Criminological Research 2

Prelim Notes
Instructor: DR. BILLY O. COSARES

RESEARCH DESIGNS
The choice of a research design or method is one important decision that has to be made in any research
undertaking. Failure to select the most appropriate design for particular study will bring to nothing all the preparations
and other efforts for a quality research output.

Appropriateness of the Research Design

Research design refers to a scheme or plan of action for meeting the objectives of the study. A number of research
designs have been developed by researchers. Each design has its own applicability depending on the problems
and objectives of the study and several other factors like the investigator’s capability, resources and time, from the
available research designs, the researcher is to select that which is appropriate and effective in attaining his study goals.
This implies that there is no best of versatile research design in the sense that it is applicable to any investigative
study. The appropriateness of a research design then attain his research objectives.
Descriptive Designs
The most commonly – used method of investigation in educational research because it is easier to conduct as
compared to other designs.

Sanchez (1998) explained that descriptive research includes all studies that purport to present facts concerning
the nature and status of anything – a group of persons, a number of objects, a set of conditions, a class of events, a
system of thought or any other kind of phenomena which one may wish to study.
Here are important concepts and definitions that you need to learn (Edmonds & Kennedy, 2013).

Research Method – this refers to the philosophical, theoretical, conceptual, and analytic perspective of
research. It can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed method.

Approach – refers to the first step in creating structure to the design and it details a conceptual model or
framework of how the research will proceed, considering the objectives and variables of the study.

Design – this refers to the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answer to
research questions or problems. It is complete scheme or program of the research. It includes an outline of what the
investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis of data
(Kerlinger; in Kumar, 2011).
Research Designs in Quantitative Method
The choice of a study design would depend largely on the philosophical perspective, objective of the study, the
inquiry mode, and the applicability of research findings.

Some of the Commonly Used Designs

Research Designs Based on the Number of Contacts
A. Cross-sectional studies are commonly used in the social sciences. These studies aim to find out the
prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or issue, by taking a cross-section of the
population.

B. The before and after design (also known as the pre-test/post-test design). This design can measure change
in a situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude.
Criminological Research Prelim Notes -2- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

C. Longitudinal Study Design. This is useful to determine the pattern of extent of change in a phenomenon,
situation, problem or attitude in relation to time.

Research Designs Based on the Reference Period

A. The retrospective study design is used to investigate a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue that has happened in
the past.
B. The prospective study design attempts to establish the outcome of an event or what is likely to happen, such as the
likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or outcome in the future.
C. The retrospective-prospective study design. This applies to a study wherein available data are analyzed and used as
bases of future projections.
Research Designs based on the Nature of the Investigation
A. Experimental Design has an assumption of a cause-and –effect relationship.
B. Non-Experimental Design, the researcher observes a phenomenon and attempts to establish what caused.
C. Semi-Experimental or Quasi-Experimental has the properties of both experimental and non-experimental studies.
Descriptive- Survey Research Design
Results of a survey serve as a basis for establishing status , inferences, factors associated with data, and
comparison of data with norms. The information obtained through the survey method provides a reference point for
analysis classification and evaluation. Almost all types of descriptive studies use the survey method.
  Descriptive research design consists of various forms of which the most widely-employed are the (1) survey, (2)
the case study, (3) content analyses, (4) trend analyses, (5) the feasibility study, and (6) the correlational study. The
discussion is limited to these descriptive research forms.
Survey. The survey is useful when the objective if the study is to see a general picture of the population under
investigation in terms of their social and economic characteristics, opinions, and their knowledge about and behaviour
towards a certain phenomenon. It is the design to use when the investigator wishes to cover a relatively large population,
which other research designs are unable to do.
Survey can be classified in either of these two forms – census and sample survey. The census or complete
enumeration as it is also known, covers the entire population under investigation. The sample survey, or simply survey as
it is known today, is limited in scope in that it covers only a portion of the study population.
The survey of whatever form – census or sample survey – uses either the questionnaire or the interview schedule
as its instrument in collecting data needed in the study. The questionnaire is a set of questions which the subject of the
study answers by himself. The interview schedule is also a set of questions which the interview uses in personally
interviewing the subject of the study.

Types of Survey Technique or Approach

The following are the types of survey from which the researcher may select one depending upon the situation ,
his interest and goal, professional competence to tackle the work, and financial capability: (Treece and Treece, Jr.,
pp151-154)

Total population survey. The entire population is involved in the survey.

Sample survey. Only a sample or portion of the population is involved in the survey.

Social survey. This is used to gather data for and about schools and to assess educational achievement and
education itself. ( Some or all aspects of the school may be surveyed: qualifications of
teachers, methods and techniques of teaching, facilities, achievements of pupils in the
different subjects, administration and supervision, curriculum, teacher-pupil ration, and the like)

Public opinion survey. This is used to gauge the reactions of people towards certain issues or persons. (for
instance, people may be asked in a survey how much they agree with the way the President
is running the government)
Criminological Research Prelim Notes -3- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

Poll survey. This is a survey in which the respondents are asked if they are voting for a certain candidate in
an election. This survey is used to predict the chance of winning of a certain candidate
in an election.

Market survey. This is aimed at finding out what kinds of people purchase which products and how
packaging, advertising, and displaying affect buying, prices, and so on. Allied to this is the
motivation survey in which the subjects are asked why they purchase certain commodities.

Evaluation survey. The researcher looks back to see what has been accomplished and with a critical
eye, evaluates the results when they are satisfactory or not, with the end in view of making
improvements.

Comparative survey. In this survey, the results from two different groups, techniques, or procedures are
compared. This may be used also to compare the effectiveness of a new procedure with an
old one or with a standard, or two new procedures may be compared.

Short-term survey. In this survey, data are collected over a period of weeks, months or even years but the period
should be less than five years.

Long-term survey. Any survey conducted for more than five years is a long term survey. Example: Conduct
survey to exceptional children.

Cross-sectional survey. In this type of survey, several groups in various stages of involvement are studied
simultaneously. In studying the effects of smoking for a period of twenty years if we use the
longitudinal survey, we start with the subjects who have just started smoking and study them for
twenty years before the results could be determined.

Job analysis survey. This provides information on the general duties and responsibilities of workers, their
education, training, experiences, salaries, types of knowledge and skills, and others that
help administrators or manger in setting up training programs and recruitment policies.

Community survey. This survey provides information on the various aspects of the community; health,
employment, housing, education, economic resources, delinquency, family, population, other
social problems and so on.

Correlational study. This is a study that shows the relationship between two or more variables, that is, how a
variable varies with another.
Case study. The case study is the appropriate design to use when the aim of the study is to have a deeper, more thorough
and more comprehensive understanding of an individual or group (family, organization, etc.). It is also useful when the
investigator wishes to know/capture the processes which explain the characteristics and behaviour of a person, group or
institution under investigation.
In using the case study as an approach or method for a research project, the researcher has to discover and
identify all the important variables that have contributed to the development of the case investigated into what it is at the
time of study. This would involve a historical study of its past, determining its present condition and knowing the
environmental factors which individually and collectively affect its development or growth.
The advantage of the case study over other research designs is the opportunity it allows to study in depth what
interests the researcher. It also permits understanding certain processes which other designs cannot capture in a one-shot
survey or observation. Its disadvantage lies in its “lack of breadth,” meaning, the investigator is limited to the study of
one or few cases, the finding of which cannot be generalized to the population from which those cases were purposely
drawn.
Content analysis. When the objective of the study is to find out the type and/or the quality of messages found in the
document (such as speeches, business records, minutes of meetings) or mass media (such as newspapers, journals and
magazines), then the design or method to use is content analysis.
Content analysis not only requires a “critical eye” in analysing written materials or documents but also a big dose
of patience. The researcher may have to wade through volumes of dusty old newspapers, stack of books, numerous
folders of speeches, of business records, and of minutes of organization’s meetings. Doing this alone will put to a hard
test the patience of a researcher?

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -4- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

Trend analysis. Some persons may want to foretell, on the basis of available data, the direction and future status of
certain phenomenon like population size, school enrolment, business growth, household expenditure and residential
location. For this particular concern, the most appropriate research design is the trend analysis.
To determine whether a population will increase to a certain size in the year 2000, the researcher has to examine
records on birth rates over a period of time, or he may conduct surveys on births repeated at intervals. In the same
manner, school administrators will be able to predict their future enrolment by examining their enrolment in the past and
other related factors such as prevailing political and economic conditions.
Feasibility study. This research design is to be used when the objective is to find out the variability of starting a business
venture, or establishing certain institutions, or establishing certain institutions, or constructing infrastructures.
A feasibility study has been defined as a “thorough and systematic analysis of all factors that affect the possibility
of success of a proposed undertaking”. (DAP, 1978) I actually is a synthesis of separate studies on the market, technical,
financial, socio-economic and management aspects of the desired undertaking.

Descriptive-documentary

The documentary method is used when data cannot be obtained through questionnaires or observation.
For example, this is best demonstrated when researcher attempts to determine the relationship between the extent of
socialization and academic performances of indigent students. The names and academic performances of indigent
students can be obtained at the registrar’s office and the extent of socialization can therefore be determined through a
descriptive survey with the use of questionnaires.
Correlational Research Designs
Correlational research is sometimes known as associational research because it measures the extent or magnitude
of association between two variables. This is another form of descriptive research because it only measures the existing
relationships of variables.
Experimental Design
In experimental design, the researcher needs to explore the nature, characteristics, relationships and differences of
one or more variables. The term “experiment” requires manipulation of variables to observe effects or results.
This design describes what will be. It means that a researcher has to determine the effects of variables being
manipulated together with the main objectives of the study.

Reliability and Validity

One other important consideration in selecting a research design is seeing to it that possible errors are minimized
by maximizing the reliability and validity of data.
Reliability refers to the consistency, stability or dependability of the data. A research method that will give the
same results, even if conducted twice is reliable; it is unreliable when, used the second time, the research yields results
different from those of the first time.

Validity refers to data are not reliable but also true and accurate. In another sense, it refers to the extent to which
an instrument is able to actually assess what it is supposed to measure. Thus, in research one hears about valid instrument
and valid results.

Observation
Is another technique in data - gathering. It is essential for both qualitative and quantitative studies. This is used
to enrich findings in descriptive studies where questionnaires and interviews have been employed.

Ardales (1987) defined observation as one of the earliest methods for acquiring knowledge. In this method the
researcher watches closely the overt behaviours of the subjects under investigation in various natural settings.
Observations may be done by actually participating to a certain extent in the activities of a group being studied.
Criminological Research Prelim Notes -5- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

Purposes of Observation
1. To enable the researcher to gather empirical data which are difficult to obtain by other means. This is especially true in
anthropological studies in which the life cycle, social, and economic activities, the motivations and aspirations, and other
practices of a group are to be described.
2. To enable the researcher to gather sufficient data to supplement or verify information gather by other means. For
instance, in a survey using questionnaire, a certain library is rich in its collections according to the respondents. An
ocular inspection may verify this claim to be true or untrue. Additional information to be gathered.

3. To enable the researcher to gather information or data needed to describe the aspect of a variable being studied which
cannot be described accurately without observation. Example. In case studies especially in clinical and psychiatric cases,
observation of the behaviour of the subject is vital tool in gathering data for the case.

4. To enable the researcher to gather directly primary data or first-hand information for his study for a more accurate
description and interpretation.
5. To enable the researcher to gather data from the laboratory or elsewhere through experimentation. Observation enables
him to collect data through experimentation. Data gathered through experiment are more or less accurate, valid, and
reliable because the variables involved are under the rigid control of the experimenter.

Advantages of Observation

1. The investigator is able to gather directly, first-hand information about the subject of his study. This kind of
information is more accurate, more valid, and more reliable than any information gathered through other names.
2. The researcher can observe his subjects for as long as he needs the time and as many times as he can for greater
accuracy and validity in description and interpretation.

3. Observation is a superior technique of collecting information from non-verbal behaviour and inanimate objects.
4. The subjects of the inquiry can be observed in their natural settings and this will exclude artificiality in description and
interpretation. This is especially true in participant and uncontrolled and unstructured observation.

Disadvantages
1. In observation in natural settings, there is a lack of control upon extraneous variables which may adversely affect the
validity of attributing certain causes upon certain effects. In farming, for instance, an increase in production may be
attributed to the use of fertilizer, but there are other
factors involved such as water, management, weed control, eradication of pests and the like.
2. There is a smaller size of sample if the universe covers a very wide area and the researcher cannot afford to observe a
substantial area. This makes description and interpretation less accurate and less valid.

3. It is difficult to quantify data for standard tabulation especially in unstructured observation and when recording is done
in the essay form.

4. Sometimes it is hard to gain entry into the area to be observed. This is true if the research problem is a sensitive or
controversial one.

5. Lack of anonymity makes the observed subjects withdraw or keep secret some vital but sensitive and controversial
information. In graft and corruption for instance, the subjects may become very secretive.
Characteristics of Observation for Research Purposes
1. Observation is specific. The observation is specific, not just looking around for general impression, with carefully
defined things to look for.
2. Observation is systematic. Observation of behaviour for research purposes is systematic, not a chance “dropping in “
on a situation at any time when one happens to be passing by. The length of the observation periods, the interval between
them, and the number have been carefully planned.
Criminological Research Prelim Notes -6- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

3. Observation is quantitative. The observation is quantitative, usually with a tally of the number of instances a particular
type of behaviour has occurred or sometimes the total duration of the particular conduct during the period of observation,
or some other countable or measurable characteristics; sometimes a diagram is made showing spatial relationship.
4. Observation is recorded immediately.
5. Observation is done by an expert. The one conducting the observation is expert, that is done by an investigator who is
especially trained for such work.

6. Observation results can be checked and verified. The results of a systematic observation of behaviour can be checked
and often verified by comparing the results of different observers or by repeating the observation.

Major Reasons have been cited for the Use of Observational Methods
1. Observational methods tell a great deal about behavioural patterns in certain kinds of circumstances.
2. Observation may be the only feasible method by which to gather data. This is true when the subjects of study are
individuals who are not capable for interview or for accomplishing the questionnaire.
3. Observations in the actual setting provide a more valid result than when the researcher relies only on asking questions
about the behaviour of individuals or group.
The researcher’s observation should be focused on these common elements:
1. The participants – who they are, how many, and how they are related with one another.

2. The setting – location, appearance, kinds of behaviour it encourages, permits, discourages or prevents.
3. The purpose – what purpose brought the participants together, how participants react to it with
acceptance or rejection?
4. The social behaviour – what the participants do, how they do it, and with whom and with what they do it.
5. Frequency and duration – when the situation occurred, how long it lasted how frequently it occurred, and
what occasions gave rise to it.

Types of Observation
Structured Observation
The researcher “knows what aspects of the group activity are relevant to his or her purposes and is therefore in a position
to develop a specific plan for the making and recording of observations before he or she begins
collecting data.” (Selltiz and Others, 1976) Here, the researcher makes use of his observations to aspects of behaviour
and activities or events relevant to the research problem and objectives.

Unstructured Observation
This type of observation provides a “richer” and more direct description of the phenomena under investigation. (Filstead,
1970; Habenstein, 1970; Lafland, 1971; and McCall and Simmons, 1969) In this method, the researcher is not restricted
by an observation guide. He watches and records behaviours, events and situations guided by the problem and objectives
of his investigation. As a Selltiz and Others (1976) put it the researcher does not “impose his or her structure on the
situation but instead attempts to provide an analysis of the true complexities found in the situation.” The investigator is
even free to change or modify the objectives of his study as he accumulates more information about the problem under
investigation.
Participant Observation

The observer takes active part in the activities of the group being observed. The observer lives and works with the group
for a certain length of time until he learns all the ins and outs of the aspect or aspects he is studying about.
Non-participant Observation
The observer is a mere by standard observing the group he is studying about. He does not participate in the activities of
the group.
 Criminological Research Prelim Notes -7- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

Controlled Observation
Is usually utilized in experimental studies in which the experimental as well as the non-experimental variables are
controlled by the researcher. The experimental variable is manipulated by the experimenter to produce an effect or effects
upon the dependent variable.
Uncontrolled Observation

Is usually utilized in natural settings. No control whatsoever is placed upon any variables within the observation area.
Example: the farmers may be observed as they work in their farms.

Interview
Kerlinger (1986) defined interview as man’s oldest and most often used devise for obtaining information from
people. It is a “face-to-face interpersonal role situation in which one person, the interview, asks a person being
interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain answers pertinent to the research problem.”

According to Sison (1991), the interviewer must be skilled in asking questions and sizing up people: alert, keen
and free of prejudices or biases: even-tempered, and most importantly, he must have a thorough knowledge of the
subject.

PURPOSES AND USES OF THE INTERVIEW

The researcher may use the interview in the following circumstances:
1. The researcher may approach and interview knowledgeable people to enable him to gain insight into his problem, the
variables he is going to use, the formulation of his specific questions and hypotheses, the statistical methods he is going
to utilize, etc.

2. The researcher may also interview knowledgeable people about the proper construction and validation of the
questionnaire, or who can make any contribution to the enrichment of his study.
3. In cases when the subject of the study is a person with some signs of abnormality, the interviewer may wish to gain
information from the overt, oral, physical and emotional reactions of the subject towards certain questions to be used for
a possible remedy of the abnormality.

4. The researcher may also use the interview as the principal tool in gathering data for his study or just to supplement
data collected by other techniques.

Advantages of the Interview

1. It yields a more complete and valid information. The respondent is usually pressed for an answer to a question which
the interviewer can validate at once. He can probe into the veracity of the reply immediately. Hence, there is a higher
proportion of usable returns.
2. The interview can be used with all kinds of people, whether literate or illiterate, rich or poor, laborer or capitalist, etc.
3. The interviewer can always clarify points or questions which are vague to the interviewee.
4. Only the interviewee respondent can make replies to questions of the interviewer, unlike in the case of a
questionnaire in which filling up a questionnaire may be delegated to another person or the respondent may be aided by
another person in making replies.
5. The interviewer can observe the nonverbal reactions or behavior pf the respondent which may reveal rich pertinent
information. These are called subliminal cues which are “behavioral or attitudes that are not specifically stated but are
covertly displayed. They include inflections in the voice, manner of speech, such as how hesitant the speakers are and
how much enthusiasm they display when they speak; manner I which they sit on the chair; activity such as frowns,
movements of the head and hands;
statements they make when people are around; hesitancy in answering certain questions; and eagerness to talk about
certain subjects while ignoring others.”
6. Greater complex questions can be asked with the interviewer around to explain things greater complex data which are
vital to the study can be acquired.
7. There is flexibility. The interviewer can effect a modification of the interview or any question if there is a need so that
the desired information can be gathered.

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -8- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

Disadvantages of the Interview

1. Sometimes, selected respondents are hard to contact or cannot be contacted at all because of the distance of their place
or due to some other reason.

2. It is expensive if many interviewers have to be employed to meet the target date. The cost of training them and their
salaries would entail too much expense.

3. The responses may be inaccurate if the interviewee has no time to consult his records especially if the data involve
numerals.

4. It is time consuming if only the researcher conducts the interviews.

5. It is inconvenient for both of the interviewer and interviewee in terms of time and sometimes in terms of place. The
interviewer has to travel distances.

6. There is no anonymity and so the interviewee may withhold confidential but vital information, especially if the
information may possibly invite trouble. This is true if the information is about the morality of an individual or the
commission of graft and corruption.

7. There is a tendency of interviewers to introduce bias because they may influence their interviewees to give replies that
would favor their researcher- employers. This may happen in political surveys where the candidacy of a certain person is
involved.

8. If the interviewer modifies a question, the standardized construction of the question is lessened and, categorization and
tabulation become a problem.

Types of Interview
Structured Interview
The questions, their sequence and their wordings are fixed. It uses an interview schedule that the researcher
carefully prepared to obtain the information needed for his study.
An interview schedule is a research instrument made up by a set of carefully prepared and logically ordered
questions which the researcher asks of the respondents, with adequate space in which the interviewer notes down the
responses to the questions.
Unstructured Interview
- is flexible and open, while the questions asked are determined by the research problem and objectives, their contents,
sequence and wordings are up to the interviewer. Instead of an interview schedule, this type of interview make use of an
interview guide which is the listing of topics that will be taken up during the interview process.
Standardized interview
In this type of interview, the interviewer is not allowed to change the specific wordings of the questions in the
interview schedule in the interview schedule. He must conduct all interviews in precisely the same manner, and he
cannot adapt questions for specific situations or pursue statements in order to add something to the data. This is the same
as the so-called formal interview.

Non-standardized interview
In this type, the interviewer has complete freedom to develop each interview in the most appropriate manner for
each situation. He is not held to any specific question. He may revise, add to, or subtract from, the interview schedule
that which he thinks is best for situation. This is the same as so-called informal interview.
Semi-standardized interview
 The interviewer is required to ask a number of specific major questions, and beyond these he is free to probe as
he chooses. There are prepared principal questions to be asked and once these are asked and answered the interpreter is
free to ask any question as he sees fit for the situation.

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -9- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

Focused interview
This also called depth interview. This is similar to the non-standardized interview in which no required questions
should be asked by the interviewer. The researcher asks a series of questions based on his previous understanding and
insight of the situation. Specific attention is given to specific topics or ideas. The interview is focused on specific topics
that are to be investigated in depth. The interviewer thus able to direct his questioning to discover the kinds of
backgrounds and experiences that have influenced the subject.

Non-directive interview
In this type of interview, the interviewee or subject is allowed and even encouraged to express his feelings without fear
of disapproval. The subject
can express his feeling or views on certain topics even without waiting to be questioned or even without pressure from
the interviewer. The interviewee does most of the talking.
What to Avoid in Interviews
1. Avoid exerting undue pressure upon a respondent to make him participate in an interview. A respondent who is
pressured hard to participate cannot be expected to freely give reliable information.
2. Avoid disagreeing or arguing with or contradicting the respondent. This may irritate him and as a result he may
not give some vital information for fear of being contradicted.
3. Avoid unduly pressing the respondent to make a reply. He may give an inaccurate answer just to comply.
4. Avoid using a language well over and above the ability of the respondent to understand. If the respondent does
not understand very well the language of the interviewer, the former may give wrong information or he may not respond
at all.
5. Avoid talking about irrelevant matters. Talking too much about irrelevant things will only prolong the interview. It
is a waste of time on the part of the interviewer and on the interviewee who may be become impatient because he has
some important matters to attend to.
6. Avoid placing the interviewee in embarrassing situations. Delicate things should be handled with care especially if
the topic about is morality, integrity, or sexual habits. Avoid irritating sore spots.
7. Avoid appearing too high above the respondent in education, knowledge, and social status. This will make the
interviewee very shy and timid and rapport may not be established.
8. Avoid interviewing the respondent in an unholy hour. Avoid this especially when he is too busy attending to an
important matter, or when is hungry, or when he needs to take a rest or take a nap, say at one o’clock in the afternoon.
Sampling Techniques
According to Kumar (2011), sampling is the process of selecting few ( a sample) from a bigger group the
population to become the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of information, situation
or outcome, regarding the bigger group.
Selecting a sample rather than the total population has advantages and disadvantages. On the advantages side, it
saves time, financial and human resources. But on the disadvantage side, the researcher finds only an estimate or a
prediction of information about the population’s characteristics or other data, which are essential to the research study.
Two factors may influence the degree of certainty about the inferences drawn from a sample:
1. Findings based upon larger samples have more certainty than those based on smaller ones. As a rule, “the larger the
sample size, the more accurate the findings”.
2. The greater the variation in the study population with respect to the characteristics under study for a given sample size,
the greater the uncertainty.
Bias must be avoided in the selection of the sample in order to achieve maximum precision in estimates within
a given sample size.

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -10- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

Sample surveys are often used instead of complete enumerations or census because of the following
advantages (Parel and others, 1978).

1. The sample survey is faster and cheaper. Since the sample is only a portion of the population, the collection and
processing of data is therefore quicker and the cost involved is much less than when complete enumeration or census is
used.
2. It can yield more comprehensive information. A small sample can be subjected to a thorough investigation. Such
thoroughness cannot be applied well in a large population because of the prohibitive cost involved.

3. It is more accurate. A small, highly skilled group of workers is likely to make fewer errors in the collection and
handling of data than a large census force would.

4. Because of the savings it permits in time and money, the sample survey makes possible the study of much larger and
much more varied populations than would be possible for the same expenditure if one were making a complete
enumeration.

To arrive at the sample the researcher has to identify his population, determine the required sample size, and
select the sample using certain sampling technique or procedure.

Definitions of Basic Concepts

Sampling is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population.

Population refers to the entire group or set of individuals or items which is the focus of an investigation. It is
also called universe.

A population is further distinguished by its role in the study, thus, the following types:

Topic population may be people, things, plants or animals. It is the group or set about which generalization
will be made.

Respondent population refers to a group or set of individuals who furnish the needed information on which the
generalization is based.

Target population refers to the group or set of individuals or items from which or about which representative
information is originally desired.

Sample refers to a subset or portion of the population on which is based the statement or generalization about
the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling unit is one of several other similar units which can be selected at any stage in the sampling process. It
may be an individual or a group of persons or items.

Sampling frame refers to an orderly and complete list of sampling units from which the sample is drawn.

Sampling design refers to scheme of arriving at the sample which involves specification of the target, the
respondent population and the method of selecting them.

Types of Sampling
 There are three major types of Sampling Designs:
A. Probability Sampling
B. Non- probability Sampling
C. Mixed Methods Sampling

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -11- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

Sampling Designs

There are two basic types of sampling. These are the probability sampling and the non-probability sampling. In
probability sampling each unit of the population has known probability of being selected or included in the sample. This
type of sampling makes possible the selection of sample representative of the population under investigation. In the latter
type, the non-probability sampling, the probability that each unit of the population will be selected is not known, nor is
there any assurance that every unit has some chance of being included in the sample.

Probability Sampling

1. Simple random sampling. The basic and best-known probability sampling design, simple random sampling gives
each unit in the population an equal probability or chance of being chosen for the sample. As such, it is
considered as the best sampling design.

Main Advantages of the Random Samples

* As they represent the total sampling population, the inferences drawn from such samples can be generalized to the total
sampling population.

* Some statistical tests based upon the theory of probability can be applied only to data collected from random samples.
Some of these tests are important for establishing conclusive correlations.

Steps in selecting a Simple Random Sample

* Define the target population.

* Identify an existing sampling frame of the target population or develop a
new one.
* Assign a unique number to each element in the frame.
* Determine the sampling size.
* Randomly select the targeted number of population elements.

Techniques in Drawing Random Samples (Daniel, 2012)

1. Lottery method. The numbers representing each element in the target population are placed on chips, cards or rolled
papers. These are then placed in a container and thoroughly mixed. Next, blindly select chips from the container until the
desired sample size has been obtained.

2. Table of random numbers. The numbers in a table of random numbers are not arranged in any particular pattern. In
using this technique, the researcher should blindly select a starting point and then systematically
proceed in the table. The number of digits that are used should correspond to the size of the target population. Since this
process is tedious and time consuming, a statistical software may be used for large populations.

3. Randomly generated numbers by using a computer program. Activate the computer program with random number
generator. Key in a specific range of numbers from hundreds, thousands, or millions and the random numbers will
appear from which you will pick your choices.

2. Systematic sampling. This design is a modified version of simple random sampling which is less time consuming and
easier to implement. The total number of units in the population (N) is divided by the desired sample size (n), yielding a
sampling interval (k). The sample is drawn by listing all population units in arbitrary order and by selecting every kth
unit, starting with a randomly selected number, until the desired sample size is reached.
3. Stratified sampling. In this design, the sample is obtained by separating the population units into non-overlapping
groups determined by certain characteristics such as sex, age, education, residence, etc. Then, samples are selected
within each group either by simple random sampling or stratified systematic random sampling.

4. Cluster sampling. Cluster sampling is sometimes referred to as “an area sampling because it is frequently applied on a
geographical basis”. (Pagoso and Others, 1978). On this basis, districts or blocks of a municipality or a city, which
constitute the clusters, are randomly selected. All units in the sample clusters are covered. Cluster sampling is useful
when blocks or districts are composed by heterogeneous groups. It is also more economical since concentrating on few
clusters the researcher will save more time, effort and money than he covers the whole area.

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -12- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

5. Multi-stage sampling. This design involves several stages or phrases in drawing the sample from the population. In
this method, population elements are grouped into hierarchy of units, and sampling is done successively. For example, in
a nationwide study, provinces are selected at the first stage, municipalities within the sample provinces at the second
stage, villages with the sample municipalities at the third stage, and finally, individual respondents within sample
villages at the fourth stage. At each stage, simple random, systematic, or stratified techniques may be used.

Non-probability Sampling

1. Purposive sampling. In this design, also known as judgemental sampling, the researcher uses his good judgement in
selecting the respondents who best meet the purposes of his study. For example, an investigator may seek the “average
Filipino housewife” or a typical Filipino teenager. Whoever qualities and is available is taken until the desired number of
sample is attained.

2. Convenience sampling. In this design, the investigator simply takes the closest persons as respondents, continuing the
process until the sample reaches a predetermined size. For example, interviewing the first 50 students who come inside
the school campus and who are willing to be interviewed. Convenience sampling is also known as accidental sampling.

3. Quota sampling. This design is the non-probability sampling equivalent of stratified sampling, with the added
requirement that each stratum or group is generally represented in the sample in the same proportion as in the as in the
population. If sex, for example, has something to do with the sharp
difference of the characteristics one wishes to measure, then, quota should be allotted for males and another for females
the proportions of which should reflect their respective proportions in the population. After the quotas are set, quota
sampling is done by merely finding persons with the requisite characteristics.

4. Snowball sampling. This design requires identification of a few persons who met requisite characteristics important to
the study. These persons act as informants to identify others who qualify for inclusion in the sample who, in turn, lead to
more persons who can be interviewed. This process continues until the desired number of respondents is reached. The
term “snowball” stems from the analogy of a snowball, which begins small but becomes bigger and bigger as it rolls
down the hill.

Mixed-Methods Sampling

The use of mixed methods research designs was spurred by the application of two key concepts, “multi - method,
multi-trait and triangulation” which were introduced by Campbell and Fiske in 1959 and the four types of triangulation
by Denzin (2009); data triangulation, method logical triangulation, investigator triangulation, and theory triangulation
(Daniel, 2012).

Through the years, researchers have made adjustments in their sampling procedure as a response to change in
technology, lifestyles, the legal environment, and nonresponse rates.

1. Telephone- Based Sampling

This is a sampling procedure that utilizes telephone numbers as sampling units. According to research, telephone
surveys were the dominant survey methodology since the 1980s. There are two subtypes of telephone-based sampling,
list-based sampling taken from telephone directories, lists of employees, customers, etc. and random digit dialing. The
random sampling procedures can also be applied in the telephone-based sampling procedure.

2. Web-based Sampling

In this sampling procedure, email addresses, website visits, and recruited users of the internet are utilized as
sampling units. There are three categories of web-based sampling, namely: list-based sampling, sampling of website
visits, and sampling from recruited panels of potential participants in research projects.
3. Address-based Sampling

In this kind of sampling procedure, postal addresses are utilized as sampling units. This sampling is used mostly
in national surveys.

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -13- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

4. Time-based Sampling

Units of time are used as sampling units in this type of sampling. This is used in studying repeated outcomes that
vary a great deal over time. The units of time may be time of the day, days of the week, months of the year or some other
time unit. The time intervals may be the sampling units. The length of the interval would depend in part on the rate of
occurrence of what is to be observed. Preparation for this type of sampling typically involves visits to the locations
where the data will be collected observing the density of the target population over time and gathering information from
informants. Using the information obtained, a sampling frame of time units is developed. Data might be collected several
times per day at time periods selected using simple random sampling or systematic sampling, upon the occurrence of a
specific event, or at specifically scheduled time intervals.

5. Space-based Sampling

This refers to a set of sampling procedures that utilize space as a sampling unit. This type of sampling is also
referred to as area sampling, spatial sampling, location-based sampling, venue-based sampling and facility-based
sampling. The space may be geographical units or various locations or venues. It is the principal mode of sampling
utilized in nationwide personal interview surveys, environmental sampling, and ecological sampling (Daniel, 2012).

Data Collection
There is a wide array of data collection methods from which a researcher can choose from. Which method or
methods he will select for his particular study will be determined by the objectives of his investigation, research design,
operational feasibility, and availability of resources which include money, time and personnel. One other important
consideration in selecting what method to use is the type of data the researcher wants to generate from his data collection
activity.

Data, plural for datum, are a collection of numbers, quantities, facts, or records, used as bases for drawing
conclusions or making inferences.
Data are what research is searching for and which are subjected to analysis, statistical procedures, and
interpretation so that inferences, principles, or generalizations are drawn. Data also reveal unsatisfactory conditions that
need to be improved. The application of newly discovered facts and principles to remedy unsatisfactory conditions
becomes the basis of human progress and the improvement of the quality of human life.
Types of Research Data

According to source

Primary data - those which are gathered directly from the informants of
the study.

The primary sources are as follows:

 A. Individual persons

B. Organized groups or organizations such as associations, fraternities, schools, business firms, the
church, army, navy, air force, government, law making bodies, family, tribe, etc.
C. Established practices such as marriage, religious rites, legal system, economic system, democracy, system of
morals, etc.

D. Documents in their original forms such as the Constitution, laws, orders, proclamations, treaties, contracts,
census and all kinds of original records, letters, diaries, etc.

E. Living organisms such as animals, fowls, and lower forms of living organisms.

F. Man-made material things such as buildings, machines, weapons, artifacts, appliances, roads, bridges, dams,
radio, television, electricity, etc.

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -14- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

G. Natural objects and phenomena such as rain, wind, typhoon, water, earthquake, mountain, snow, etc.

Secondary data. Secondary data are those gathered from secondary sources.

The secondary sources are as follows:

A.  Books including dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, etc.

B. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, newspapers , and other publications.
C. Unpublished master's theses and dissertations, and other studies.
D. Monograms, manuscripts, etc.
E. All other second-hand sources.

Advantages of Primary Data Over Secondary Data

1. The primary data are frequently giving detailed definitions of terms and statistical units used in the survey.

2. The secondary data have usually little or no explanatory notes and may contain clerical and typographical mistakes
which often arise from transcription of the figures from the original or primary source.

3. The primary data usually includes a copy of the schedule and a description of the procedure used in the selection of
the type of sample and in collecting the data. This gives the user an idea of accuracy, applicability, and limitation of the
survey results.

4. The primary data are usually broken down into finer classifications. The secondary data often omit part of combining
categories, such as showing barrios instead of sitios, or municipalities instead of barrios.

Advantages of Secondary Data

1. Secondary data are more convenient to use because they are already condense and organized.
2. Analysis and interpretation are done more easily.
3. Libraries make secondary data more easily accessible.

Categories of Data Gathered from Respondents

Respondents are those individuals who are asked or requested by a researcher to supply data or information about
his research problem. The categories of data supplied by respondents are the following:
1. Facts. These are recollections, observations, and perceptions of respondents about themselves and of other people.
Examples are:
A. Personal circumstances such as age, sex, height, weight, color of the skin and eyes, color of nature of hair, facts about
health, date of birth, place of
birth, civil status, number of children, present address, kind of residence and residence environment, telephone number,
nationality., race, ethnic group, native language and other language spoken, education and school, intelligence, character
and other psychological characteristics, etc.
B. What they do such as habits and hobbies, profession or occupation, life style, plans and aspirations, social or
economic status, membership in religious, professional or civic organizations, activities, practices, and other events in
their lives.
2. Attitudes and feelings. These are the respondent's ideas and thoughts about the research topic, and his personal
feelings about the worth of the item being investigated. This may include the extent of the respondent's attitudes and
feelings towards the issues or state of affairs raised in the research problem. For instance, if a respondent is asked to give
his attitude or reaction toward pornography, he may say, strongly agree to, favors it; or he merely aggress to, favors or
likes it; or he may say that he is not sure of his opinion, that is, he is uncertain; or he merely disagrees to, or disfavors,
dislikes, or hates it; or strongly disagrees to, disfavors, dislikes, or hates it.
3. Judgments. These data include the respondent's ideas or opinion about, or his actual behavior, in a given situation.
This is what happen the respondents think a thing or situation should be or what is. In this, there seems to be a standard,
an ideal standard that is, with which things, ideas,
and situations are compared; how far of how near they are from the standard.

Criminological Research Prelim Notes -15- Dr. Billy O. Cosares

4. Psychomotor skills. These data refer to the manipulative skills of the individual and his activities that involve his five
senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. How skill full does one operate a microscope? How well does he respond
to sound? To touch? In here there is also an element of judgment because the performance of an individual is usually
judged in comparison of or with the performance of am average individual.
5. Results of tests and experiments. The results of tests and experiments are very important data especially in
psychology and in the physical, chemical, and biological sciences. Much of the progress of mankind is due to the
results of tests and experiments performed in connection with research. The psychological principles that we are
applying today have been the results of extensive testing.

Selecting the Method of Collecting Data

There are several ways of collecting data among which are the following:
A. Clerical tools - are used when the researcher studies people and gathers data on the feelings, emotions,
attitudes, and judgments of the subjects.
1. The questionnaire method
2. The interview method
3. The empirical observation method
4. The registration method
5. The testing method
6. The experimental method
7. The library method
B. Mechanical devices
1. Microscopes
2. Thermometers
3. Cameras, etc.

___________________________________________ THE END__________________________________