Big Picture in Focus: ULOa.

Explain the fundamental concepts of traffic operation, safety,

education, enforcement, and engineering and development of
transportation, roads, and vehicles.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms relevant to the study of this course and to demonstrate ULOa are
operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the texts work in the
course. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of course. Hence, to be able
to fully appreciate the topics presented in this course, unlocking the meaning of these terms is
crucial.

o ACCIDENTS - These are events or incidents which may cause unintentional damage to
property, loss of limbs and/or death.

o ARTERIAL HIGHWAYS/ROADS – These are high-capacity urban roads that direct traffic
from collector roads to expressways of freeways. It also refers to a highway used primarily
by through traffic.

o BIORHYTHM - It is the theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant variation of life
energy and mood states.

Page 1 of 63
o BOTTLENECKS - These are narrow points or areas in highways where traffic
congestions or traffic jams usually occur, or traffic may be held up.

o COLLECTOR HIGHWAY – Also known as collector road or distributor road, it connects

low-to-moderate highways or roads to arterial highways such as those entering residential
areas. It also refers to a highway that serves primarily to funnel traffic from one highway
to another, or between arterials and local highways.

o COLLISIONS - These are incidents or instances of one moving traffic unit or person
striking violently against another.

Page 2 of 63
o GRIDLOCKS - A state/condition of severe road congestion arising when continuous
queues of vehicles block an entire network of intersecting streets, bringing traffic in all
directions to a complete standstill.

o HIGHWAY - Refers to the entire width between the boundary lines of every way dedicated
to a public authority when any part of the way is open to public use for purposes of
vehicular traffic, regardless of who maintains the highway.

o INTERSECTION - Refers to the area of a roadway created with two or more roadways
join together at any angle.

o MANAGEMENT - Refers to the skillful use of means to accomplish a purpose.

o OPERATION - Refers to a course of action or a series of acts to accomplish a certain

purpose, manner of action, or a vital or natural process of activity.

o ROADWAY –

o ROAD SAFETY - Refers to reduced risk of accident or injury on the roads, which is
achieved through multidisciplinary approaches and adherence to international standards.

o SAFETY CAMPAIGN - Also known as Road Propaganda, it is intended to simply inform

to the public of the recommended behavior on the road and persuade road users into
adopting it.

Page 3 of 63
o SHOULDER -

o SIDEWALK - Refers to a paved walkway along the side of the street.

o THROUGHWAY/THRUWAY - It is a highway that has limited entrances and exits such

as expressways, freeways or motorways.

o THROUGH HIGHWAY - Refers to every highway or portion thereof, on which vehicular

traffic is given the right-of-way, and at the entrances to which vehicular traffic from
intersecting highways is required by law to yield (stop) right-of-way to vehicles on such

Page 4 of 63
 through highway in obedience to either an authorized stop sign, a yield sign
or any other traffic control device.

o TRAFFIC - Refers to the movement of persons, goods or vehicles, either

powered by a combustion system or drawn by animals, for the purpose of
travel.

o TRAFFIC CONGESTIONS - These are conditions on road networks that

occurs as usage increases and is characterized by slower speeds, longer
trip time and increased vehicular queuing.

o TRAFFIC ECOLOGY - It includes the study of potentially disastrous

population explosion, changes in urban environment due to the density of
population in current and new urban concentration areas, effects of air
pollution, water pollution, noise pollution and crowding, including
transportation congestion which is a result therein.

o TRAFFIC ECONOMY – It deals with the benefits and adverse effects of

traffic to our economy.

o TRAFFIC EDUCATION - Refers to any act or process of imparting or

acquiring general knowledge on traffic or any matters relating to the use of
trafficway/roadways.

o TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT - This field deals mostly with the

implementation and enforcement of traffic laws, rules and regulations.

o TRAFFIC ENGINEERING - It is the science of measuring traffic and travel;

the study of the basic laws relative to the traffic law and generation; the
application of knowledge to the professional practice of planning, deciding
and operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient transportation of
goods and services.

o TRAFFIC JAMS - These are situations where movement of traffic users

(motor vehicles and pedestrians) on highways is very slow or stationary.

o TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT - The application of the processes and skills in

planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and budgeting to
traffic affairs.

Page 5 of 63
 o TRANSPORTATION - Refers to the movement or conveying of persons
and goods from one place to another.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3)
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. The topics presented
in this section is taken from the approved textbook of the course. Please note that
you are not limited to exclusively refer to the resources. Thus, you are expected
to utilize other books, research articles and other resources that are available in
the university’s library e.g. e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.

1. Historical Background of Land Transportation:

Transportation – Refers to the movement or conveying of persons and goods

from one place to another.

Soon after, certain groups of people became nomadic, constantly migrating from
one place to another according to their own detailed knowledge of exploited and
exploitable resources.

Nomad – From the Greek word “to pasture”, was originally used to refer to
pastoralists, or groups that migrate in an established pattern to find pasture lands
for their own livestock. The term has since then been generalized to include all
non-settled populations, which consist of three (3) types:

Page 6 of 63
 • Foraging Populations – Those who wander in search for food. It was
estimated that 99 percent of humanity lived in this method.

• Pastoral Nomads – The most significant historically, these are people who
move with their families, belongings and herds of cattle, camel and sheep
or goats through an annual cycle of pastures whose availability is
determined by the alternation of seasons in their region.

• Gypsies, Tinkers and other similar itinerants in urban and/or complex

cities.
1.1 Manpower, Animal Power and Wind Power

 MANPOWER – Early man had no domesticated animals, which made them

carry their own burdens. It has since been an integral part of daily life.

1. Walking (Travelling by foot) – It is commonly cited that man first used the
power of his own feet in travelling with a load being carried or dragged.
From this, the English word
“pedestrian” originated from the Latin word “pedester”, which means “to
travel by foot.”

2. Carrying Pole – In China and other parts of the Far East (East Asia), it is
widely adopted and became popular. A carrying pole is balanced on one
shoulder, and in some Pacific Islands, the ends of the pole are supported
by two other men, with their goods suspended in the middle.

3. Back Load and Tumpline – In many parts of the world, goods are being
carried on the back. In Subtemala, multiple pots are carried on a wooden
frame, supported by a tumpline across the forehead. In the Andes
Mountains, the load is held on the back by a strap passing over the chest.

Page 7 of 63
4. Sledge on Rollers – It is the movement of heavy burdens by placing them
on sledge
which rests
on a series
of rollers.

5. Sledge on Runners – A simple sledge, probably man-drawn, was in use

at the end of the Old Stone Age in Northern Europe, as evidenced by
fragments of wooden runners which survived.

6. Travois – This pole arrangement serves as a platform on which the

burdens are placed. The platform or crossed-beam poles are then dragged
by humans or animals.

Page 8 of 63
 ANIMAL POWER – Domestication of animals vastly increased the potential of
increased power available for transportation. Initially, pack animals were
introduced as conveyors to save labor costs. One man can tend several pack
animals moving together. Speed is definitely an advantage, unless animals
carrying capacity is sacrificed.

Here are some animals used by humans since ancient times:

1. Ox – First domesticated in Mesopotamia, they were used as draft animals

to draw war chariots. Oxen are still used as draft animals in different regions
of the world, In some regions in Africa, they are used for riding as a pack.

2. Reindeer – First domesticated in Siberia during the beginning of the

Christian era, reindeers were ridden with saddles especially in the Altai
Mountains. In other parts of the world, they draw sledges like dogs in artic
regions.

Page 9 of 63
3. Dog – As the first animal domesticated, the dog is too light to carry heavy
loads. Indians sometimes pack dogs’ backs with light loads, or piled goods
on a travois being dragged by dogs. In some parts of Europe, they drag
small carts especially during winter.

4. Donkey – Or Ass, was first domesticated in the Middle East. Donkey

caravans carry goods between cities in Southwest Asia and Egypt.

Page 10 of 63
5. Llama – In pre-Columbian America, it is the only animal aside from the dog
that is capable of domestication for use in transport. In the Andes
Mountains, they are used as a pack animal by the Incas and their Spanish
conquerors until today.

Page 11 of 63
6. Elephant – Elephants were used by Carthaginians in the war against
Rome, but in recent centuries, they have not been tamed. In India, they
were used in war and is still employed at certain ceremonial processions
and in hunting. In some countries in Southeast Asia like Thailand, they are
widely used in the lumber industry.

7. Horse – Around 2000 B.C, horse-drawn chariots were introduced in

Southwest Asia. 1000 years later, Persians arrived with their cavalry, which
gave them mobility and power to the German tribes who invaded Europe
and to Genghis Khan. In Europe, horses were used in drawing wheeled
vehicles and for riding until the introduction of mechanized vehicles. (shire)

8. Camel – There are two (2) kinds of camel, the two-humped Bactrian Camel
from Central Asia and the one-humped Dromedary of Arabia, which are
both long been used for transport.

Page 12 of 63
 The Bactrian Camel has been used along the caravan routes between
China and Persia (Iran) and used in drawing carts for at least 2000 years.
The Dromedary, which has less endurance, is fleeter and fast-paced in
riding.

9. Yak – A long-haired cattle that lives in high altitude on the Tibetan Plateau
and its neighboring regions. It is usually ridden and used as a pack animal
at elevations where other animals could not survive.

 WIND POWER – Man realized the energy from the mass of moving air, which
paved the way for it to be utilized as a power to lift than to drag.

1. Ancient Chinese Kite – Based on Korean tradition, kites were first used
for transport when a Korean general used on in bridge building. A cord was
conveyed across the river where heavier ropes were fastened and finally
the bridge cable. In late 10th century, some European armies experimented
its use by transporting men.

Page 13 of 63
2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter – Leonardo Da Vinci, a renowned renaissance
artist, scientist and engineer, made study of the flight of birds, as
documented by his notebook sketches of ornithopters, also known as
orthopter, which derives from the principle of the flapping wings of birds
during flight.

3. Montgolfier Balloon - Invented by brothers France Joseph Michel and

Jacques Entienne, these balloons were first proposed to be used for ascent
with two condemned prisoners as passengers.

Page 14 of 63
 Pilatre de Rozier, a natural historian, protested and claimed the honor of
inventing it. In 1783, he and Marquis d’ Arlanoes became the first men to
make a free balloon ascent. It was constructed of linen and inflated with hot
air. It traveled 9000 yards (8.23 kms.) and remained airborne for 20
minutes.
4. Siemens’ Rocket Plane – In 1847, an acclaimed electric industrialist Ernst
Werner von Siemens designed a rocket plane propelled by the explosive
force of gunpowder. It was never materialized beyond the design stage.

Page 15 of 63
5. Lilienthal Glider – German inventor Otto Lilienthal, who made study about
the flight of birds and ornithopters, created gliders. In 1891, he made the
first of multiple glider flights, garnering influence on the development of
aviation.

6. Santos Dumont’s Airship – Alberto Santos Dumont, a Brazilian who is

one of the pioneers of lighter-than-air planes, experimented with steam-
powered balloons in Paris. He made his first balloon ascent in 1897 and
completed the construction of his first airship in 1898. In 1901, after building
several airships, he made a 30-minute round trip flight from St. Louis and
the Eiffel Tower.

7. Wright Brothers’ Flying Machine – Inspired by Lilenthal’s glider

experiments, Orville and Wilbur Wright began studying the problems of
heavier-than-air flight. They conducted their first man-carrying powered

Page 16 of 63
 machine and flew successfully at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December
17, 1903. By 1909, airplanes were considered as many as transportation
of all sorts, beginning commercial manufacturing of the machine.

8. Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis – Following the Wright Brother’s airplane,

development of the aviation industry rapidly increases, from the first airmail
delivery in 1911 to biplanes being used in World War I in mid-1910’s. By
1920’s, records were set, including the first solo flight from New York to
Paris in May 1927 by. Capt. Charles Lindbergh aboard the Ford Trimotor
plane named “The Spirit of St. Louis”.

1.2 Wheeled Vehicles and Road History

The following are some inventions, innovations and key dates that led to modern
land transportation:

1. Wheel – One of man’s greatest inventions, it was acclaimed to be invented

in Western Asia, the wheel has been a milestone and a significant step
forward in transportation. Some pieces of evidence were found by

Page 17 of 63
archaeologists that the wheel could have been simultaneously invented
also in Southwest Asia and Mesopotamia.

While it was perfected, crude carts and wagons became popular in the
Tigris-Euphrates Valley around 3500 B.C., and later in Crete, Egypt and
China. It enabled better and faster transport of burdens or goods which are
beyond man and animal capacity to drag or lift.

a. Ljubljana Marshes Wooden Wheel is the oldest wheel found in the

world. It was discovered by two Slovenian archaeologists in April
2002 inside the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia. Upon carbon-dating,
it was estimated that it was 5200 years old.

Other early types of wheeled carts:

• Solid wheels on a fixed axle – This ancient cart represent an early

step in the evolution of wheeled vehicles. Its solid wheels were made of
a single piece of wood, rotating on a single axle.

• Sumerian chariot with flank wheels – From around 2400 B.C., this
chariot had solid wheels built up of three pieces, making it more durable
than the one-piece wheel.

Page 18 of 63
•
• Greek quadrica with spoked wheels – Drawn by four horses, it was a
llight and elegant vehicle for gentlemen at around 250 B.C. It had
spoked wheels and axles made of Iron or Bronze, mounting handles
and a seat formed by a board placed across the handles.

• Italian cocchio – Invented in 1288, this travelling wagon has its

passengers protected by a covering of leather or cloth fixed over a
wooden framework.

Page 19 of 63
 •
Here are the wheeled vehicles from ancient Rome:

 Arcera – A four-wheeled vehicle with a cover and generally drawn by

two or more horses. Outside panels consisted of unhewn boards
covered by loose drapery. This vehicle was extensively used to convey
the sick, with sufficient space for occupants to recline.

 Arcima – Has a small conveyance that is large enough for one (1)
person.

Page 20 of 63


 Basterna – Commonly used by women when travelling and is drawn by

two mules, one before and one behind with each mule hitched to a
separate pair of shafts.

 Benna – Four-wheeled conveyance made of wicker work. From Gallic

origin, and can accommodate several persons when travelling.

Page 21 of 63
 Carpentum – Used by Romans in 500 B.C. up to the 5 th century of the
Christian era. It has two wheels, had seats for two to three, drawn by
two mules, horses or oxen, and is covered.

 Carruca – A four-wheeled coach with the front wheels being smaller

than the two behind. It had a cover and was drawn by four horses or
mules. Ornamented by carvings of Bronze and Ivory with chasings in
Silver or Gold, members of imperial families were fond of travelling with
this coach.

Page 22 of 63
 Carrus – A cart with two wheels and boarded sides, it was drawn by
oxen or bullocks and mainly used as transport vehicle by Roman armies

 Cisium- It had two wheels and room for two persons, a box or case
beneath the seat where small baggage can be carried in, and drawn by
two or three horses or mules.

Page 23 of 63
 Pilentum – Used primarily by women of the upper class. Furnished with
cushions and a covered top, it was used on state occasions by Roman
matrons, priests and vestal virgins.

 Four-wheeled Plaustrum – Usually employed for heavy burdens and

also used for travelling.

Page 24 of 63
 Raeda – It had four wheels, and was common among Romans during
the last century of the republic. It was used by a man when he traveled
with his family due to its sufficient space for multiple persons with their
luggage.

 Sarracum – It was used by ancient Roman farmers as a vehicle for

them and their families.

Page 25 of 63
  Tensa – A sacred vehicle ornamented with Ivory and Silver and had two
or four wheels while being drawn by four horses. This was used during
Circensian games to carry images of deities.

Wheeled vehicle and carriages could not use narrow paths and trails used by pack
animals, in which early roads were built to accommodate larger transports.

Romans were the major road builders in ancient times, creating a road network
reaching a total of about 50,000 miles (80,000 kms.) with feeder roads branching
out from main highways.

Page 26 of 63
It was costly by reason of the roads having deep foundation formed by layer of
heavy stones necessary to make the roads capable of carrying heavy traffic for
many years.

JOHN L. MACADAM – By not abandoning the theory of feeder road building, he

perfected road construction now known as the Macadamized road in England in Commented [E1]: Macadam
is a type of road construction, pioneered by Scottish
1815. engineer John Loudon McAdam around 1820, in
which single-sized crushed stone layers of small
angular stones are placed in shallow lifts and
compacted thoroughly.

 After the fall of the Romans in the 5th century, land haulage, or the colonization
of foreign lands by European kingdoms and countries, generally declined as
highways began suffering from inadequate maintenance. Improvements such
as the horse collar in the 10th century, addition of springs to coaches, newer
methods of road construction, and introduction of toll road networks all
continued to improve the speed of land travel.

Page 27 of 63
1.3 Evolution of Motor Vehicles

As one of the greatest inventions in the past three centuries, motorized

transportation came with numerous inventions during the “Industrial Revolution”.

A. STEAM ENGINE – Perfected in the 1760’s by James Watt. It provided power

for many industries and factories in England.

B. At the end of the 18th century, Many American and European inventors
attempted to incorporate steam engine in water transportation, such as:

1. Frenchman Jacques Perier – Built a steamboat in 1775

2. Robert Fulton – Launched the steamboat Clermont on the Hudson

River in 1807
Page 28 of 63
 3. The steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic Ocean in 1819, which
started the popularity of steamboats in water navigation.

C. RAILROADS – Initiated through the use of horse-drawn wagons with wooden

wheels on wooden rails used in mining sites in English and European countries
during the 17th century.

1. Richard Trevithick – Together with other inventors, adapted the early

steam locomotives to the mine railway between 1797 and 1813.

Page 29 of 63
 2. George Stephenson – Built and equipped the Stockton and Darlington
railway which spans 32 kilometers, which became the first railway in the
world used through the power of steam locomotives.

3. In the United States, railroad transportation had a tremendous growth

in the 1840’s, spanning to more than 4,800 kilometers operating in the
eastern side of the country.

D. The adaptation of the Coach Spring at about 1850 resulted in significant

improvement of road vehicles.

E. English road networks in the 18th century was bad, that coaches averaged only
4 mph (6 km/h).

F. John Palmer – Introduced his first mail coach in March 1785. By 1800, its
operations began on full swing.

Page 30 of 63
G. BICYCLE – Invented in the early 19th century, served as the predecessor of
automobile builders. One of the modern ancestors of the modern bicycle was
the Hobby Horse, or dan horse.

1. German Karl Von Drais in 1817 introduced a steerable wheel, creating

the
“Draisienne” or “dandy horse”.

2. Kirkpatrick MacMillan (1838) – A Scottish Blacksmith, he made the

first machine with pedals attached and drove the rear wheel by means
of cranks.

Page 31 of 63
H. MOTOR VEHICLE – Became the first mode of transportation to challenge
popularity of the railroads.

1. Ferdinand Verbiest – A Jesuit Missionary in China, he built the first

steam-powered vehicle in 1672 as a toy for the Chinese Emperor.

2. Nicolas Joseph Cugnot – He demonstrated his fardier à vapeur or

“steam dray”, a steam-powered artillery tractor.
3. William Murdoch – In 1784, he built a working model of a steam
carriage.
4. Richard Trevithick (1801) – He ran a full-sized vehicle on the road at
Camborne.

Page 32 of 63
5. Oliver Evans (1789) – He was granted the first patented automobile in
the United States.

6. Francoiz Isaa de Rivaz (1806) – A Scottish engineer, he built an engine

powered by internal combustion of a hydrogen and oxygen mixture.
7. Jeff Bozek (1815) – As a Professor at Prague Polytechnic, he built an
oil-fired steam car.
8. Samuel Brown (1826) – Tested his hydrogen-fueled internal
combustion engine by propelling a vehicle up at Shooter’s Hill south of
London.
9. Walter Hancock (1838) – Built and operated steam buses in London.

Page 33 of 63
10. Christian Freidrich Schontein (1838) – Discovered the principle of
Hydrogen fuel cell (diesel), being the replacement for gasoline as an
energy source for cars.
11. Charles Goodyear (1844) – Invented vulcanized rubber for tires.

12. Scottish Robert William Thomson – Also acclaimed to have invented

the vulcanized rubber tire, but was too costly to produce.
13. Jean Joseph Entienne Lenoir or Jean J. Lenoir (1858) – A Belgian
engineer, he developed the internal combustion engine, which is
considered to be the first commercially successful engine of its kind.

Page 34 of 63
14. Gaston Plante (1859) – He invented the lead acid battery, while Anyos
Jedlink invented the electric motor in 1828.

15. Lenior’s Hippomobile (1860) – Equipped with a hydrogen gas-fueled,

onecylindered internal combustion engine, it made a 9-kilometer test
drive from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont which lasted three hours.
16. Henry Seth Taylor (1867) – A Canadian who demonstrated his four-
wheeled “steam buggy” at Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec,
Canada.
17. Sigfried Marcus (1870) – An Austrian Inventor, he put a liquid-fueled
internal combustion engine on a simple handcart, or the first “Marcus
Car”, making him the first man to propel a vehicle by means of gasoline.

Page 35 of 63
18. Dr. J.W Carhart (1871) – He invented the first steam-powered,
carriage-sized automobile for existing wagon roads in the United States.
19. Amedee Bollee (1873) – He produced the first “real” automobile, a
steam-powered road vehicle to transport groups of passengers.
20. George B. Selden (1879) – He filed for a patent which included not only
the engine but its use to a four-wheeled car. It was granted in November
1895.
21. Enrico Bernardi (1882) – An Italian who patented a .024 horsepower,
122cc onecylinder petrol motor while fitting it into his son’s tricycle
making at one of the early automobiles. He then enlarged the tricycle to
carry two adults.
22. Marcus (1883) – Secured a German patent for a low-voltage ignition
system of the magneto type.
23. Karl Benz (1885) – Built his first automobile in Mannheim, Germany
and was granted a patent for it one year later. He began the first
production of an automobile after his wife Bertha made a long-
distance trip in August 1888 using his automobile.

24. Gottlieb Daimler (1885) – Built the first high speed internal combustion
engine.

Page 36 of 63
25. John Boyd Dunlop (1887) – Developed the first pneumatic tire (inflated
with air) for a bicycle. It was granted a patent in 1888.

26. Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1889) – Both designed an

automobile from scratch rather than a horse carriage. Both men were
also credited for making the first motorcycle in 1866.
27. Panhard et Lavassor of France (1889) – It was the first company
formed just for automobile production, and subsequently introduced the
first four-cylinder engine.
28. Charles and Frank Duryea (1893) – Both brothers founded the Duryea
Motor Wagon Company, the first American automobile manufacturing
company.
29. Rudolf Diesel (1893) – A German inventor who developed the Diesel
engine or the compression-ignition engine, which is an internal

Page 37 of 63
 combustion engine that uses heat compression to start ignition in order
to burn the fuel.

30. Andrea Michelin (1895) – He is the first person to use pneumatic tires
on automobile tires but not successfully.

31. Nesseldorfer Wagenbau, or Tatra (1897) – Produced the first motor

car in Central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world,
the Prasident Automobil.

Page 38 of 63
 32. Henry Ford (1908) – Founder of the Ford Motor Company, he
introduced the Model T, which became so popular that in 1914, he
began a mass-production method in order to meet the demands of the
public.
33. Philip Strauss (1911) – He invented the first successful automobile tire
with an airfilled tube, or the “interior”.

34. Felix Wankel (1956) – A German mathematician who developed an

advanced-type engine which operates far differently from the gas and
Diesel engines by starting it after moving a crankshaft.

2. Traffic Management - Here are some of the commonly used terms in Traffic
Management:

Page 39 of 63
 ARTERIAL HIGHWAYS/ROADS – These are high-capacity urban roads that
direct traffic from collector roads to expressways of freeways. It also refers to
a highway used primarily by through traffic.

 COLLECTOR HIGHWAY – Also known as collector road or distributor road, it

connects low-to-moderate highways or roads to arterial highways such as
those entering residential areas. It also refers to a highway that serves primarily
to funnel traffic from one highway to another, or between arterials and local
highways.

 HIGHWAY – Refers to the entire width between the boundary lines of every
way dedicated to a public authority when any part of the way is open to public
use for purposes of vehicular traffic, regardless of who maintains the highway.

Page 40 of 63
 It also refers to any road, street, boulevard or avenue used as public
thoroughfare.

 MANAGEMENT – Refers to the skillful use of means to accomplish a purpose.

 OPERATION – Refers to a course of action or a series of acts to accomplish

a certain purpose, manner of action, or a vital or natural process of activity.

 ROADWAY – Refers to the part of a traffic way over which motor vehicles
pass.

 SHOULDER – Refers to either side of the roadway, especially along highways.

For purposes of construction, repair and/or maintenance, here are the

classification of roads:

1. National Roads – These are roads or streets interconnecting provinces

or cities.

2. Provincial Roads – These are roads or streets interconnecting

municipalities and/or cities within a province.

3. City Roads – These are roads or streets interconnecting barangays within

a city.

4. Municipal Roads – These are roads or streets interconnecting barangays

within a municipality.

5. Barangay Roads – These are roads or streets located within a barangay

that connects sitios/puroks or places within a barangay.

Page 41 of 63
 SIDEWALK – Refers to a paved walkway along the side of the street. Its area
is determined by the following:

o On the side of the highway which has a shoulder, a sidewalk is the

portion of the highway between the lateral line of the shoulder and the
adjacent property line capable of being used by a pedestrian.

o On the side of the highway which has no shoulder, a sidewalk is the

portion of a highway between the lateral line of the roadway and the
adjacent property line capable of being used by a pedestrian.

 THROUGH HIGHWAY – Refers to every highway or portion thereof, on which

vehicular traffic is given the right-of-way, and at the entrances to which
vehicular traffic from intersecting highways is required by law to yield (stop)
right-of-way to vehicles on such through highway in obedience to either an
authorized stop sign, a yield sign or any other traffic control device.

 THRUWAY/THROUGHWAY – It is a highway that has limited entrances and

exits such as expressways, freeways or motorways. (e.g. Autobahn in
German-speaking countries, Autostrada in Italian-speaking countries)

Page 42 of 63
 TRAFFIC – Refers to the movement of persons, goods or vehicles, either
powered by a combustion system or drawn by animals, for the purpose of
travel. From the obsolete French word trafique, which derived from the Old
Italian word traffico from trafficare, which means “to carry on trade”.

The Intersection:

In most American state laws, an intersection is defined as the area embraced with
the prolongation or connection of the lateral curb lines, or if none, then the lateral
boundary lines of the roadways of two highways which join one another at, or
approximately at, right angles, or the area within which vehicles travelling upon
different highways joining at any other angle may come in conflict (synonymous
with crossings, junctions or crossroads).

To make it simple, an intersection refers to the area of a roadway created with two
or more roadways join together at any angle, as enumerated by the following:
 If the roadway has curbs, the intersection is the area embraced with the
prolongation or connection of the lateral curb lines.

 If the roadway does not have curbs, the intersection is the area embraced
within the prolongation or connection of the lateral boundary lines of the
broadways.

Classification of Intersections According to Number of Intersecting Roads:

1. 3-Way Intersection – Commonly known as the T or Y crossroad which

links three roads.

Page 43 of 63
2. 4-Way Intersection – It is the most common type, which involves crossings
of two roadways. It is either a regular intersection when the two roads
cross perpendicularly, or a skewed intersection, where the two roads
cross at different angles.

Regular Intersection

3. 5-Way Intersection – Involves the crossing of five roads, making it the

least common one.

4. 6-Way Intersection – Involves the crossing of three streets, most often two
perpendicular roads and one diagonal road, which makes it a rare type.

Page 44 of 63
5. Staggered Intersection – Involves two successive T crossroads.

Classifications of Intersections According to Traffic

Control:

1. Controlled Intersection – It is controlled by any traffic control device.

a. Yield-controlled Intersection – It is usually controlled by a Yield

sign or Give Way sign.

b. Stop-controlled Intersection – A Stop sign is usually installed.

Most common are two-way stops, while other countries use four-way
stops. Another kind is the first-to-stop, first-to-go rule.

Page 45 of 63
 c. Traffic Circle – Traffic flow here is directed by a circle, rotary island
or a runabout sign.

2. Uncontrolled Intersection – It has no traffic signals or traffic signs.

Crossing is done by
observing the right-of-way
rule.

3. Box Junction – This type generally prohibits entry unless the exit is clear.

Page 46 of 63
 4. Cloverleaf – It is a highway interchange at which two highways which are
crossing over another, have a series of entrance and exit ramps which
resembles a four-leaf clover and enables vehicles to pass in either direction
on both ends of the highway.

2.1 Fundamentals of Traffic Management

 What is Traffic Management?

Traffic Management is the application of the processes and skills in planning,

organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and budgeting to traffic affairs.

It also refers to the activities undertaken by a highway transportation agency to

improve roadway safety, efficiency and effectiveness for providers and consumers
of transportation services.

TYPES OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

1) Traditional traffic engineering tools or devices used in order to regulate or

control traffic flow (e.g. traffic lights, traffic signs or pavement markings,
traffic islands which direct flow of traffic, etc.)

2) Advanced technology like the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS),

which comprises of road sensors for emergency cars, road sensors
installed on traffic signal lights, and GPS systems on motor vehicles.

Page 47 of 63
 Why is Traffic Management Necessary?

In traffic management, there are three (3) elements to be considered:

• Road (trafficway) system

• Road user system
• Enforcement and/or control procedures
Failure to coordinate each element results to traffic-related problems and mishaps.

Modernization of traffic facilities and systems are being introduced and

implemented in each country to minimize and control the flow of traffic. Traffic
management is designed to make travel faster and safer, expedite movement of
traffic, and provide convenient platforms for traffic facility users. It is aimed to attain
efficiency in utilization of the trafficway.

MAJOR CAUSES OF TRAFFIC CONGESTION:

1) Physical Inadequacy – Characterized by lack of roads, narrow bridges,

railroad crossings, lack of traffic facilities, etc.

2) Poor Control Measures – Characterized by ineffective mechanical control

devices, inefficient traffic officers and poor implementation of traffic laws, rules
and regulations.

Page 48 of 63
3) Human Errors – Caused by slow drivers, poor driving habits, pedestrian
mistakes, officers’ errors, poor planning and legislation, traffic accidents which
are attributed to human errors.

4) Poor Maintenance – Motor vehicles are often stalled in traffic ways because
of unrepaired diggings, cracks on road pavement, or unfinished road
concreting projects. It could also be attributed to inappropriate budget for the
maintenance of road and traffic facilities.

SPECIFIC TRAFFIC PROBLEMS:

1) Traffic Build-up – Characterized by the gradual increasing of traffic users

in a given portion of the highway or trafficway.

2) Traffic Congestions – These are conditions on road networks that occurs

as usage increases and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip time
and increased vehicular queuing.

3) Traffic Jams (“Snarl-up”) – These are situations where movement of

traffic users (motor vehicles and pedestrians) on highways is very slow or
stationary.

4) Bottlenecks – These are narrow points or areas in highways where traffic

congestions or traffic jams usually occur, or traffic may be held up.

Page 49 of 63
5) Gridlocks – A state/condition of severe road congestion arising when
continuous queues of vehicles block an entire network of intersecting streets,
bringing traffic in all directions to a complete standstill. These traffic blockages
usually cause interlocking of intersection grids.

6) Accidents – These are events or incidents which may cause unintentional

damage to property, loss of limbs and/or death.

7) Collisions – These are incidents or instances of one moving traffic unit or

person striking violently against another.

SCOPES OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT:

Authorities conceived that a systematic and effective traffic management is

needed which includes but not limited to the following:

1) All public surface facilities traversing and parking and all types of
conveyances for the movement of persons and things. This includes
provisions on the controlling traffic flow as well as provisions for the
allotment of parking lots or parking spaces.

2) All agencies having responsibilities for ascertaining traffic flow

requirements, planning, approving, funding, construction and/or
maintaining these public facilities for such movements. This area includes
traffic planning committees, those involved in traffic engineering, and the
legislative bodies in the appropriation of funds.

3) All agencies responsible for licensing, approving, restricting, stopping,

prohibiting or controlling the use of these facilities.

AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT:

1) Department of Transportation (DOTr) – The DOTr, through the Land

Transportation Office (LTO) is responsible for the implementation of the
Land Transportation Code of the Philippines (R.A 4136), particularly on the
issuance of driver’s licenses, registration of motor vehicles, approval of
franchises for public vehicles through the Land Transportation Franchising
and Regulatory Board (LTFRB), and conducting safety seminars.

2) City or Municipal Engineers’ Office – In the local level, these offices are
responsible for the planning, construction and maintenance of traffic
facilities within their respective locality.

Page 50 of 63
3) Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) – This is the main
executive department which is responsible for the planning, construction
and maintenance of traffic facilities particularly those categorized as
national highways and other major roads and national roads.

4) Legislative Branch (Both houses of Congress/City or Municipal

Boards) – The legislative bodies are not only responsible for the passing
or amendment of laws concerning traffic, but are also involved in the
planning and approval of government projects.

5) Philippine National Police (PNP) – The PNP, through the Highway Patrol
Group (PNP-HPG) is responsible for the direct enforcement of traffic laws,
rules and regulations. They also perform other functions such as the
conduct of information dissemination campaign, submitting traffic scheme
proposals, motorcycle riders training, and other related functions.

6) Traffic Management Bureaus (TMB’s) – These are offices created mostly

under the city/municipal mayor’s office with the primary task of assisting the
local PNP traffic units in the enforcement of traffic ordinances and laws.

7) Academic Institutions – Schools in both public and private sectors are

responsible for the basic traffic education by integrating in their respective
programs and curriculum subjects the topics on traffic safety.

8) Courts – They are responsible for the adjudication of traffic-related cases

filed before them.

9) Public Information Offices – The Philippine Information Agency (PIA)

under the government, provides necessary and up to date information to
the public by creating traffic safety campaigns and activities relating to
traffic.

10) Barangay Peacekeeping Action Team (BPAT’s or Barangay Tanods) –

The barangay security forces are the common traffic control personnel in
their respective barangays especially during times of emergencies.

11) Citizen Support Groups – These private organizations also help in

disseminating information in the prevention of traffic congestion and
accidents and assist government agencies in various activities, especially
during special occasions where traffic problems arise.

Page 51 of 63
 12) Mass and Social Media – Government and privately-owned publications,
radio and television companies provide necessary and updated traffic-
related information to the public through their respective programs. Social
media, together with smartphone applications, help road users on current
road conditions and events in order to avoid congestion and disseminate
information.

2.2 The Pillars of Traffic

These are the main areas of traffic management, commonly referred to as the “E’s of
Traffic”:

1. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING – It is the science of measuring traffic and travel;

the study of the basic laws relative to the traffic law and generation; the
application of knowledge to the professional practice of planning, deciding and
operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient transportation of goods
and services.

Functions:
• Fact-finding, surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and
regulations
• Supervision and maintenance of traffic control devices
• Planning of traffic regulations
Agencies and/or offices under Traffic Engineering:

• DPWH – Its scope is national, which includes the responsibility of

determining traffic law, pattern, draw origin, destinations, studies of
persons and things, planning, approving, funding and construction of
the following:

o National Roads – Interconnects cities and municipalities, or

networks of national roads through cities and municipalities.

o Yearly maintenance and repairs of roads, which also includes

road widening, road reblocking and re-designing of current road
systems.

• Provincial Government – These LGU’s have similar responsibilities

with the DPWH, but are limited to their provinces only.

Page 52 of 63
 • Municipal Government – They have similar responsibilities with
Provincial Engineering Offices (PEO’s), but are limited to within their
municipalities.

• Chartered Cities – Their responsibilities are similar to that of the

Municipal Engineering Offices (MEO’s), but are limited to the road
networks within the city.

Objectives of Traffic Engineering:

• To achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic.

• To prevent traffic accidents.
• To simplify police enforcement actions and performance.
• To show that good police actions and performance makes engineering
plans effective.
• To present the close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the
improvement of traffic problems.

When and Where Are the Objectives of Traffic Engineering Applied?

• Habitually congested commercial areas

• Heavily used thoroughfares
• Congested local areas and intersections
• During special occasions and events • During disasters or emergencies
• At school crossings.

Methods in Achieving the Objectives of Traffic Engineering:

• Planning and geometric design factors employed in planning

• Factors influencing design
• Regulation and control (Traffic Regulation)

2. TRAFFIC EDUCATION – Refers to any act or process of imparting or acquiring

general knowledge on traffic or any matters relating to the use of
trafficway/roadways. Its primary concern is in the area of accident reduction
and prevention.

The following agencies and offices are responsible for traffic education:

a. Schools (Public and Private) – Traffic education could be carried out

by imparting/acquiring knowledge concerning traffic safety, training and

Page 53 of 63
 practice in the actual application of traffic safety and developing traffic
safety morality.
1. Elementary – In this level, traffic education is focused on safety
and guides stressing traffic safety, classroom discussions on
traffic accidents and organizing safety patrols.
2. Secondary – High school students are geared towards school
safety organizations.
3. Higher Education Institutions – Some colleges and
universities offer and conduct courses regarding traffic safety
and driving subjects.

b. Public Information Programs – Information regarding activities and

programs affecting the citizens and the community relating to traffic
should be disseminated evenly through various means, whether private
or government.

c. Citizen Support Groups – These are mostly composed by voluntary

NGO’s, radio communication groups, rider groups, auto clubs which
develops members and citizens’ responsibilities, conduct of programs
or educational drives and instill awareness to the general public
regarding traffic discipline, traffic requirements and needs.

3. TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT – This field deals mostly with the implementation

and enforcement of traffic laws, rules and regulations. The following are
agencies that are involved in traffic enforcement:

a. Land Transportation Office (LTO) – The LTO is responsible for the

following:

• Motor vehicle registration

• Vehicle inspections
• Drivers Licensing (examinations, suspensions, revocations)
• Public to police on stolen or wanted vehicles

b. Legislative Bodies – Included are both houses of Congress (Senate

and House of Representatives), Provincial boards, City and Municipal
Councils. They are responsible for passing and/or amending laws or
ordinances.

c. Police Traffic Enforcement – Includes law enforcement agencies who

are duly authorized to directly enforce traffic laws.

Page 54 of 63
 • Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) for NCR
• PNP Highway Patrol Group (PNP-HPG)
• LTO Law Enforcement Service (LES)
• Police/Traffic Management Offices/Units under the
City/Municipal Mayor

4. TRAFFIC ECOLOGY/TRAFFIC ENVIRONMENT – As the most recent pillar,

it includes the study of potentially disastrous population explosion, changes in
urban environment due to the density of population in current and new urban
concentration areas, effects of air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution and
crowding, including transportation congestion which is a result therein.

Environmental Effects of Urbanization of Transportation:

1) Noise – It is known that continued exposure to noise level beyond 80 dBA

(Decibels annually) causes loss of hearing. The average background noise
are as follows:
• Typical home – 40 to 50 dBA
• Heavy trucks – 90 dBA at 15m/ft
• Freight trains – 75 dBA at 15m/ft
• Air conditioning – 60 Dba at 6m/ft

2) Vibration
3) Air Pollution
4) Dirt
5) Visual Intrusion
6) Loss of Privacy
7) Changes in the Amount of Light
8) Neighborhood Severance, both Physical and Sociological
9) Relocation
10) Distraction during Planning and Construction
11) Accident Experiences 12) Pedestrian Journey
13) Congestion and Other Benefits to Vehicles – Vehicle traffic time is made
up of three
(3) components: Free-flowing travel, stop time and acceleration or
deceleration.

LAWS AND STATUTES CONCERNING TRAFFIC ECOLOGY:

a) P.D 1181 (“Providing for the prevention, control and abatement of Air
Pollution from motor vehicles and for other purposes.”)

Page 55 of 63
 Sec. 1 – “The purpose is to prevent, control, and abate the emission of
air pollutants from motor vehicles in order to protect the health and
welfare of the people, and to prevent or minimize damage to property
and hazards to land transportation.”

b) Letter of Instruction No. 551 - Directing law enforcement agencies to

implement the pollution control program.

c) RA 8749 (Clean Air Act of 1998) – An act providing for the regulation of
motor vehicles emitting toxic gases, like the use of Diesel and leaded
gasoline.

5. TRAFFIC ECONOMY – This is the most recent pillar which deals with the
benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy. With the prevailing traffic
conditions in our country like rush hour traffic, multiple sectors of the economy
would suffer losses due to delays.

2.3 Traffic Safety Education

Traffic Safety Education is the process of training road users in the avoidance
and prevention of traffic-related accidents.

Road safety refers to reduced risk of accident or injury on the roads, which is
achieved through multidisciplinary approaches and adherence to international
standards (training of road users and vehicle design).

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO ROAD ACCIDENTS:

1) HUMAN ERRORS:
a. Over speeding
b. Failing to give right of way at junctions
c. Following too close (tailgating)
d. Improper overtaking
e. Misjudgment of road situation
f. Drunk driving/drug driving
g. Lack of skill

2) ROAD DEFICIENCIES:
a. Poor design and control at junctions
b. Inadequate road signs, marking and/or lighting

Page 56 of 63
 c. Slippery roads
d. Obstructions on the road (parked vehicles, on-going road
constructions, etc.)

3) MAIN VEHICLE FACTORS:

a. Defects in tires, brakes, lights
b. Absence or non-using of seatbelts
c. Poorly maintained motor vehicles

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES TO BE EMPHASIZED FOR THE PREVENTION OF

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:

1. Engineering – Effective construction and maintenance of traffic facilities

makes road travel easier and safer for road users. Successful plans include
the following:
• Changes in the layout of junctions to clearly define priorities (e.g.
roundabouts or traffic circles)
• More uses of road markings to distinguish traffic lanes and vehicle
drop off points
• Improving skidding resistance on wet roads
• More uniformly-lit street lighting
• More highly visible road signs, directions and markings

2. Education (in traffic safety) – When road users are well-informed, the
less likely they are to be involved in traffic violations or accidents.
Information campaigns in schools, which is an integral part of the curriculum
includes the following:
• New training approaches in educating young drivers
• Training in hazard perception
• Changing of attitudes

3. Enforcement of traffic rules – One of the most common causes of road

accidents is the non-compliance of traffic rules by road users. Strict
enforcement must be done regardless of status in society. Here are some
highly recommended areas in traffic enforcement:
• Strengthening and simplifying the application of traffic laws
• Enhanced public information campaigns
• Education of road users in schools
• Development of courses (e.g. seminars) to apprehended traffic
violators

Page 57 of 63
 4. Ecology/Environment – People must be educated on the effects of traffic
to the environment, whether directly or indirectly affecting our ecology and
health.

5. Economy – Different sectors of society should develop schemes,

programs and/or devices that not only lessen their operating expenses but
also accident-free.

LEVELS OF TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION:

1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety

2. Training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety
knowledge 3. Developing morality on traffic safety.

TRAFFIC SAFETY FOR CHILDREN

It is characterized by a highly unsystematic form of education, usually carried out

at home by the parents and in kindergarten and nurseries. Its aim is to prevent
child fatalities and injuries.
1. Elementary – Pupils in this stage are usually educated in the safety and
guides, done through classroom discussions of accidents and other safety
rules.

2. Secondary – In this stage, initial driver education programs start, for it

would be the time students would reach the proper age to drive. Also,
removal of bad driving habits is highlighted in this stage.

3. Higher Education – Some universities and colleges and certain courses

conduct lectures on traffic safety and/or defensive driving.

TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION FOR ADULTS

• Safety education for adults is easier compared to children because adults

are in a better position in understanding what are taught to them.
• Being a better driver comes from being a better pedestrian. As a driving
student, knowing the limitations of a driver and the vehicle makes one to
watch out for dangerous cues and situations on the road. It is the main
reason why student drivers must be taught first in driving schools of the
foundation and basics of driving. The basic purpose of having to learn
proper driving in driving schools are:

o To develop good traffic citizens who are equipped to live in a

motorized society and putting traffic safety as the primary concern.
Page 58 of 63
 o To develop citizens who are legally eligible to obtain a driver’s
license.

DRIVER’S EDUCATION

Its primary aim is to teach the foundation and basics of driving. Its secondary
aims are:

• Instill awareness of one’s legal and moral responsibilities in traffic.

• Teach the abilities and techniques required for one to be eligible for a
driver’s license.

FOUR (4) BASIC TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS:

 COMPREHENSIVE – This method places the student into real life driving
situations from the beginning.

 TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTION – This method depends

on instructor-student communication.

 COMMENTARY DRIVING – In this method, the student driver is accompanied

by the instructor. As the student driver drives, the instructor has to give a
commentary on his/her driving on what he sees, what he does, what he
proposes to do, etc.

Page 59 of 63
 In this premise,
the behavior of
the driver is
tested along
with other
functions of the
driver, with the
use of a
 SIMULATED CONDITIONS (On and off the road training)
simulator,
which is a
static machine
with all the
features of a
car used in
driving
training.
Simulation
training is
commonly used for the following types:

• Basic car control skills

• Perceptual training
• Emergency training

Two types of simulation driving:

1. Partial Simulation – This method has the specific aim of training for the
“subtasks” of driving.

2. Global Method – Further classified into two (2) specific groups which
are: a. Basic Training
b. Simulated traffic conditions

3. Classification of films:
a. Analytical film – provides “objective” analysis of the driving
situation presented.
b. Didactic film – Aims to show good driving behavior.
c. Simulation film – Offers “visual realism” to driving situations and
therefore a good aid in actual practice.

Page 60 of 63
 ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF DRIVING TASKS:

A. Collection of information (Perceptual scanning and identification)

B. Processing of information (Predicting and Decision Making)

C. Action (Focused on motor skills, knowledge and subjective

interpretation)

 BIORHYTHM:

It is the theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant variation of life energy
and mood states. It includes the following natural phenomena:

• The diurnal exchange of light and darkness

• The four seasons
• Wet and dry season
• The waxing and waning of the moon
The following are the most controversial theories of biorhythm:

1. 23-day cycle (Cycle of strength, endurance and courage) – It is the male

component of a person.

2. 28-day cycle (Cycle of sensitivity, love and intuition) – The female

component of a person, which is equivalent to the 28-day female menstrual
cycle.

3. 33-day Intellectual cycle -These are all present at the time we were born.

All of these cycles are present at the time we were born. When the curve is above
the center line, biorhythm value is HIGH, or a person has more energy to spare:

• Physical high – We tend to be energetic, strong, full of vitality.

• Emotional high – We tend to be creative, artistic happy and cheerful.
• Intellectual high – We are able to think quickly and logically.

When the curve is below the center line, biorhythm is “LOW” or in a recharged
period:

• Physical low – We tend to tire quickly and succumb to illness easily.

• Emotionally low – Concentrating and remembering is difficult; Poor
judgement is likely.

Page 61 of 63
Biorhythm is important, but does not predict what would actually happen. It only
gives a hint on how we will tend to feel in a certain day. It also asserts the following:
• People are accident prone if their biorhythm crosses the centerline on a
certain day, or way below the line.
• If we know our biorhythm for a certain day, theoretically, we can
psychologically cope up with any situation and is usually overcame
through will power.

 SAFETY CAMPAIGN:

Also known as Road Propaganda, it is intended to simply inform to the public

of the recommended behavior on the road and persuade road users into
adopting it. It must be done through all channels and modes of the mass media.

Classifications:

• According to purpose – May be categorized as informational, attitudinal

and behavioral
• According to kind of appeal – Used to reason by simply feeding the public
with authenticated factual data.

Campaign design:

a. Initial campaign planning

b. Final campaign design
c. Campaign evaluation

Self Help

References:
1. Delizo, D.B. (2014). Traffic Management an Accident Investigation. Second
Edition. Quezon City: Wiseman's Books Trading, Inc.

2. Filipino Driver's Manual 2018 Volume 1. (2018). Retrieved from Land

Transportation Office:
https://www.lto.gov.ph/images/Transparency/Volume_1.pdf

You can also access:

Page 62 of 63
1. ProQuest Central: https://search.proquest.com/
a. Username: 33h3wsp28s
b. Password: welcome
2. ProQuest Ebook Central (formerly ebrary):
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/auth/lib/uniofmin
danao-ebooks
a. Username: umlic.dl2@gmail.com
b. Password: umebook2
3. Gale Reference: https://go.gale.com/ps
a. Password: Present
4. Oxford Reference:
https://www.oxfordreference.com/
a. Username: minduniversity
b. Password: Oxford 2018
5. Philippine E-Journals: https://www.ejournals.ph/
a. Username: adminum
b. Password: adminum

Page 63 of 63