3! 0-2] on ‘SPECTRAL 0-0} PERIOD (Seconds) (Redrawn after Seed et al , 1987) Fig. 32.7. Acceleration response spectra in Mexico city during the 1985 earthquake ‘At the central market site (CAO site), spectral accelerations were amplified at periods of 1.3 s and within the range of 3.5 s to 4.5 s. However, the damages were fairly minor, since the buildings at the CAO site did not have fundamental periods within these ranges and resonance did not occur. However, near the SCTT building sites, the soil deposit’s fundamental period at which amplification of spectral acceleration occurred matched with those of structures and major damages occurred due to resonance, Uniform Building Code (1991) gives the normalised acceleration response spectra for different site conditions (Fig. 32.8). The spectral acceleration of a structure can be estimated if the following parameters are known: (® System’s fundamental period (T) (ii) Peak ground acceleration of the design earthquake850 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 4:00 z 3 z é Soft 10 medium clays a ‘and sands (soil type 3) 6 3-00 g ‘Deep cohesionless oF >9 stiff clay (soit 33 type 2) a5 2-00] a Rock and stift soils ary (soil type 1) 2 3% 1-00) ES oh gt oa oo! 1. Ll 1 : 0-00 +00 2-00 3-00 PERIOD T (Seconds) Fig. 32.8, 1991 UBC Normalised acceleration response spectra (iii) Type of the soil at the site. It may be noted that for fundamental periods greater than about 0.5 s, the spectral acceleration for deep soil sites are considerably higher than that for rock and stiff soils. There are many hazards due to earthquakes. The hazards related to geotechnical engineering include the following: 1. Liquefaction of soils. In saturated, cohesionless soils, earthquakes may cause liquefaction (or quick: sand) conditions when the shear strength is reduced to almost zero. Liquefaction of soils can lead to many types of failures, such as bearing capacity failures, sinking or tilting of buildings, land slides, lateral spreads, flotation of underground structures. Liquefaction of soils is discussed Tater. 2; Ground shaking. Shaking of ground occurs during an earthquake. The intensity, duration and wave form of ground shaking depend upon a number of factors such as the magnitude of earthquake, the depth of focus, the epicentral distance, the energy absorbing nature of the strata, ete. ‘The intensity of ground shaking at a given location is usually specified in terms of peak ground accelera- tion (PGA). There is an approximate relationship between the PGA and intensity on MMI scale, as discussed earlier, To predict the response of soils and foundations, the characteristics of ground shaking are required. 3, Surface rupture. For earthquakes of small magnitudes, the rupture zone occurs deep inside the earth and it does not extend to the ground surface. However, for the earthquakes of magnitudes greater than about 6.0, the rupture surface usually appears at the ground. Moreover, as the magnitude of the earthquake increases, the length of rupture surface also increases. Surface rupture creates a number of problems for buildings, bridges, railways, highways, water supply lines, etc. that are located directly above the fault. Itis the usual practice to locate the buildings and structures susceptible to heavy damage not directly, over the active faults. 4, Land slides. Earthquakes can cause land slides and failure of slopes. Even when the slope failures do ot occur, tension cracks may appear in the soil. These tension cracks may lead to the formation of water channels, causing softening and saturation of soilsGEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 851 5, Lateral spreading. Lateral spreading of soil is the massive horizontal movement of soil layers in a direction parallel to the ground slope. Lateral spreading due to earthquakes is usually observed on very gentle slopes. If the lateral spreading occurs beneath a structure, it can tear it apart, causing heavy damages. In the design of such structures, suitable provisions are made to withstand tensile stresses, 6. Shear failure of foundations. Seismic loads acting on a structure are transmitted to the ground through the foundation, This results in an increase in the stresses acting on the soil. However, the soils can withstand seismic stresses without failure if they are not very large. In some cases, when the stresses exceed the shear strength of the soil, the bearing capacity failure may occur. However, shear failures of foundation are not common so long as liquefaction of the soil does not occur. 7. Settlements of structures. The earthquakes cause cyclic loading on soils, which may lead to large settlements. Loose sandy soils often compact during the earthquake. Differential settlements can also be substantial. Adequate provisions should be made in the design of structures so that differential settlements do not cause damage, 8, Failure of retaining walls. If the movements caused by the earthquake are large, the retaining walls may fail. When a retaining wall fails, the support it was providing to the soil mass is removed. It may result in heavy damage to adjacent structures such as ports, etc, 9. Tsunamis and Seiches. A tsunami is a huge wave generated in the ocean by an earthquake. These waves travel very fast and cannot be easily detected in open sea. However, when they approach the beach, they suddenly appear as tall waves. These tall waves may cause heavy damages to onshore structures and can lead to loss of life. A seiche is similar in nature to a tsunami, but it is of much smaller size and it occurs in lakes or rivers. The seiche usually occurs when resonant conditions occur in the lake due to an earthquakes, i.e., when the natural frequency of the lake and that of the earthquake are equal. Sometimes a seiche occurs in a lake when the rupture surface is beneath the lake bed. Early warning systems should be ins- 6s talled so that suitable actions may be taken by the people at the places where tsunamis and seiches can occur. Liquefaction is a state of saturated cohesionless soil when its shear strength is reduced to zero due to pore water pressure caused by vibration during an earthquake. The soil starts behaving like a liquid. To understand the liquefaction phenomenon, let Soll ELEMENT us consider a soil clement of the soil deposit Oo at a depth of z below the ground surface (G.S.). Let the depth of water table (W.T.) be Fig. 32.9. Stresses in a soil element hh below the ground surface (Fig. 32.9) As discussed in Chapter 10, the effective stress (represented as o’ in this chapter) at a depth z below the GS. is given by Oo = 1h + Yar A) ~ Ye (ZA) oO =yh+y" (e-h) where y’ is the submerged density ( = Ya) —Yy) ‘The shear strength of a cohesionless soil is due to internal friction and is given by s=O ungEE ____— 892 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING. If the soil deposit is subjected to ground vibrations, it tends to compact and decrease in volume. However, if the drainage of pore water is prevented, this tendency to decrease in volume results in an increase in pore water pressure, Let wy be the excess dynamic pore water pressure developed due to ground vibration. ‘The dynamic shear strength is expressed as $4 = (0 ~ 4) tang’ For sandy soils, the angle of internal friction 9” in the dynamic conditions is almost equal to that in static conditions. ‘The dynamic shear strength (5,) will become zero when O = kg or aed 3 Expressing uy in terms of the dynamic hydraulic head (h,), ¢ ‘Thus liquefaction in a cohesioniess soil will occur when the dynamic pore water pressure is equal to the effective stress. It may be noted that because of the dynamic pore water pressure, the shear strength of soil is decreased. It results in transfer of intergranular stress to pore water pressure. If this transfer of stress is incomplete, there is partial loss of strength and partial liquefaction occurs. However, if the transfer of stress is complete, the shear strength becomes zero and complete liquefaction occurs, The sand-water mixture behaves like a viscous liquid after complete liquefaction, Large settlements occur after liquefaction and the structures resting on such a soil deposit start sinking, This sinking i continues till the sand remains in the fi i 1. The soil is cohesionless. 2. The soil is loose. 3. The soil is saturated. 4. There is shaking of ground of the required intensity and duration. 5. The undrained conditions develop in the soil due to its limited permeability. It is worth noting that liquefaction can occur in the soil deposit at any depth where these conditions are satisfied. Once liquefaction occurs at some depth, the flow of water occurs in the upward direction, and it may cause an indirect liquefaction in the soil layers above, It is observed that liquefaction normally occurs in the soil classified as SP according to Indian Standard Classification when the SPT number NV is less than 15. However, sometimes liquefaction may also occur in the soils classified as SW, SM and ML. Fine-grained soils do not compress readily under dynamic loadings to cause a high dynamic pore water Pressure. Moreover, they also possess the shear strength due to cohesion. Therefore, liquefaction does not occur in the fine-grained soils. However, in quick clays, there is a possibility of liquefaction because their structure is destroyed by shaking. When liquefaction occurs, sand boils (or mud spouts or sand fountains) appear at the ground surface. A large number of sand fountains were observed during the Dhubri Earthquake in Assam (1934), the Bhuj Earthquake in Gujarat (2001), and many other earthquakes throughout the world. Liquefaction of soil is responsible for many failures of earth structures, slopes, and foundations. it may also lead to land slides, lateral spreads, sinking of structures and flotation of underground structures.GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 853 ‘The following factors mainly affect the liquefaction of soils in the field. 1, Soil type. As already discussed, liquefaction usually occurs in cohesionless soils, especially soils of type SP. On the other hand, liqu-faction does not occur in fine-grained, cohesive soils. However, highly sensitive, quick clays may liquefy. 2. Particle size and gradation. Fine, uniform sands are more prone to liquefaction than coarse, well- graded sands. Since the permeability of coarse sands is greater than that of fine sands, the pore water pressure is rapidly dissipated in such sands and liquefaction normally does not occur. Liquefaction potential of sands depends on percentage of fines (size < 0.075 mm) present in it. For a sand of a given initial relative density, as the percentage of fine increases, the liquefaction potential is decreased. 3. Initial relative density. Liquefaction of sands depends to a large extent on the initial relative density (or density index). In dense sands, both pore water pressure and settlements are considerably less than those in loose sands. Hence the proneness of sand to liquefaction is reduced with an inctease in relative density indicated by SPT number (or cone penetration resistance). 4. Length of drainage path. If the length of drainage path is large, a sand deposit would behave as undrained when the pore water pressure is suddenly increased due to earthquake and the liquefaction may occur, The length of the drainage path is sometimes reduced by providing drains of highly pervious materials in sand deposits 5. Surcharge loads. The initial effective stress in the sand deposit can be increased by the application of a surcharge load on it. With an increase in the effective stress, the transfer of stress from the soil particles to the pore water is delayed. Thus the sand deposit would require higher intensity vibrations for greater duration when the surcharge loads are applied to it. 6. Characteristics of vibration, The main characteristics of vibration are its acceleration, frequency, amplitude and velocity. For liquefaction of soils, the first two characteristics, namely, acceleration and frequency, are more dominant. Acceleration during vibration is the most important characteristics affecting liquefaction of soils. In general, the greater the acceleration, the greater are the chances of liquefaction. Liquefaction usually occurs only after a certain number of vibration cycles are repeated. Frequency of vibration is important if it is close to the natural frequency of the soil-foundation system and resonance oceurs. 7. Age of soil deposit. If the soil deposit is very old, its proneness to liquefaction is relatively low as Compared to that of a recent soil deposit. In old deposits, some form of cementation occurs at the contact points of sand particles and the transfer of interparticle stresses to pore water is delayed. 8. Trapped air. If air is trapped in a sand deposit, a part of the pore water pressure is dissipated due to its compression. Therefore, the possibility of liquefaction is reduced to some extent. 9. Miscellaneous factors. Some miscellaneous factors such as soil structure, method of soil deformations, etc, also affect the liquefaction characteristics of soils but their effect is not significant. 32,14, ASSESSMENT OF SUSCEPTIBILITY OF A SOIL TO LIQUEFACTION It is important to known whether the soil at the site is susceptible to liquefaction or not, so that suitable measures may be adopted, if required. Recent research has been directed in this direction. Various methods have been proposed by different investigators. The cyclic stress approach is generally used in most of the ‘methods. ‘The cyclic stress ratio is defined as the ratio of the cyclic shear stress (1) to the initial effective stress (G¢'). The cyclic stress ratio produced by the earthquake (t/6,')y is compared with that required to induce liquefaction in the soil (t/00'),. The factor of safety (F) against liquefaction is estimated as_" I EEEEEEEIEDSS'S'S 854 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING Wor), wats 32.13) Liquefaction would occur if F is less than unity, However, it has been observed that significant pore SEs aig Qveut even at the values of F slightly greater than 1.0. Generally, a minimum factor of safety of 1.25 to 1.50 is specified. ‘The proneness of a soil deposit to liquefaction is assessed at various depths in a soil deposit. The factors of safety at all the points should be within the required limit. (@) Estimation of the cyclic stress ratio produced by the earthquake ‘The average cyclic shear stress imparted by the earthquake in the top 12 m of a soil deposit can be estimated as (Seed and Idriss, 1982) (32.14) where, Omax = maximum horizontal acceleration (MHA) at the ground surface & = acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s?) 89 = total vertical stress at the point of interest Ov’ = effective vertical stress at the same point (€/00') 4 = eyclic stress ratio produced by the design earthquake. rd = stress reduction factor. ‘The main problem is in the estimation of the maximum horizontal ac; The energy released by an earthquake altenuates as the waves travel away from the zone of fracture, Consequently, the maximum horizontal acceleration decreases asthe epicentral distance increases. Fig. 32.10 shows a typical attentuation curve for the rock sites in the central U.S. regions (Nuttli and Herrmann, o4| oe wm 100 PEAK HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION | 1989). EPICENTRAL DISTANCE = ( km) The values of the maximum horizontal rmann , 1986 acceleration (MHA) at rock sites get further (Redrawn after Nuttli and Herrmann , 1984) modified due to local soil conditions. Fig. 32.8 (see Sect. 32.10) shows the variation of MHA at different. soil sites with respect to that at rock sites, both the accelerations are expressed in terms of acecleration due to gravity. It may be noted that the MHA at sites on deep clay deposits may be upto 3 times greater than that at rock sites. ‘The stress reduction factor (ri) depends upon the depth of the point of interest below the ground surface. ‘The average curve (Fig. 32.11) is generally used in practice (Seed and Idriss, 1971), The relationship can be approximate as Fig. 32.10. MHA attenuation relationship for mg 5 14 = 1-0.008 x depth in metres ++-(2.15) According to IS: 1893-2002, the basic zone factors (z) are reasonable estimate of effective peak ground acceleration in different seismic zones of IndiaGEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Depth (1) Stre ss Reduction Factor , ao 06 07 08 09 10 Average — erage ses Depth (m) (Redrawn after Seed ,et al , 1971) Fig. 32.11. Variation of stress reduction factor with depth The cyeli 1. The corrected standard penetration test (SPT) number indicated as (Ni)oo, obtained from the SPT number (N)co measured in the field Ode = Neo ico. (32.16) (Ni)eo = standard SPT Number corrected for overburden pressure (Neo = standard SPT Number measured in the field (duly corrected for field procedures) where vertical effective stress at the test section (kPa), 2. The particle size distribution, expres- sed as percentage of fines ie., percent passing the US No. 200 sieve ( = 0.075). Alternatively, the mean grain size (Dso) can be used. Soils with less than 5 percent fines are most susceptible to liquefaction. As the percent of fines increases, the liquefaction potential decreases, (b) Cyclic stress ratio to induce liquefaction in a soil 275 stress ratio to cause liquetaction (25) for Mm: o stress ratio (t/69); required to induce liquefaction in a given saturated sand deposit depends upon a number of factors. In the simplified analysis given below, only the following three factors are consi- dered (Seed, et al., 1985), 0-6 Percent fines=35 15 <5 oss ike if iota 0% ; i | . | | 0-3 Fines content Se 10/ proposst (clay contents) 0-2 © Sos § on i HR of Pan American data @ “a ipime ans 0 8 : URES Ste i oa 30 a Deo Fig, 32.12, Cyclic stess ratio to cause liquefaction as a function of corrected SPT (Ni) 3. The duration of shaking or the magnitude of the earthquake. As the duration of the earthquake increases, the susceptibility of a soil to liquefaction also increases. In other words, the possibility of856 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING liquefaction is increased as the magnitude of the earthquake is increased because the duration increases with the magnitude. Fig, 32.12. gives relationship between the cyclic stress ratio causing liquefaction (t/ay’); and the SPT Number (W,)so values for different values of fines for an earthquake of magnitude 7.5. If the magnitude of the earthquake is not 7.5, the value of (t/6,'); obtained is to be corrected using the relation 1 + aa 7 2217) (# le (a ), on where (1/09) is the cyclic stress ratio for the magnitude M and (t/09')r5 is that for the magnitude 7.5 obtained from Fig, 32.12, As the magnitude of the earthquake increases, y decreases. The values of y for different magnitudes are given by various investigators. It is more appropriate to use the surface wave magnitude (M,) for earthquakes of magnitudes greater than 65, Once the values of (%/0y'), and (t/0,'); have been obtained, the factor of safety against liquefaction can be estimated from Eq. 32.13. Thus the zone where the soil is likely to liquefy can be located. Suitable measures can be adopted to prevent liquefaction, if required. 32.15, PREVENTION OF LIQUEFACTION It is extremely difficult and impractical to prevent liquefaction of soil in the field when the susceptible zone extends to a large depth. It is generally best not to construct buildings and other structures at sites prone to liquefaction. Because the remediation of the liquefaction hazard is quite expensive, it would be cost effective only at the sites where the land cost is extremely high. Remediation is sometimes necessary at sites that have been developed and the buildings already exist and later it has been found that the soil is prone to liquefaction. This generally happens when adequate site investigations were not made prior to the construction of buildings. The following measures can be adopted to prevent liquefaction or to limit the damages caused by liquefaction 1, Providing deep foundations. The structures should be supported on deep foundations, such as piles, that extend through the liquefiable soil to deeper strong and stable strata. Since such piles will not be able to resist lateral loads in the liquefiable soil, other measures should be adopted to resist lateral loads, 2. Compaction of soils. The liquefaction of a soil can be prevented by compacting the soil and increasing its relative density. Compaction is usually done by means of vibratory rollers, compaction piles, vibroflotation, blasting, etc. (see Chapter 33). ‘The extent to which the compaction should be done is ascertained by estimating the required SPT No. (N) to prevent liquefaction for that soil for the design earthquake. 3. Replacing the liquefiable soil. If the depth of the liquefiable soil is limited, it can be excavated and replaced with a well compacted soil. However, if the depth of the liquefiable soil is large, it becomes impractical to replace the soil because it requires extensive dewatering systems. This method is however sometimes adopted at the sites of critical projects such as earth dams. 4. Grouting the soil. In this method, the soil is stabilised by injecting chemicals or cement grout soil (see Chapter 33). ‘This method is sometimes used at sites where buildings already exist and other methods cannot be used. 5. Ground water pumping. As already discussed, the effective stress at a point increases as the water table is lowered. By restoring to extensive ground water pumping, the liquefaction can be prevented to some extent. However, this method is cost effective only when the water that is pumped can be used for municipal and industrial purposes theGEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 857 6. Drainage of soils. The liquefaction hazard can be reduced to some extent by providing coarse sand blankets and drains in the soil deposit. The dynamic pore water pressure is thus easily dissipated and the effective stress is increased. 7, Providing stone columns. In this method, a number of holes are bored in the soil deposit and later filled with gravel and stones. Thus stone columns are formed. ‘The stone columns have high permeability and are quite effective for rapid drainage of pore water. Thus the effective stress is increased. (The behavior of stone columns is somewhat similar to that of the sand drains used for consolidation of soils, discussed in Chapter 12). See Chapter 33 for more details. 8, Application of surcharge. As already discussed, when a surcharge load is applied to a soil deposit, the effective stress is increased. Thus the possibility of liquefaction is reduced. Monitoring of the pore water pressure will be required to assess the magnitude of the surcharge load and its duration, 32.16. SEISMIC STABILITY OF A SLOPE Stability of an earth slope under static forces has been aiscussed in chapter 18, The earth slope is subjected to dynamic forces during an earthquake. In seismic areas, the slope should be designed such that it is also stable under earthquake forces. ‘The earthquake forces are transient in nature. They act for a fraction of second in one direction and then ‘change the direction. Moreover, the magnitude of the earthquake forces also changes with time. The complete ‘dynamic analysis of a slope is extremely difficult. A simplified method, known as pseudo- static method, is generally used for checking the seismic stability of a slope. Tn pseudo-static analysis of a slope, the effect of the earthquake is represented by a constant horizontal force acting in one direction, For minimum stability, the force acts horizontally outward through the centre of ‘gravity of the sliding mass. It is assumed that the horizontal force due to an earthquake is of the same nature as the static forces and its effect can be superimposed on that of the static forces in the conventional stability analysis. ‘The horizontal force due to inertia is given by F, = mass x acceleration due earthquake Ww where W = weight of the sliding soil mass. acceleration due to earthquake acceleration of due to gravity (g) ‘The value of ky depends upon the ground acceleration. Because of the transient nature of the earthquake, the peak acceleration (Gigax) acts only for a fraction of a second. During this period, some displacements may occur but complete failure of slope may not occur. The geotechnical engineers, therefore, do not take actual Gay in the seismic stability of the slope but they take a smaller value. The value of the seismic coefficient y, is generally taken between 0.1 and 0.2. A value of 0.15 is quite common, While checking the seismic stability of a slope, the conventional limiting equilibrium methods for checking the stability of a slope discussed in chapter 18 are used. In the analysis, the fore F, due to earthquake is considered in addition to the static forces. ky = seismic coefficient = The following two types of failures of slopes are considered, 1, Wedge failure 2. Failure along a circular surface 1, Wedge failure ‘The wedge failure occurs along a plane. Such failures take place when the slope has a specific plane AB of weakness (Fig. 32.13). The factor of safety for static forces is given by Eq. 18.20 as858 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING p, = i+ (Woos a) tang fa us Wein a. . where ¢ = cohesion, @ = angle of shearing resistance W = weight of wedge ADB = angle which the plane AB makes with the horizontal L = length of the failure surface AB. When the additional force F, due to the earthquake is considered, the magnitude of the normal and tangential components are modified. ‘The component of F, is the normal direction, N = Fy since = —(k, W) sina where ky = seismic coefficient. ‘The component of F,, in the tangential direction, T’ = F,cosa = k, Wcos ‘Thus the dynamic factor of safety can be written as cL+ (Wcos o~ F; sin a) tang DESi= Wsina+F,cosa Obviously, the value of DFS is less than the factor of safety for static forces. The DFS is generally taken between 1.1 and 1.2. A typical value is 1.15, Because the earthquake is of transient nature, a low value of DFS is permitted, ‘The values of the strength parameters c and @ should correspond to the dynamic material strength. Conservative vaiues of ¢ and @ are normally used. 2, Failure alorg a circular surface The actua: shape of the slip surface in the case of finite slopes in homogeneous soils is curvilinear. In the Swedish circle method, the slip surface i assumed to be an are of a circle. Fig. 32.14 shows the forces in the case of a circular surface. W = weight of the sliding soil mass. F, = horizontal inertia force (= ky W ) $= shear strengths of the soil along failure surface AB. ‘The dynamic factor of safety (DFS) is obtained as < fe prs = Resisting moment <0 Driving moment Wy Swormat As discussed in Section 18.12, the factor of safety against sliding is given by Eq. 18.33 as Fig. 32.14 5 = Leh sec a+¥(Weos a) tang Fs = Echseca+¥ (Weos = Wsin a As in the case of wedge failure discussed above, the normal component is decreased due to the earthquake force F, but the tangent component is increased (Fig. 32.15). Thus the dynamic factor of safety can be written as prs = Ech sec c+ (W cos o.~ Fy sin a) tan E (Wsin + F, cos a)GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 859 where @. is the angle which the normal to the curved surface makes with the vertical. weigh of slice, the earthquake force in the horizontal direction ( = ky W). cohesion intercept. angle of shearing resistance. b = width of the slice of the slope. b seca = Al = curved length of the slice. DFS can also be written as Ech sec +E W (cos a~k, sin a) tan eee E (W Gin a+ hy cos a) 0 ose _ Ech sec a+ (N~ ky T)tand 4 i iaees EO+k amie Fig, 3215 In the above equations, it has been assumed that the pore water pressure does not exist. If the pore water pressure also acts, the equation is modified as Ech sec a+ (N—kyT~ub sec a) tang DFS = Saran where u is the pore water pressure. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES Mlustrative Example 321. The standard torsion seismograph records a trace amplitude of 12:5 mm in E-W direction and a trace amplitude of 11.4 mm in N-S direction at an epicentral distance of 110 km. If the station correction is + 0.1, estimate the magnitude of the earthquake. Solution. From Eq. 32.2 (b), M = logioA + distance correction The distance correction for epicentral distance of 110 km is + 3.1 from Fig. 32.2. In E-W direction, M = logiy 12.5 + 3.1 = 4.2 Applying the station correction, M = 4.2 + 0.1 = 43 Similarly, in N-S direction, M = logy 11.4 + 3.1 + 0.1 = 4.26 43 + 4.26 2 Mlustrative Example 32.2, Estimate the energy released by an earthquake of magnitude 8.0, Compare the energy released to that by the Hiroshima atom bomb. Solution. From Eq. 32.4, logioE = 11.4 + 15M = 114 + 15 x 80 = 23.4 Average value of M = = 4.28, say 43 or E = 251 x 10” ergs. Energy released by the Hiroshima atom bomb = 8 x 10” ergs. 2.51 x 10 exo 74 Mlustrative Example 32.3, Estimate the maximum intensity on MMI scale and the maximum ground acceleration due to an earthquake of magnitude 7.0. Solution, From Eq. 32.5, the maximum intensity f on MMI scale is given by M=13+06h 0 = 13+ 06ly ‘Therefore, equivalent number of atom bombs860 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING or Ip = 95 ie, MMI intensity will be X. From Eq, 32.6, the maximum ground acceleration a is given by logy a = 0.5 = 3 (10.0) - 0.50 = 2.833 681.29 681.29 cm/s? a 981 8 = 908 Iustrative Example 32.4. Estimate the cyclic stress ratio produced by an earthquake at a place where the maximum horizontal acceleration is 0.15 g at a depth of 5 m in a sandy soit deposit. Assume the water table is at a depth of I m below the ground surface. Take Y = Yuy = 18 kN/m*. Solution. Total stress at 5 m depth, oy = 18 x 5 = 90kN/m? Effective stress at that depth Go’ = Oo - u = 90 ~ (4 X 9.81) = 50.76 KN/m? From Eq. (32.15), ry = 1 ~ 0.008 x depth = 1 — 0.008 x 5 = 0.96 ) max | { Fo . O15 g 90 oss ( (&}--9( ' (wie) o%6 017 From Eq, 32.14, (t/oy')g (=| Mlustrative Example 32.5. (a) A deposit of saturated fine sand has 5% fines. If the corrected SPT number for the sand is 12, estimate the cyclic stress ratio required to cause liquefaction due to an earthquake of magnitude 7.5. (6) If the magnitude of the earthquake were 8.0, what would have been the required cyclic stress ratio? Assume a scaling factor (W) of 0.65. " Solution. (a) From Fig. 32.12, the cyclic stress ratio to cause liquefaction for (Nj)go = 12, percentage of fines = 5% and fo: the magnitude of 7.50 is 0.12. (b) For the ecrthquake of magnitude 8.0, Eq. 32.17 gives x + =] =w{4S]} =065@12) = 008 (z}, “(a 1, 0.65 (0.12) = 0.0 Illustrative Example 32.6, The maximum horizontal acceleration in bed rock is estimated to be 0.20 g. What would be the maximum horizontal acceleration at a project site located over (a) a deposit of deep cohesiontess soil (b) a deposit of deep soft soil deposit. Solution. (a) From Fig. 32.6, for @ bed rock acceleration of 0.20 g, the maximum horizontal ground acceleration for a deep cohesionless soil deposit is 0.18 g. (®) For soft soil deposit, the maximum horizontal ground acceleration is 0.30 g. Mlustrative Example 32.7. (a) A five-storey building, 20 m high, has steel frames without brick infil Panels. It is constructed on a deep soil site consisting of loose, saturated sand overlying a thick stiff clay deposit. The building is to be designed to resist an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 with maximum bed rock horizontal acceleration of 0.20 g. Estimate the peak ground acceleration at the site. (6) Estimate the spectral response of the building as per 1991 UBC. Solution. (a) From Fig. 32.6, the bed rock horizontal acceleration of 0.20 g will be amplified to about 0.30 g. (b) From Eq. 32.10, the fundamental natural Period for steel frame, T, = 0.085 A” = 0.085 (20)°"5 = 0.805GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 861 From Fig. 32.8, as per 1991 UBC, for a period of 0.80 s and deep stiff clay, the ratio __speetral acceleration 10 effective peak ground acceleration Therefore, the spectral acceleration = 1.80 x 0.30g = 0.54g Mlustrative Example 32.8. Estimate the design horizontal seismic coefficient (Ay) for a building from the following data, as per IS: 1893:2002. 1. Height of building = 30 m Base dimension of the building along the considered direction of the lateral force = 10 m. The building has moment-resisting R.C. frame with brick infil panels The building is situated in seismic zone IV of India. The substrata consists of medium soil (type I). 8. Spectral acceleration coefficient = 1.50 Solution, From Eq. 32.11, the fundamental natural period (T,) is given by Zone factor (z) for seismic zone IV from Table 32.5 = 0.24 From Eq. 32.8, Ay= (2) () J Sa g AWRY R Taking 1.50, 0.24) (15 (%F)(38) 50) = 0.09 g Ilustrative Example 32.9. The subsoil strata at a site consists of 4 m of soft to stiff clay underlain by 16 m deep fine to medium sand with fines content of 15%. The SPT values at different depths are given in the table. Determine the zone of liquefaction due to an earthquake with M = 7.5 causing a maximum horizontal acceleration of 0.18 g at the ground surface. Assume Yous = 18 KN/m. The water table is at the ground surface. Take Yy = 10 kN/m 0 Therefore, Ay Solution, Calculations are given in a tabular form below: Deph | SPT | op | ov ra] (@/oda | (8/00) | Factor of safety] Remark @ | © (Eq, 32.15) | Eq. 32-14)| Fig. 32.12)| Eq. 32.13) 6 10 | 1s | 48 095 025 ois 0.60 Liquefiable 8 2 | 144 | 6 094 025 017 068 Liquefiable 10 9 180 80 092 | 024 O14 0.58 Liquefiable 2 n | 26 | 9 | 09 | 026 0.16 067 Liquefiable 4 1s | 252 | 112 | 089 023 023 10 Just safe 16 ig | 288 | 128 | 087 023 025 109 Not liquefiable 18 m4 | 324 | 144 | 086 023 038 16s Not liquefiable 20 | 2s | 360 | 160 | 08 022 040 182 Not liquefiable Conelusion ‘The zone between depth of 4 to 14 m is liquefiable. Below that depth, the soil is not liquefiable. Ilustrative Example 32.10. The etploratory borings at a project site show that there is a deposit 5 m thick of saturated sand with a SPT value of 15 overlying a 20 m thick deposit of clay on bed rock.862 SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING Whe maximum horizontal acceleration in bed rock due to an earthquake (M = 7.5) is estimated as 0.06 & i8 there any possibility of liquefaction in the sand deposit? Assume the water table is at the ground surface, percentage of fines = 10% and Y= 19 KN/m Solution. Since the sand deposit overlies a thick clay deposit, the maximum horivontal acceleration will bbe amplified. From Fig. 32.6, for a peak horizontal acceleration of 0.06 g in bed rock, peak horizontal acceleration at ground surface will be 0.14 g Now for N = 15 and Fines = 10%, the cyclic stress ratio (1/0, required to cause liquefaction from Fig. 32.12 for earthquake of magnitude 7.5 is 0.18. The total stress Gp at the depth of 5 m is 95 KN/m? = 5x19 The effective stress at that depth is Go" = 5(19-9.81) = 45.95 kN/m? Stress reduction factor ry = 1 ~ 0.008 x 5 = 0.96 From Eq, 32.14, the cyclic stress ratio due to the earthquake is given by st Snax | (0) { (&]-0~/ = J) = 09 « or ( From Eq. 32.13, the factor of safety against liquefaction, (4p _ 0.18 = to _ O18 19 Fe ory 018 = ‘The soil is just liquefiable. However, since the factor of safety is less than 1.25, it not safe. To prevent liquefaction, suitable measures should be adopted. J 199 = 018 PROBLEMS A. NUMERICAL 321. If the standard torsion seismograph records an average trace amplitude of 17 mm at an epicentral distance of 100 km, what is the probable magnitude of the earthquake? Ans. 42] 322. what would be the magnitude of an earthquake to release 8 10"? J of energy? Ans. 6.3] 323. A six-storeyed building has moment-resising R.C. frames without brick infil panels and is 25 m high, What Would be its natural period of vibration? Ans, 0.84 s} 324 Estimate the cyclic stess ratio produced by an earthquake a a site from the following dat Maximum horizontal ground acceleration = 0.1 g Stress reduction factor = 0.95 Total stress at the given depth = 120 kN/m? Effective stress at that dept (Ans. 0.113] 32.5 Determine the factor of safety against liquefaction at depth of 2 m in a sand deposit due to an carthquake of magnitude 7.5 for the following site conditions: Maximum horizontal acceleration = 0.18 ¢ Saturated unit weight of sand = 18 kN/m’ Percentage of fines = 5% Corrected SPT number = 20 Assume the water table is at a depth of 1.0 m below the ground surface. Ans. 1.39] 326, Esimate the design horizontal seismic coefficient as per IS: 1893-2002 fora building withthe following ate conditions: Height of building = 28 mGEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING 863 ‘The building has moment-resisting R.C. frames without brick infil panels. Importance factor = 1.0 Response factor = 3.0 ‘The building is situated in seismic zone V on a substrata consisting of soft soil (type Il) {Ans. 0.102 g] B. DESCRIPTIVE AND OBJECTIVE TYPE 32.7. 32.8. 329, 32.10. 32. 3212, 32.13. 32d, 32s. 32.16, 32.7. 328, 32.19. Differentiate between the magnitude and intensity of an earthquake. How would you estimate the maximum intensity if the magnitude of the earthquake is known? Explain the following terms: (a) Focus (b) Epicentre (©) Focal depth (@ Epicentral distance What is an isoscismal map? How would you prepare an isoseismal for a place after the occurrence of the earthquake. What do you understand by the earthquake-resistant structure? What are the criteria for its design? ‘What is liquefaction of soils? What are the necessary conditions for its occurrence? What are the factors that affect liquefaction of soil? Discuss in brie. Explain the procedure for the assessment of the susceptibility of a sand deposit to liquefaction, Suggest suitable methods for prevention of liquefaction of soils. ‘What are the various hazards due to an earthquake? Discuss in brief only those hazards related to geotechnical engineering. Explain the following terms (a) Pseudo-static analysis (6) Attenuation of ground acceleration (©) Base shear (@ Vertical seismic coefficient (© Fundamental natural period of vibration. What is meant by the term site-specific amplification of horizontal acceleration? What is its effect on the spectral acceleration? State which of the following statements are false. (a) The inertia forces on a building act in the same direction as the ground acceleration. (As the height of the building increases, its natural period of vibration increases. (©) Liquefaction normally occurs in clayey soils (@ The earthquake of a magnitude 8.0 would release 1000 times the energy that due to an earthquake of magnitude 6.0. (6) According to IS: 1893-2002, India is divided into four seismic zones. (P The type of soil according to LS. classification in which liquefaction is most likely to occur is SW. {Ans. False (a), (c) (9) How would check the seismic stability of a slope by pseudo-clastic anglysis? C, MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1 4 ‘According 1 MSK (64) scale of intensity, the total number of intensity classes (or grades) is @4 (8 © 10 @ 12 For an earthquake of magnitude 8.0, the maximum intensity on MMI scale would be about (@ Ix () Xt © vil @vt - In a sand deposit, the effective stress at a point is 100 kN/m?, The dynamic pore water pressure head required to cause liquefaction is about @4m () 8m (10m (@ 100 m Ata depth of 10 m below the ground surface, the stress reduction factor is about (@) 090 @ 092864 WCC“ SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (094 (@ 0.96 $. According to 1S: 1893-2002, the value of the horizontal seismic coefficient for any structure with T<011 s, ‘cannot be less than (@) w2 v3 (©) v4 @z 6 According to IS: 1893-2002, the ratio (UR) shall not be greater than (@) 050 10 (©) 1.50 (d) None of above 7. Tsunamis due to earthquakes occur in (@) Oceans (b) Rivers (©) Lakes (d) Reservoirs 8. The type of foundation generally suitable for buildings on liquefiable soils deposit is (@) Spread footing (b) Raft foundation (©) Well foundation (@) Pile foundation TAns. 1. (d), 2. (b), 3. (€) 4. (b), 5. (a), 6. (6), 7. (a), 8