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    ‘an IRSEPSREBTGHTIGTGA Is described as one that connects different areas of study by cutting across subject-matter lines and emphasizing unifying concepts Integration focuses on making connections for students, allowing them to engage in relevant, meaningful activities that can be connected to real life. ‘SPECTRUM OF INTEGRATED CURRICULUM + The Traditional organization of classroom instruction + The Theme is one discipline «The study of two or more core learning areas, + Teachers collaborating on a common theme ‘+ Common theme chosen by a team of teachers THE TRADITIONAL ORGANIZATION OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 1 faditional JEBSSPOOR involves a standard curriculum delivered by a teacher in-person. Standardized tests are administered at regular intervals to. test students’ comprehension. This modelis where students’ time, place and pace of learning remain constant. \AURiRONIEGESFOGH involves a standard curriculum delivered by a teacher in person. Standardized tests are administered at regular intervals to. test comprehension. This model is where students’ pace of earning remain constant. ‘The primary purpose of traditional education isto transmit to 4 next generation those skil, facts, and standards of moral and socal conduct that adults consider to be necessary forthe rex generation's material advancement. As beneficiaries of this plan, which educational propressvist John | DeWey described as being imposed from above and from outside’ the students are expected to docilely and obediently receive and believe these fixed answers. Teachers ae the instruments by which this knowledge is communicated and these standards of behaviour are enforced ie, place and Instruction based on textbooks, lectures, and individual written assignments Individual, independent subjects. Little connection between topics Memorisation of facts, objective information; Correct knowledge is paramount Integrated, intercisciplinary subjects or theme-based units, such as reading a story about cooking a meal and calculating the cost of the food. Involving, of joining, two or more disciplines, or branches of learning GariRogers, the proponent of this theory, believe that al individual have @ natural propensity to learn) JohalDeWeY, posits that school learning should be experiential because students leacn from what they experience, Howard Gardner, afirms that there are more kind of intelligence than what we thought before ‘9 CATEGORIES OF INTELLIGENCES * Linguistic nteligence * Logical-Mathematical intelligence + Spatial intelligence + Bodlly-kinesthetic Intelligence + Musical intelligence + Interpersonal intelligence + Intrapersonal intelligence + Naturalistic intelligence + Existentialist intelligence 3. CONSTRUCTIVISM This theory expounds that development and learning occur through constructive process and that knowledge is constructed from experience. Constructivist ike Join Dewe¥, SeaniPiaGER, anc LEW VYROER maintain that children learn by actually constructing meaning from their simultaneously tembecided experiences. Teachingin a constructivist mode has a slower pace, uses varied strategies and resource materia, and provides opportunities for the new creation of new ideas. To ensure effective instruction, Beane exsounds the significance of the following principles in integrating big ideas and strategies: 1 Integrate several ideas and strategies. 2. Match content with strategies. 3. Integrate relevant concepts, 4, Integrate big ideas across multiple contents of instructions, 5. Provide opportunities to establish connections. ‘+ A combination of subjects or learning areas, + An emphasis on projects ‘Relationships among concepts ‘+ Thematic units as organizing principles + Sources that go beyond textbooks «Flexible schedules + Flexible students grouping 1. Draw content of instruction in basic education from the learning competencies. 2. Identify a theme drawn from a core discipline. 3. Identify the related disciplines or learning areas that can help unfold the chosen theme into instruction. 4, Collaborate with the teachers teaching the identified learning area addressing the chosen theme. 5. Look form appropriate reading materials. 6. Use an approach to instruction that will facilitate integrative teaching-learning in the classroom. + Discovery Learning. + Inquiry Learning + Problem Based Learning * Cooperative Learning + Decision Making ‘ACES Teaching Approach “Lecture ‘Round Table Discussion + Panel Discussion «Brainstorming + Role Playing + Social Drama Strategy * Concept Map + Concept Cluster + Wheel Map = Cycle Graph + Fact Starring + Discussion Web + Bubble Tree + Ladder Web 1. News Analysis 2. Historical Pen Pal 3. Math Gym 4, World Traveler 5. Leaning Tower 6. Incentives 7. Field Study 8. All About Weather 9, More Than a “Just” Book 10. Study Free Test Preparation + Active Learning Strategies + Experiential Learning Activities + Project Based Learning + Inquiry Based Learning + Adaptive Learning INDUCTIVE-Teaching method which proceeds from the details ofa lesson towards the generalization DEDUCTIVE.A teaching method which proceeds from a generalization, Principles or rule (Greationism Life comes from a supreme being, the creator of allthings, God (Greationism isthe religious belief that nature, and aspects such asthe universe, Earth, life and humans, originated with supernatural acts of avine ereation Used to denote the theory of evolution. Its exact meaning has changed over time as the study of evolution has progressed. Evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection. The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and gradually change over time * Carolus Linnaeuos Theory of Evolution + Jean Baptiste Lamarck * Charles Darwin -EVOLUTION OF HUMAN PREHISTORIC PERIOD (Old StonielAgel(PaleSlithie)- The Paleolithic period isthe frst phase of the Stone Age. This period started the creation and use of crude stone tools which are the most primitive among the thee periods. The word "Palaeolithic is derived from the Greek words palaios (old) and lithos(stone) to collectively mean “old stone age.” ‘ENNeWStone Age INGBIRHIE the word "Neolithic" was derived from the Ancient Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone) that collective translates to "new stone age. ” Southwest Asia often called Middle East Southwest Asia is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea, southern Europe, northeastern Africa, the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, Black Sea, and mainland Asia, ‘THE ARABIAN PENINSULA CLIMATE the majority of Southwest Asia has an arid (desert) climate. Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. The Greeks termed this area The fertile crescent/Mesopotamia ‘Sumerians, Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, Chaldeans and Persians Farming ‘SUMERIANS 5000 B.C-2330 B.C * Cuneiform + Astronomy «+ Arithmetic + Agriculture ! “Lost wax” || Spearman formations and shield walls | People began to use the language that the Sumerians had previously used | New form of calligraphy which they put on clay tablets Hammurabi’s Code 282 laws { ‘Cuneiform writings in clay envelopes «+ Raid of Mursilis in 1595 ‘Ast people to set up an effective system for governing an empire. brary was built in the capital city of Nineveh. * Hanging Gardens + Accurate observations of the sun, moon, planets & stars + Awell-organized government * Satrap (governor) + Roads were built * Conquered peoples were allowed to keep their religion, laws and local customs. * Cultural diffusion + The Persian accepted the teachings of the Prophet Zoroaster CONFUCIANISM TAOISM 1. xia Dynasty (c, 2070-1600 BC) 2, Shang Dynasty (c, 1600-1050 8C) 3. Zhou Dynasty (c, 1046-256 BC) 4, Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) 5, Han Dymasty (206 BCE-220 AD) 6. Six Dynasties Period (220-588) 7. Sui Dynasty (581-618) 8, Tang Dynasty (618-806) 9. Five Dynasties Period, Ten Kingdoms (907-960) 11. Yuan Dynesty (1279-1368) 10, Song Dynasty (960-1279) 12 Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 13. Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), 41. Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BC) The Xia dynasty was the first Chinese dynasty. It was founded by the legendary Yu the Great (c. 2123-2025 8), known for developing a flood control technique that stopped the Great Flood that ravaged farmer's crops for generations. There is a severe lack of documented evidence about this dynasty and therefore very little is known about the Xia period. Most scholars believe that stories about it were spoken, rather than writen. It is not until the Zhou Dynasty, 554 years later, that we see written recordings ofthis first Chinese dynasty. For this reason, some scholars believe it to be mythical or quasi legendary. 2. Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1050 BC) The Shang dynasty is the earliest recorded Chinese dynasty supported by archaeological evidence. 31 kings ruled much of the area along the Yellow River. Under the Shang dynasty, there were advances in maths, astronomy, art and military technology. They used a highly developed calendar system and an early form of modern Chinese language 3. Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046-256 BC) The Zhou dynasty was the longest dynasty in the history of China, ruling the region for almost 8 centuries.Under the Zhous, culture flourished and civilisation spread. Writing was codified, coinage was developed and chopsticks came into Chinese philosophy blossomed with the birth of the philosophical schools of Confucianism, Taoism and Mohism. ‘The dynasty saw some of the greatest Chinese philosophers and poets: Lao-T2u, Tao Chien, Confucius, Mencius, Mo TI and the military strategist Sun-Tau. ‘The dynasty ended with the Warring States period (476-221 BC}, in which various city-states battled each other, establishing themselves as independent feudal entities. They were finally consolidated by Qin Shi Huangdi, a brutal ruler who became the first emperor of a unified China, 4. Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) ‘The Qin dynasty marked the beginning of the Chinese Empire. During Qin Shi Huangdi’s reign, China was greatly expanded to cover the Ve lands of Hunan and Guangdong. ‘Although short-lived, the period saw ambitious public works projects including the unification of state walls into a single Great Wall. It saw the development of a standardised form of currency, a uniform system of writing and a legal code. The Qin emperor was remembered for his ruthless megalomania and suppression of speech ~ in 213 BC he ordered the burning of hundreds of thousands of books and the live burial of 460 Confucian scholars, He was also responsible for building acty-sized mausoleum for himself, guarded by the life-sized Terracotta Army of more ‘than 8,000 life-sized soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses. 5. Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 AD) ‘The Han dynasty was known as a golden age in Chinese history, with a prolonged period of stability and prosperity. A central imperial civil service was established to create a strong and organised government.China’s territory was extended to most of the China proper. The silk Road was opened up te connect to the west, bringing in trade, foreign cultures and the introduction of Suddhism.Under the Han dynasty, Confucianism, poetry and literature flowered. Paper and porcelain were invented. China's earliest written record on medicine, the Yellow Emperor's Canon of Medicine, was codified.The name ‘Han’ was taken as the name of the Chinese people. Today, the Han Chinese make up the dominant ethnic group in China and the largest in the world, 6. Six Dynasties Period Three Kingdoms (220-265), Jin Dynasty (265-420), Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386-589), Six Dynasties is the collective term for the six successive Han- ruled dynasties during this turbulent period. All had their capitals at Jianye, present-day Nanjing The Three Kingdoms period has been romanticised repeatedly in Chinese culture ~ most notably in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, 7. Sui Dynasty (581-618) ‘The Sul dynasty, although brief, saw great changes in Chinese history. Its capital was held at Daxing, present-day Xi'an, Confucianism disintegrated as the dominant religion, making way for Taoism and Buddhism. Literature flourished ~ it is thought that the legend of Hua Mulan was composed during this time, Under Emperor Wen and his son, Yang, the army was enlarged to the largest in the world at the time. Coinage was standardised across the realm, the Great Wall was expanded and the Grand Canal was completed, 8. Tang Dynasty (618-906) The Tang dynasty, sometimes known as the Golden Age of ‘Ancient China, was considered the high point in Chinese Ciuilsation. Its second emperor, Talzong, was regarded as one of the greatest Chinese emperors. The period saw one of the most peaceful and prosperous periods of Chinese history. By the time of the rule of Emperor Xuanzong (712-756), China was the largest and most populous country in the world Major achievements were seen in technology, science, culture, art and literature, especially poetry. Some of the most beautiful pieces of Chinese sculpture and silverwork originate from the Tang dynasty. The dynasty also saw the only ferale monarch in the history of China ~ Empress Wu Zetian (624-705). Wu organised 3 secret police force and spies across the country, making her cone of the most effective — yet popular ~ monarchs in Chinese history, 9. Five Dynasties Period, Ten Kingdoms (907-960) The 50 years between the fall of the Tang dynasty and establishment of the Song dynasty were dominated by internal strife and chaos.In north China, 5 would-be dynasties followed ‘one another in succession, During the same period, 10 regimes dominated separate regions of south China. Despite the political turmoil, some key developments took place during this time, The printing of books which had begun in the Tang dynasty ~ became popular 10. Song Dynasty (960-1279) The Song dynasty saw the reunification of China under the Emperor Taizu. Major inventions included gunpowser, printing, paper money and the compass. Plagued with political factions, the Song court eventually fell to the challenge of the Mongol invasion and was replaced by the Yuan dynasty. 11, Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) ‘The Yuan dynasty was established by the Mongols and ruled by Kublat Khan (1260-1279), grandson of Genghis Khan. Khan was the first non-Chinese ruler to take over the entire country. ‘Yuan China was considered the most important part of the vast Mongol Empire, which stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Korean peninsula Khan created the new capital city of Xanadu (or Shangdu in Inner Mongolia). The main centre of the Mongol Empire was later moved to Daidu, present day Beijing ‘The Mongols’ reign in China came to an end after a series of famines, plagues, floods and peasant uprisings. 12, Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) ‘The Ming dynasty saw a huge growth in China's population and general economic prosperity. However the Ming emperors were dogged with the same problems of previous regimes and collapsed with the invasion of the Manchus. During the dynasty, the Great Wall of China was completed. It also saw the construction of the Forbidden City, the imperial residence in Beijing. The period is also known for its blue-and white Ming porcelains 13. Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) ‘The Qing dynasty was the last imperial dynasty in China, succeeded by the Republic of China in 1912. The Qing were ‘made up of ethnic Manchus from the northern Chinese region of Manchuria. The Qing dynasty was the Sth largest empire in world history. However by the early 20th century its rulers ‘were weakened by rural unrest, aggressive foreign powers and military weakness, During the 1800s, Qing China faced attacks from Britain, France, Russia, Germany andJJapan. The Opium Wars (1839-42, and 1856-60) ended with Hong Kong ceding to Britain and the humiliating defeat of the Chinese army. On 12 February 1912, 6-year-old Puyl ~ the last emperor of China~ abdicated. It brought an end to the thousand-year imperial rule of China and marked the beginning of republic and socialist rule. We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just and humane society and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and ‘our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution. ‘The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the islands and waters ‘embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting ofits terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial domains, including its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other submarine areas. The walers around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the intemal waters of the Philippines. SECTION. The Philippines is a democratic and republican State. Sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them. SECTIONNZ! The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy, adopts the generally accepted principles of intemational law as part of the law of the land and adheres to the policy of peace, equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity with all nations. SECTIONIS Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme over the military. The Armed Forces of the Philippines is the protector of the people and the State. Its goal is to secure the sovereignty ofthe State and the integrity of the national teritory. SECTION! The prime duty ofthe Govemmentis to serve and protect the people. The Government may call upon the people to defend the State and, in the fulfillment thereof, all citizens may be required, under conditions provided by law, to render personal military or civil service. SECTIONIS! The maintenance of peace and order, the protection of life, liberty, and property, and the promotion of the general welfare are essential for the enjoyment by all the people ofthe blessings of democracy. ‘SECTIONS! The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable, State Policies SECTION! The State shall pursue an independent foreign poli. In its relations with other states the paramount consideration shall be national sovereignty, territorial integrity, national interest, and the right to self- determination 4 STATE WE HAVE PEOPLE, TERITORY, GOVERNMENT, SOVEREIGNTY Bill of Rights SECTION! No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without SUIRRSEBSSTSFIAW, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection ofthe laws. SECTION, The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature ‘and for any purpose shall be inviolable, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to be determined personally by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particulary describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized \SORREDSE|Warraht, and is an BEFBBE warrant for an individual whose name is not known by law enforcement. SECTION 3. (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires ‘otherwise as prescribed by law. (2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be inadmissible for any purpose in any proceeding SECTION No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right ofthe people peaceably to assemble and petition the ‘government for redress of grievances. SECTIONS! No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be roquired forthe exercise of civil or political rights. SECTION 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the within the limits prescribed by law shall not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Nithet ‘shall the right to travel be impaired except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as may bbe provided by law. SECTIONT. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be recognized. Access to oficial records, and to documents, and papers pertaining to official acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as to government research data used as basis for policy development, shall be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be provided by la. SECTION. The right of the people, including those ‘employed in the public and private sectors, {SHfSniUnIOnS, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not be abridged SECTIONS! Private property shall not be taken for public Use without just compensation Inherent powers are powers of a state or branch of government that are not expressly written ina Constitution. For a state, these powers are (R@IPOWERG! Taxation, Police Power, and the Power of Eminent Domain. ‘Section is example power of eminent domain ‘SECTIONIAD| No iaw impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed. SECTION Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal assistance shall nat be denied to any person by reason of poverty. Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the right to be informed of bis OBUNGUFEMAIANSIEA and to have competent and independent counsel preferably of his own choice. Ifthe person cannot afford the services of counsel, he must be provided with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the presence of counsel. (2) No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any ther means which vitiate the free will shall be used against him. Secret detention places, solitary, incommunicado, or other similar forms of detention are prohibited {3) Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or Section 17 hereof shall be inadmissible in evidence against him, (4) The law shall provide for penal and civil sanctions for Violations ofthis section as well as compensation to and rehabiltation of vitims of torture or similar practices, and their families SECTIONS! All persons, except those charged with offenses punishable by reclusion perpetua when evidence of guilt is strong, shall, before conviction, be baitablo by sufficient sureties, or be released. on recognizance as may be provided by law. The right to bai shall not be impaired even when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is suspended. Excessive bail shall nat be required, SECTIONING} No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due process of law. (2) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be presumed innocent until the contrary is proved, and shal enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy, impartial, and public trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses and the production of evidence in his behalf. However, after arraignment, trial may proceed notwithstanding the absence of the accused provided that he has been duly notified and his failure to appear is Unjustiiable SECTIONES . The privilege of the wrt of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in cases of invasion or rebellion when the public safety requires it. aaa GBIBIIS is used to bring a prisoner or other detainee SECTIONIB! All persons shall have the right toa speedy disposition of their cases before all judicial, quasi-udicial, ‘or administrative bodies. SECTION. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himselt SECTIONIBNGH) No person shall be detained solely by reason of his political beliefs and aspirations, (2) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except a a punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, SECTIONS. (1) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel, degrading or inhuman punishment inflicted Neither shall death penalty be imposed, unless, for compelling reasons involving heinous crimes, the Congress hereafter provides for it. Any death penalty already imposed shall be reduced to reclusion perpetua, (2) The employment of physical, psychological, or degrading punishment against any prisoner or detainee or the use of substandard or inadequate penal facilties under subhuman conditions shall be dealt with by law. SECTIONI20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll ax. ‘SECTION 21, No person shall be twice put in jeopardy [EBIEIENIEHY for the same offense. If an act is punished bya law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either shall constitute a bar to another prosecution for the same act. SECTION22. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted. ARTICLE IV Citizenship SECTION The following are citizens of the Philippines: (1) Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this Constitution; (2) Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines: (3) Those born before JanUaRMMTNASTS, of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and (4) Those who are naturalized in accordance with law. SECTION. Natural-bom citizens are those who are citizens of the Philippines from birth without having to perform any act to acquire of perfect their Philippine citizenship. Those who elect Philippine citizenship in accordance with paragraph (3), Section 1 hereof shall be doomed natural-bom citizens. SECTION! Philippine citizenship may be lost or reacquired in the manner provided by law. SECTION. Citizens of the Philippines who marry aliens shall retain their citizenship, unless by thelr act or comission they are deemed, under the law, to have renounced it SECTIONS! Dual allegiance of citizens is inimical to the national interest and shall be dealt wth by law. ARTICLE V Suffrage SECTION. Suttrage may be exercised by all ciizens of the Philippines not otherwise disqualified by law, who are atleast eighteen years of age, and who shall have resided in the Phiippines for at least one year and in the place wherein they propose to vote for at least six months immediately preceding the election. No literacy, property, or othor substantive requirement shall be imposed on the exercise of sufrage SECTIONIZ The Congress shall provide a system for securing the secrecy and sanctity of the ballot as well as asystem for absentee voting by qualified Filipinos abroad. The Congress shall also design @ procedure for the cisabled and the iterates to vote without the assistance of other persons. Until then, they shall be allowed to vote Under existing laws and such rules as the Commission on Elections may promulgate to protect the secrecy of the ballot ARTICLE VI The Legislative Department Who pass the law SECTION. The legislative power shall be vested in the Congress of the Philippines which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives, except to the extent reserved to the people by the provision on initiative and referendum. SECTION The Senate shall be composed of SWIE f6UEISBHALOH who shall be elected at large by the qualified voters ofthe Philipines, as may be provided by faw. ‘SECTIONIS! No person shall be a Senator unless he is a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, and, on the day of tho election is at least iRVEMSVESISTOFAGS, able to Fa ARWAIE, 2 registered voter, and a resident of the Philippines for not less than two years immediately preceding the day of the election SECTION. The term of office of the Senators shall be six years and shall commence, unless otherwise provided by law, at noon on the thirtieth day of June next following their election No Senator shall serve for more than two consecutive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the office for any length of ime shall not be considered as an interruption in the continuity of his service for the full term for which he was elected SECTIONISI(G) The House of Representatives shall be composed of not more than two hundred and fity members, unless otherwise fixed by law, who shall be elected from legislative districts apportioned among the provinces, cities, and the Metropolitan Manila area in accordance with the number of their respective inhabitants, and on the basis ofa uniform and progressive ratio, and those who, as provided by law, shall be elected through a party-lst system of registered national, regional, and sectoral parties or organizations. (2) The partysist representatives shall constitute twenty per centum of the total number of representatives including those under the party list. For three consecutive terms after the ratification ofthis Constitution, one-half of the seats allocated to parly-list representatives shall be filed, as provided by law, by selection or election from the labor, peasant, urban poor, indigenous cultural ‘communities, women, youth, and such other sectors as may be provided by law, except the religious sector. (3) Each legislative district shall comprise, as far as practicable, contiguous, compact and adjacent territory. Each city with a population of at least two hundred fity thousand, or each province, shall have at least one representative. (4) Within three years following the retum of every census, the Congress shall make a reapportionment of lecisative districts based on the standards provided inthis section, SECTIONS. No person shall be a Member of the House of Representatives unless he is a natural-born citizen of the Philippines and, on the day ofthe election, is at least (WRITIVEIVERISIOMIAGE, able to read and write, and, ‘except the party list representatives, a registered voter in the district in which he shall be elected, and a resident thereof for a period of not less than one year immediately preceding the day ofthe election The Members of the House of Representatives shall bo elected fora term of three years which shall begin, unless otherwise provided by law, at noon on the thitieth day of June next following their election No member of the House of Representatives shall serve for more than three consecutive terms. Voluntary renunciation ofthe office for any length of time shall not be considered as an interruption in the continuity of his service forthe fll term for which he was elected ARTICLE Vil Executive Department Execution of the laws being enacted by legislative SECTION 1. The executive power shall be vested in the President of the Philippines. SECTION. No person may be elected President unless he is a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, a registered voter, able to read and write, at BBSUfOrVVEarSIOraGE on the day of the election, and a resident of the Philippines for atleast ten years immediately preceding such election SECTION 3. There shall be a Vice-President who shall have the same qualifications and term of office and be elected with and in the same manner as the President. He may be removed from office in the same manner as the President The Vice-President may be appointed as a Member of the Cabinet. Such appointment requires no confirmation, SECTION. The President and the Vice-President shall be elected by direct vote of the people for a term of SBR Y2i3 which shall begin at noon on the thirtieth day of June next following the day ofthe election and shall end at noon of the same date six years thereafter. [HG Prosident shall not be eligible for any reelection. No person who has succeeded as President and has served as such for more than four years shall be qualified for election to the same office at any time No Vice-President shall serve for more than two consecutive terms. Voluntary renunciation ofthe office for any length of time shall not be considered as an interruption in the continuity of the service for the full term for which he was elected Unless otherwise provided by law, the regular election for President and Vice-President shall be held on the second Monday of May. The retums of every election for President and Vice- President, duly certified by the board of canvassers of each province or city, shall be transmitted to the Congress, directed to the President of the Senate, Upon receipt ofthe certificates of canvass, the President of the ‘Senate shall, not later than thirty days after the day of the election, open all certificates in the presence of the Senate and the House of Representatives in joint public session, and the Congress, upon determination of the authenticity and due execution thereof in the manner provided by law, canvass the voles. ‘The person having the highest number of votes shall be reclaimed 6l6¢I8d) but in case two or more shall have an equal and highest number of votes, one of them shall forthwith be chosen by the vote of a majority of all the Members of both Houses of the Congress, voting separately. The Congress shall promulgate its rules for the canvassing of the certificates, ‘The Supreme Court, sitting en bano, shall be the sole judge of all contests relating to the election, returns, and qualifications of the President or Vice- President, and may promulgate its rules for the purpose. Interpret the law SEGTIONM. The judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be established by law. Judicial power includes the duty of the cours of justice to settle actual controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, and to determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the Government. SECTION 2. The Congress shall have the power to define, prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction of various courts but may not deprive the Supreme Court of its jurisdiction over cases enumerated in Section 5 hereof. No law shall be passed reorganizing the Judiciary when it undermines the security of tenure ofits Members. SECTION 3, The Judiciary shall enjoy fiscal autonomy. Appropriations for the Judiciary may not be reduced by the legislature below the amount appropriated for the previous year and, after approval, shall be automatically and regularly released, SECTION 4. (1) The Supreme Court shall be composed of a Chief Justice and fourteen Associate Justices. It may sit en banc or in its discretion, in divisions of three, five, or seven Members. Any vacancy shall BBUFINSGIWIEGiA SECTION 1 [Arficle49. Every person must, in the exercise of his rights ‘and inthe performance of his duties, act with justice, give ‘everyone his due, and observe honesty and good faith [Article 20, Every person who, contrary to law, wilfully or negligently causes damage to another, shall indemnify the latter for the same. Aftiele!211 Any person who willfully causes loss or injury to another in manner that is contrary to morals, good customs or public policy shall compensate the later for the damage. [Arfiele 22, Every person who through an act of performance by another, or any other means, acquires or ‘comes into possession of something at the expense ofthe latter without just or legal ground, shal return the same to him (Aftieté'23] Even when an act or event causing damage to another's property was not due to the fault or negligence of the defendant, the latter shal be liable for indemnity if through the act or event he was benefited [ficle"24, In all contractual, property or other relations, when one of the partes is at a disadvantage on account of his moral dependence, ignorance, indigence, mental weakness, tender age or other handicap, the courts must be vigilant for his protection AArfiele25, Thoughtless extravagance in expenses for pleasure or display during a period of acute public want or emergency may be stopped by order ofthe courts at the instance of any goverment or private charitable institution ‘Aitiels26. Every person shall respect the dignity, personality, privacy and peace of mind of his neighbors and other persons. The following and similar acts, though they may not constitute a criminal offense, shall produce ‘a cause of action for damages, prevention and other relief: (1) Prying into the privacy of another's residence; (2) Medaling with or disturbing the private life or family relations of another; (@) Intriguing to cause another to be alienated from his friends; (4) Vexing or humiliating another on account of his religious beliefs, lowly station in life, place of birth, physical defect, or other personal condition. Arfiele!271 Any person suffering material or moral loss because a public servant or employee refuses or neglects, without just cause, to perform his offical duty may fle an action for damages and other relief against the latter, without prejudice to any disciplinary administrative action that may be taken, \Aftiel6!28. Unfair competition in agricultural, commercial or industrial enterprises or in labor through the use of force, intimidation, deceit, machination or any other Unjust, oppressive or highhanded mathod shall give rise to a right of action by the person who thereby suffers damage Affiele!29] When the accused in a criminal prosecution is acquitted onthe ground that hs quilt has not been proved beyond reasonable doubt, a civil action for damages for the same act or omission may be instituted. Such action requires only a preponderance of evidence. Upon motion of the defendant, the court may require the plintif to fle ‘@ bond to answer for damages in case the complaint should be found to be malicious. IF in a criminal case the judgment of acquittal is based upon reasonable doubt, the cour shall so declare. In the absence of any declaration to that effect, it may be inferred from the text of the decision whether or not the acquittal is due to that ground. Aftiel@130. When a separate civil action is brought to demand civil liablity arising from a criminal offense, and no criminal proceedings are instituted during the pendency of the civil case, a preponderance of evidence shall likewise be sufficient to prove the act complained of. ‘Afticl@’34. When the civil action is based on an obligation not arising from the act or omission complained of as a felony, such civil action may proceed independently of the criminal proceedings and regardless of the result of the later. [Atfiel8132| Any pubic officer or employee, or any private individual, who directly or indirectly obstructs, defeats, Violates or in any manner impedes or impairs any of the following rights and liberties of another person shall be liable to the latter for damages: (1) Freedom of religion; (2) Freedom of speech; 2) Freedom to write for the press or to maintain a periodical publication; (4) Freedom from arbitrary or illegal detention; (6) Freedom of suffrage; (6) The right against deprivation of property without due process of law; (7) The right to a ust compensation when private property is taken for public use; (@) The right to the equal protection ofthe laws; (9) The right to be secure in one's person, house, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures: (10) The liberty of abode and of changing the same; (11) The privacy of communication and correspondence; (12) The right to become a member of associations or societies for purposes not contrary to law; (13) The right to take part ina peaceable assembly to petition the Government for redress of grievances; (14) The right to be a free from involuntary servitude in any form (15) The right of the accused against excessive bail; (16) The right of the accused to be heard by himself and ‘counsel, to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy and public tal, to meet the witnesses faco to face, and to have compulsory process to secure the altendance of witness in his behalf 10 In any of the cases referred to in this article, whether or not the defendant's act or omission constitutes a criminal offense, the aggrieved party has a right to commence an entirely separate and distinct civil action for damages, and for other relief, Such civil action shall proceed independently of any criminal prosecution (if the latter be instituted), and may be proved by a preponderance of evidence. The indemnity shall include moral damages. Exemplary damages may also be adjudicated The responsibilty herein set forth is not demandable from a judge unless his act or omission constitutes a violation ofthe Penal Code or other penal statute. [rfilo!33, In cases of defamation, fraud, and physical injuries a civil action for damages, entirely separate and distinct from the criminal action, may be brought by the injured party. Such civil action shall proceed independently of the criminal prosecution, and. shall requite only a preponderance of evidence. Afticle!34. When a member of a city or municipal police force refuses or fais to render aid or protection to any Person in case of danger to life or property, such peace officer shall be primarily liable for damages, and the city cor municipality shall be subsidiarity responsible therefor. The civil action herein recognized shall be independent of any criminal proceedings, and a preponderance of evidence shall suffice to support such action. [Article 35. When a person, claiming to be injured by a criminal offense, charges another with the same, for which no independent civil ation is granted in this Code or any special law, but the justice of the peace finds no reasonable grounds to believe that a crime has been committed, or the prosecuting attomey refuses or fails to institute criminal proceedings, the complaint may bring a civil action for damages against the alleged offender. Such civil ation may be supported by a preponderance of evidence. Upon the defendant's motion, the court may require the plaintif to fle a bond to indemnity the defendant in case the complaint should be found to be malicious, If during the pendency of the evil action, an information should be presented by the prosecuting altorney, the civil action shall be suspended until the termination of the criminal proceedings. \Aftie16136. Prejudicial questions, which must be decided before any eriminal prosecution may be instituted or may proceed, shall be governed by rules of court which the ‘Supreme Court shall promulgate and which shall not be in conflict with the provisions of this Code. ANTI-RAPE LAW OF 1997. ‘AN ACT EXPANDING THE DEFINITION OF THE CRIME OF RAPE, RECLASSIFYING THE SAME AS A CRIME AGAINST PERSONS, AMENDING FOR THE PURPOSE ACT NO. 3815, AS AMENDED, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE REVISED PENAL CODE, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES ‘SECTION 1. Short Tile. — This Act shall be known as “The Anti-Rape Law of 1997. ‘SEGIZ. Rape as a Crime Against Persons. - The crime of rape shall hereafter be classified as a Crime Against Persons under Title Eight of Act No. 3815, as amended, otherwise known as the Revised Penal Code. Accordingly, there shal be incorporated into Title Eight of the same Code a new chapter to be known as Chapter ‘Three on Rape, to read as follows: Chapter Three “Rape “ Article 266-A. Rape; When And How Committed. — Rape Is Committed — “1) By @ man who shall have carnal knowledge of a woman under any ofthe following circumstances: " a) Through force, threat, or intimidation; b) When the offended party is deprived of reason or ‘otherwise unconscious; ©) By means of fraudulent machination or grave abuse of authority; and d) When the offended party is under twelve (12)¥earsi6t G8 or is demented, even though none of the circumstances mentioned above be present. " 2) By any person who, under any of the circumstances mentioned in paragraph 1 hereof, shall commit an act of ‘sexual assault by inserting his penis into another person's, mouth or anal orfice, or any instrument or object, into the genital or anal orice of another person “article 266-B. Penolties. — Rape under paragraph 1 of the next preceding article shall be punished by reclusion perpetua “Whenever the rape is committed with the use of a deadly weapon or by two or more persons, the penalty shall be reclusion perpetua to death. “When by reason or on the occasion ofthe rape, the victim has become insane, the penalty shall be reclusion perpetua to death “When the rape is attempted and a homicide is committed by reason or on the occasion thereof, the penalty shall be reclusion perpetua to death "When by reason or on the occasion of the rape, homicide is committed, the penalty shall be death, “The death a penalty shall also be imposed if the crime of rape is committed with any of the following aggravating/qualifying circumstances: “1) When the victim is under BightSShl(T8)IVears of age and the offender is a parent, ascendant, step-parent, guardian, relative by consanguinity or affinity within the third civil degree, or the common law spouse of the parent of the victim -2) When the victim is under the custody of the police or military authorities or any law enforcement or penal institution; 3) When the rape is committed in full view ofthe spouse, parent, any of the children or other relatives within the third civil dogree of consanguinity; 4) When the vietim is a religious engaged in legitimate religious vocation or calling and is personally known to be such by the offender before or at the time of the commission ofthe erime: 5) When the victim is a child below SeVahi(7)VearSiGl, "6) When the offender knows that he is afflicted with Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus (HIVAcquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) or any other sexually- transmissible disease and the virus or disease i transmitted tothe vietim: "7) When committed by any member of the Armed Forces of the Philippines or para-military units thereof or the Philippine National Police or any law enforcement agency or penal institution, when the offender took advantage of his position to faciitate the commission of the crime; 8) When by reason or on the occasion of the rape, the Victim has suffered permanent physical mutilation or disability; 9) When the offender knew of the pregnancy of the offended party at the time of the commission of the crime; and 10) When the offender knew of the mental disability, emotional aisorder and/or physical handicap of the offended party at the time of the commission of the crime. Rape under paragraph 2 of the next preceding article shall be punished by prsion mayer. "Whenever the rape is committed with the use of a deadly weapon or by two or more persons, the penalty shall be prision mayor to reclusion temporal. "When by reason or on the accasion of the rape, the victim has become insane, the penalty shall be reclusion temporal “When the rape is attempted and a homicide is committed by reason or onthe occasion thereof, the penalty shall be reclusion temporal to reclusion perpetua. "When by reason or on the occasion ofthe rape, homicide is committed, the penalty shall be reclusion perpetua Reclusion temporal shall also be imposed if the rape is ‘committed with any of the ten aggravating/qualifying circumstances mentioned in this article. Uninvited and unwelcome verbal or physical behavior of ‘a sexual nature especially by a person in authority towards a subordinate as an employee or students) AS DEFINED IN R.A No.7877 Is committed by an employer, employee, manager, supervisor, agent of the employer, teacher, instructor, professor, coach, trainer, or any other person who, having althorityy influence or morallascehidancy over another in ‘a work or training or education environment, demands, requests or otherwise requires any sexual favor from the other, regardless of whether the demand, request or requirement for submission is accepted by the object or said act DEFINITION OF TERMS ASCENDANCY-governing or controlling influence 'SEXUAL-does not just involve the act itself but anything that has to do with or related to the reproductive organs ‘or a behavior which is sexually motivated or has sexual desires. PHYSICAL - Malicious touching/ Act of Lasciviousness! Lewdness -Overt Sexual Advances -Gestures with Lewd Insinuation VERBAL Request or Demand for sexual favors Lurid Remaks Use of Objects, pictures’ graphics, letters orwritten Notes with Sexual Underpinnings AN ACT DECLARING SEXUAL HARASSMENT UNLAWFUL IN THE EMPLOYMENT, EDUCATION OR TRAINING ENVIRONMENT, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES “Workers or Employees Applicants or Candidates for Employment “Students “Those Undergoing Training, Institution, or Education( trainees) Employer or Head Employee who belongs to higher level “Manager! Supervisor Agent of the Employer “Anybody else who has authority, influence, or moral ascendancy over the offended, 2 Any person who directs or induces another to commit any act of sexual harassment -Any person who cooperates in the commission of the act by another without whom it would not have been committed. Elementary or High Schoo! teacher -Calllege or University Professor -College or University Instructor -Coach! Trainer -Workplace -School Any other place of training, institution, or Education 1.The sexual favor is made as a condition in the hiring or in the employment, re-employment or continued employment of said individual, or in granting said individual favorable compensation, terms, conditions, promotions, or privileges; or the refusal to grant the sexual favor results in limiting, segregating or classifying the ‘employee which in a way would discriminate, deprive or diminish employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect said employee; 2. The above acts would impair the employee's rights or privileges under existing labor laws; or 3.The above acts would result in an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment for the employee. 1, Against one who is under the care, custody or supervision of the offender; 2.Against one whose education, training, apprenticeship or tutorship is entrusted to the offender, 3,When the sexual favor is made a condition to the giving of @ passing grade, or the granting of honors and scholarships, or the payment of a stipend, allowance or other benefits, privileges, or considerations; or 4, When the sexual advances result in an intimidating, hostile or offensive environment for the student, trainee or apprentice. 1W Right to: Basic Needs, which guarantees survival, adequate food, clothing, shelter, health care, education and sanitation, With this right, consumers can look forward to the availabilly of basic and prime commodities at affordable prices and good quality. 2. Right to Safelythe consumer should be protected Against the marketing of goods or the provision of services that are hazardous to health and ite. 3. RIGhENIRONNIAFORMKGR—the consumer should be protected against cishonest or misleading advertising or labeling and has the right to be given the facts and information needed to make an informed choice. <4{)Right to Choosé—the consumer has the right to choose from among various products at competitive prices with rinseurange of sattaratoryguaiy 5 Right toe Represeniation—te right to express consumer interests in the making and execution of government polis. 8: Right to Redfess— the right to be compensated for misrepresentation, shoddy goods or unsatisfactory services. 7. Right to Consumer Education, which is the right to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to be an informed customer. 8. Rightitol@lHealthy’Environment—the right to live and work in an environment which is neither threatening nor dangerous and which permits a life of dignity and well- being, All the branches of physical geography have interface with natural sciences. The traditional physical geography is linked with geology, meteorology, hydrology and pedology, and thus, geomorphology, climatology, oceanography ‘geography respectively have very close link with the natural sciences as these derive their data from these sciences, Geography is very much linked with the study of astronomical locations and deals with latitudes and longitudes, The shape of the earth is Geoid but the basic tool of a geographer is a map ‘which is two dimensional representation of the earth ‘Geography and Social Sciences Each social science has interface with one branch of geography like the relationships between geography and history. Every discipline has a philosophy which isthe raison d'etre for that discipline. Philosophy provides roots to a ciscipline and in the process of its evolution; it also experiences distinct historical processes. All the social science disciplines, viz. sociology, political science, economics and demography study different aspects of social reality. The branches of geography, viz. social, political, and economic and population and settlements are closely linked with these disciplines as each one of them has spatial attributes. The core concern of political science is territory, people and sovereignty while political geography is also interested inthe study ofthe state as a spatial unit as well as people and their political behavior. Branches of Geography ‘There are two ways to approach geography: 1. Systematic Approach 2. Regional Approach, and soil B The sets approach was developed by Alexander Von urbolt (1768-1855). On another hand, Ka ter (1778- 159) inoduces the reloralsopeaeh, eesti, bom geographers belonged to Germany, Ina systematic approach, a phenomenon is studied across the globe as a single phenomenon. And thereafter, the different typologies or spatial patterns are identified. For ‘example, if one wants to study natural vegetation, the study will be done at the global level. Then typologies such as equatorial rainforests or softwood conical forests etc. willbe identified, discussed, and demarcated. Inthe regional approach, first regional divisions are demarcated and then a geographical phenomenon for a particular region is studied. These regions may be natural, politcal, o other designated regions. The phenomenon ina region is studied holistically, looking for a uniting factor in a diverse world Branches of Geography (Based On Systematic Approach) 1. Physical Geography In Physical Geography, one studies relie, soil, and structure of the Earth, Its known as the superstructure of geography as @ discipline, Its further divided into the following sub- branches: 1. Geomorphology:- study of landforms, their evolution, and related processes. 2. Climatology: a study of climate and how it changes over time. 3. Hydrology:- study of the realm of water over the surface of, the earth 4, Soll Geography (Pedology): a study of processes of soil formation, sil types, their fertility status, and so on. 2. Human Geography It deals with the evolution of human beings ie. studies spatial dynamics and societal cultural elements. Following are the sub-branches of Human Geography 1. Social/Cultural Geography: the study of society and its spatial distribution, as well as the cultural elements, contributed by the society. 2, Population Geography: a study of the patterns of population growth, distribution, density, sex ratio, migration, ‘and occupational structure. 3, Settlement Geography: studies the characteristics of rural and urban settlements. 4, Economic Geography: a study of the economic activities of the people include agriculture, industry, tourism, trade, and transport, ete 5. Historical Geography: studies the historical processes through which space gets organized, 6. Political Geography: studies the space from the angle of political events 3. Biogeography The interaction between physical geography and human ‘geography lead to the development of Biogeography. It includes 1 Plant Geography: studies the spatial patterns of natural vegetation in their habitats. 2. Zoo Geography: studies the spatial patterns of animals in their habitats. 3. Ecology: studies habitats of species 4. Environmental Geography: concerns with environmental problems and their solutions, 1. Region/Area Studies: Comprising Macro, Meso, and Micro Regional Studies. 2. Regional Planning: Comprising Country/Rural and ‘Town/Urban Planning, 3. Regional Development-it deals with the development Issues of region. 4, Regional Analysis-there are two aspects which are common to every discipline, these are 1) Geographical Philosophy: a. Geographical Thoughts b. Land and human interaetion/ Human Ecology ii) Methodology a, Cartography including computer cartography b. Quantitative technique/ Statistical Techniques «.field survey method 4. Geo-informatics comprising techniques such as remote sensing, GIS, GPS etc ORIGIN OF THE EARTH ‘About 11 t0 15 billion years ago all ofthe matter and energy in the Universe was concentrated into an area the size of an atom. At this moment, matter, energy, space and time did not exist. Then suddenly, the Universe began to expand at an incredible rate and matter, energy, space and time came into being (the Big Bang). As the Universe expanded, matter began to coalesce into gas clouds, and then stars and planets. Our solar system formed about 5 billion years ago when the Universe was about 65% of its present size. Today, the Universe continues to expand 4 The topmost part of the lithosphere consists of crust. This material is cool, rigid, and brittle, Two types of crust can be identified: oceanic crust and continental crust. Both of these types of crust are less dense than the rock found in the underlying upper mantle layer itis the largest layer of the Earth, 2896 kilometers thick. The temperature varies from 872 Degrees Celsius at the top To about 2204 Degrees Celsius Near the bottom. The mantle is composed of very hot, dense rock. This layer Of rack even fiows like asphalt Under a heavy weight. Because of the plates “float” on It like oil floats on water. OUTER CORE ‘The outer core is liquid and has a density of about 11 grams per cubic centimeter. It surrounds the inner core and has an average thickness of about 2250 kilometers INNER CORE ‘The inner core is theorized to be solid with a density of about 13 grams per cubic centimeter and a radius of about 1220 kilometers Spheres of the EARTH [ATMOSPHERE isa layer of gos or layers of gases that envelope 2 planet and is held in place by the gravity ofthe planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is reat, andthe temperature of the atmosphere is love HYDROSPHERE is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet, or natural satelite Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to change in shape. legBHRRE (Living Things) Al the living things inthe planet are categorized under the biosphere. In this view, the biosphere includes all of the animals, plants, and microorganisms of earth, Humans as well belong to this group. The entre ecological communities within the physical surrounding ofthe earth are within the umbrella of living things (biosphere). These ecological communities interact together with the physical aspects of the earth including the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and the atmosphere. ARGRDHERe Is made up of al the hard and solid land mass on the earth’s surface, the semi-solid rocks (molten materials) underneath the earth crust, andthe liquid rocks in the inner core of the earth, + The outer cover ofthe earth's surface is known as the earth’s crust. The earth's crust is basically formed of the rocks composed of different minerals. These earth forming minerals serve out diferent purposes. As for example, mineral oll and coal are used as fuel. Moreover, the economic use of gold, copper, zine, aluminum, nickel, iron ete. is also very much important « Different land forming processes ike volcanism, depostional and erosional activities ae highly influenced by the structure of the rocks and minerals, It is necessary to acquire some knowledge about minerals and rocks being the elements responsible for forming the earths crust (MINERALS are formed by the composition of two or more basic elements However, some minerals may be formed af one basic element Diamond, gold, copper, silver, mercury and Sulphur may be cited a5 examples. Of all these, the hardness of diamond is highest and of tal is lowest, ROCKS are formed by the mixture of one or more minerals. Here, we mention the term mixture because in nature the minerals are found in mixed condition, Each of the rock forming minerals maintains its characteristic TYPES OF ROCK ‘Lilemeous Rock can be formed under two environmental conditions viz, intrusive and extrusive. In the deep interior of| the earth due to cooling, magma may be crystallized to form intrusive rock, If the magma finds its way tothe surface ofthe earth through the vents, then itis termed as lava, This lava after cooling becomes extrusive rock. ‘2UINTRUSIVE ROCK - in intrusive type of rock, the magma solidifies in the deep interior of the earth. Granite, gabro, syerite,diorite etc. are the examples of intrusive rocks ‘BUEXTRUSIVEROCK -If the magma finds its way to the surface of the earth through the vents, then itis termed a lava. Ths lava after cooling becomes extrusive rock. ‘AlSedimientaty RGR - The rocks which are formed by the deposition of sediments are known as sedimentary rocks. In this type of rock, the sediments are deposited in layers or strata, Classification of Sedimentary Rocks - Primariy, the sedimentary rock is of three types vz,, mechanical, chemical and organic (Characteristics of Sedimentary ROG - Bedding, ripple marks, clay, cracks ete. are found in the sedimentary rocks. The presence of fossils is one of the major characteristics of the sedimentary rock StiMetationphieRGS - The rocks which through temperature, compression and chemical ations have been changed either in form or in composition are known as metamorphic rocks. Examples ofthe Important Metamorphic Rocks: 1. Rocks with Follation, Slate is produced from shale. This type of rock contains very fine crystals which are mainly formed by small plates created from mica Slat is used to produce writing 15 (CHANGES OF THE EARTH'S CRUST Different land forming processes are responsible to bring changes on Earth’s crust, Land forming processes are the activities by which the changes are accomplished naturally in the formation of the land [BENUBATION isthe process by which the rocks onthe earth's surface are broken into pieces through the application of external physical forces and the debris is transported elsewhere is known as denudation. This denudation work is performed through three processes such as weathering, erosion and transportation. {WEATHERINGS i 9 process by which the rocks on the surface ofthe earth is broken mechaniealy into pieces due to snow or frost, the variation of temperature and pressure or due to chemical (dissolution) action on the material. [ROSIONAND TRANSPORTATION - rosion and transportation are accomplished together. The process by which the rocks of the earth's crust are eroded by the river, wind, slacier, ocean currents etc. and the eroded materials are transported elsewhere is known as erosion. On the other hand, the rapid changes are brought about on the earth’s surface by the land forming processes associated with the internal forces. EARTHQUAKE -is a vibration or osclation ofthe surface ofthe earth caused by sudden release of enormous pressure. if a stone is thrown in the quite water of a pond, it will create ripples in the water which wil scatter all around the pond. Sudden release of enormous pressure from the interior ofthe earth creates waves in the surrounding rock like the waves in water which also scatter all around. {GENTE — known as the point where the energy is released EPICENTRE - The point ust vertically above the origin TYPES OF EQARTHQUAKE: {U/SWALLOW EARTHQUAKE ~ The earthquake originating ot 2 depth of 60 kilometers ‘INTERMEDIATE EARTHQUAKES .The earthquake originating ata depth of 60 to 300 kilometers SIDEEPIEARTHQUAKE - The earthquake originating ata depth cof 300 kilometers and above SESMOGRAPHYE is used to measure the intensity ofthe earthquake waves Garis TRORURICHet - a seismologst fist introduced an arithmetic scale to measure the intensity of seismic waves. The Scale is known as the IGRI EARTHQUAKES PRONE AREAS OR BELTS: It can be realized that the severity of earthquake is not equal throughout the world Earthquakes mostly occur in the comparatively smaller areas, which are long and narrow in size. Among them, the most noteworthy areas are the circular islands (Philippines and Japan), young fold mountains ridges. The and ocean earthquake prone areas can be divided into three principal 1 The Pacific Zone - Maximum number of earthquakes occurs along the outer border of the Pacific Ocean. Japan, the Philippines, Chile, Aleutian Islands and Alaska have been identified as the most earthquake prone areas. 2. The Mediterranean and the Himalayan Zone - This region extends from the Alps to New Zealand covering Caucasus, ran, the Himalaya, Indo-China and East Indies following the northern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, 3. Ridges of the Mid-Atlantic and the Indian Ocean - The orthsouth ridges of the Mid-Atlantic Ocean meeting with the ridges of the Indian Ocean extend up to the Mediterranean zone through the Red Sea, Besides these three specified belts, there are some areas located separately within the continents and in the deeps of the oceans where the occurrence of the earthquake is felt EFFECTSOFEARTHQUAKE: Earthquake is accepted asa natural calamity. Most ofthe times, it causes great loss of lives and wealth in some parts of the earth, Generally, it may be mentioned thatthe devastative nature of earthquakes brings the folowing damages and changes inthe earth’ crust = Faults, cracks or landslides occur in the earth's crust due to the earthquake. The course ofthe rivers also changed. For example, the bed ofthe BrahmaputraRver was rased andthe river changed its original course and started flowing through the channel ofthe Jamuna due to the earthquake of Assam in 787, = Earthquake, if i occurs in 2 thickly populated area, then causes great devastation to houses, roads and rallways, water and gas supply line and other properties of the area Moreover, ifthe area is a hily one, then the landslides and mud flow create devastation to the setiements located at the foot of the mountains. = Earthquake that originates in the ocean floor creates tremendous waves on the surface of water. Waves thus created by earthquakes are known as Tsunamis, Tsunamis bring sudden flood in towns and other localities in coastal ERUPTION - eruption is one of the major forces or processes bringing changes on the surface ofthe earth. Eruption of the volcanoes or the magma is the main sources of igneous rocks on the surface of the earth. Volcano - is generally a conical shaped hill or mountain bult by accumulations of lava flows, tephra, and voleanic ash [LISHIELD VOLCANOES - This typeof volcanos created by rock fragments and ava. Parcutin and Mount Helena of Mexico are the proper examples of this type of Volcano 16 ZNGINDERTOONE - This type of volcano is created by rock fragments and lava. Parcuin and Mount Helena of Mexico are the proper examples ofthis typeof Voleano. IMIREDICONE - This type of volcano is created mainly by andesite tava which Is fluid type with more viscous components. Hard rock fragments, voleanic dust, volcanic ashes and the heated gas are thrown with violent explosions and are accumulated near the crater and the viscous lava accumulates above them, Mount Mayon of the Philippines and the Fujiyama of Japan are the examples of this type of URBAN GEOGRAPHY seeks to explain the distribution of towns and cities and the sociospatial similarities and contrasts that exist between and within them. ial cities were unique, this would be an impossibie task. However, while every town and city have an individual character, urban places also exhibit common features that vary only in degree of incidence or importance within the particular urban fabric, Alcties contaln areas of residential space, transportation lines, economic actives, service infrastructure, commercial areas and public buildings. THE SCOPE OF URBAN GEOGRAPHY Urban geographers are concerned to identity and explain the distribution of towns and cites andthe socio-spatial similarities and contrasts that exist, within and between them. There are thus two basic approaches to urban geography 1. The first refers to the spatial distribution of towns and cites and the linkages between them: the study of systems of ees 2. The second refers tothe internal structure of urban places the study ofthe cty a5 system, NEGOTIATING DIVERSITY IN THE CITY The development of cities, and in particular the onset of industrial urbanism, exerted a major influence on the nature ‘of human association, For Tonnies (1887), urbanization undermined a traditional rural way of life based on family, kinship and community (Gemeinschaft) that was replaced by ‘an impersonal, contractual, self-centered lifestyle (Gesellschaft) characteristic of towns and cities. Individuality, not community, isthe hallmark of urban life [NEGOTIATING DIFFERENCES IN THE CITY (One of the earliest descriptions of residential areas in the city ‘was undertaken by Booth (1902), who employed social surveys and mapping techniques to provide a detailed account of social Conditions in London on an individual building scale.7 Booth also pioneered the use of territorial social indicators in subareas of the city. By combining a variety of census measures into an ‘index of social conditions’ Booth believed that he had a generally applicable instrument for the measurement of social variation within cities. Booth's work was largely ignored by contemporary social researchers but provided an exemplar for subsequent studies of urban socio- spatial differentiation ‘A. NATURAL AREAS The natural area was conceived by the Chicago ecologists as’ a ‘geographical area characterized both by physical individuality and by the cultural characteristics ofthe people who lve init ‘A fundamental criticism of the natural areas approach. However, was that the identification of social areas in the city ‘was not related to the broader social, economic, and cultural changes taking place in society. B. SOCIAL AREAS ‘The two main shortcomings of the ecological classification of social areas were the dependence on a few key variables and the lack ofa theoretical base to support the use ofthe selected variables. Shevky and Bell (1955) sought to overcome these deficiencies by using a multivariate classification procedure derived from an underlying theory of social change ‘Shevky and Bell (1955 p. 3) regarded the city as ‘a product of the complex whole of modern society; thus the social forms of urban life are to be understood within the context of the changing character of the larger containing society’. They suggested that societal change, which they described as increasing societal scale or the change from traditional to modern lifestyles, had three main expressions 4. Social rank oF economic status referred to the tendency more stratified society of work specialization and social prestige 2. Urbanization or family status described a weakening of the traditional organization of the family as society became more urbanized 3. Segregation or ethnic status suggested that over time the urban population would tend to separate into distinct clusters based primarily on ethnicity (ClEACTORIAUECOLOGY Factorial ecology isthe sphere of study concerned with the differentiation of urban-social areas and the correlation analysis of relationships therein, Often called social area analysis, it has been used extensively by urban sociologists and public health specialist. The primary problem of factorial ecology is one of validity, that is, external consistency (Hunter, 1972). The techniques predominantly utilized in social area analysis have been those of factor analysis and other closely related techniques. An approach to the validity problem has been made by Hunter and Messinger (2964) Both are methodological critiques in which alternative towards a in terms 7 approaches are quite different, and pose further difficulties of evaluation DIISENSETOFIPIAGE The city has both an objective physical structure and subjective or cognitive structure Understanding the subjective or expressive interpretation of the city is essential, because meanings tell us not only about the places to which they refer but also about the people who articulate them and the social context in which they lve. Social area analysis and factorial ecology donot adress explicitly the

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