Waves and wave equation

A disturbance or variation that transfer energy progressively

from point to point in a medium

In this course we are learning about the Mechanical waves, the

Electromagnetic waves and the Matter waves
 Transversal waves

Transverse wave: Oscillations 900 from axis of travel, The particle

displacement is perpendicular to the wave propagation. The particles
moves up and down about their equilibrium position.

Example: EM waves (X-rays, light, heat, microwaves, radio, etc.) ,

Ocean wave

https://www.phy.olemiss.edu/~perera/animations/waves.html
Longitudinal wave: The particle in a medium oscillates back and forth
about their equilibrium position but it is the disturbance which travels
NOT the individual particles in the medium.

Example: Sound wave, seismic p-waves, molecular motion in

compression and rarefaction, etc.
 One-Dimensional Traveling Waves in a rope

As the wave passes, the motion of

any actual bit of rope is in the y-
direction, at right angles (transverse)
to the direction of the wave itself,
which is of course along the rope.

(We are neglecting frictional effects—in a real rope, the bump gradually
gets smaller as it moves along.)
 Longitudinal wave in a rod (elastic medium)
How disturbance evolve?

Youngs modulus (modulus of Elasticity) :

stress F / A Y A
Y= = ⇒ F = ξ = k ξ
strain ξ / L  L 
Rod with Young’s modulus Y,
density ρ and area of cross-section A.
𝜉(𝑥) 𝜉(𝑥 + Δ𝑥)

𝑥 𝑥 + Δ𝑥

𝑥 𝑥 + Δ𝑥
If disturbance is created in a rod of density ρ and area of cross-section A, it
propagate as a linear chain of spring-mass system in the continuum limit:

∂2 ξ
At a position x, force equation of slab : F = ρ A∆ x 2
∂t
( It is simply mass times acceleration )
Consider a linear chain of identical spring and masses. The displacement of
jth mass satisfy the equation of motion

k k k
m m m m

ξ j−1 (t ) ξ j (t ) ξ j+1 (t )

m ξj (t ) = −k (ξ j − ξ j +1 ) − k (ξ j − ξ j −1 )

Let Δ𝑥 be the separation between the masses.

Case1: if Δ𝑥 is finite this means the chain is discrete

Case 2: If Δ𝑥 is very small this means the chain is continuous

In the continuum limit ( ):

[ξ j +1 ]
(t ) − ξ j (t ) → [ξ ( x + ∆ x, t ) − ξ ( x, t )]
 ∂ ξ ( x, t ) ( ∆ x ) 2 ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t ) 
= ξ ( x, t ) + ∆ x + ... − ξ ( x, t )
 ∂x 2 ∂x 2

∂ ξ ( x, t ) ( ∆ x ) 2 ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t )
=∆x +
∂x 2 ∂ x2
 [ξ (t ) − ξ
j j −1 ]
(t ) → [ξ ( x, t ) − ξ ( x − ∆ x, t )]
 ∂ ξ ( x, t ) ( ∆ x ) 2 ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t ) 
= ξ ( x, t ) − ξ ( x, t ) + ∆ x − ...
 ∂x 2 ∂x 2

∂ ξ ( x, t ) ( ∆ x ) 2 ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t )
=∆x −
∂x 2 ∂ x2

Implies,

[ξ j +1 ] [ ]
(t ) − ξ j (t ) − ξ j (t ) − ξ j −1 (t ) =
 ∂ ξ ( x, t ) ( ∆ x ) 2 ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t )   ∂ ξ ( x, t ) ( ∆ x ) 2 ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t ) 
= ∆ x + −∆x − 
 ∂ x 2 ∂ x 2
  ∂ x 2 ∂ x 2

∂ 2
ξ ( x, t )
= (∆ x) 2

∂ x2
 Y A Y A
The force in terms of Y F =  ξ =   ∆ξ = k ∆ξ
 L   ∆x
Δ𝜉
Here, is the local strain.
Δ𝑥

Now the force balance equation can be written as,

m ξj (t ) = −k (ξ j − ξ j +1 ) − k (ξ j − ξ j −1 )

∂ 2 ξ ( x, t ) Y A 2 ∂ ξ ( x, t )
2
ρ A∆ x = ( ∆ x)
∂t 2
∆x ∂ x2 Y
c =
2
∂ ξ ( x, t ) Y ∂ ξ ( x, t )
2 2
∂ ξ ( x, t ) 1 ∂ ξ ( x, t )
2 2 s
ρ
= ⇒ = 2
∂t 2
ρ ∂x 2
∂x 2
cs ∂t2

The general solution the differential equation is f ( x − c t ) and f (x + c t)

In case of a pipe containing a fluid medium, one can obtain a similar
expression

∂ 2 ξ ( x, t ) B ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t ) ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t ) 1 ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t )
= ⇒ = 2
∂t 2
ρ ∂x 2
∂x 2
cB ∂ t 2
Where B is the bulk modulus of the fluid
B
c =
2

ρ
B

The general solution the differential equation is

f ( x − c t ) and f ( x + c t )
So, the two aspects of the set of wave equation

1. The function must propagate the disturbance

f (x ± c t)

wave moving to the left

∂ 2 ξ ( x, t ) 1 ∂ 2 ξ ( x, t )
= 2
∂x 2
c ∂t2

Different forms of the solution of wave equations

2π
ξ = ξ 0 cos(ω t − k x) or ξ = ξ 0 cos (c t − x) or ξ = ξ 0 ei (ω t − k x )
λ
Transverse wave on a flexible string
y

Linear density 𝜇 under a tension T 0,0

x

∆x T
Consider an element of the string
between x and x + ∆x

For a small displacement y, we can assume that the magnitude of the tension T remain
the same, but acts in different direction at the two ends of the elements of the string.
This give rise to a net vertical force.

The forces on the bit of string (neglecting the tiny force of gravity, air resistance, etc.)
are the tensions T at the two ends. The tension will be uniform in magnitude along the
string, but the string curves if it’s waving, so the two T vectors at opposite ends of the
bit of string do not quite cancel, this is the net force we’re looking for.
 y
T
𝜃 + Δ𝜃

Resultant of these two forces

𝜃
T

𝑥 𝑥 + Δ𝑥 x
Fy = T sinθ x + ∆x
− T sinθ x
Fy = −T sin θ + T sin(θ + ∆θ )
for small θ , Fy ≈ T tanθ x + ∆x
− T tanθ x
for small θ ; Fy ≈ T ∆θ
 ∂ y  ∂ y 
Fy = T   −    dm y = T ∆θ ⇒ ( µ ∆ x) y = T ∆θ
 ∂ x  x + ∆x  ∂ x  x  ∂y 1 ∂θ ∂2 y
tan θ = ⇒ = 2
 ∂ y  ∂2 y  ∂ y   ∂2 y ∂ x cos θ ∂ x ∂ x
2
= T   + ∆ x 2 −    = T∆ x 2
 ∂ x  x ∂ x  ∂ x  x  ∂x
∂2 y ∂2 y
( µ ∆ x) 2 = T ∆θ = T∆x 2
∂2 y ∂2 y ∂t ∂x
dm y = µ ∆ x 2 = T∆ x 2
∂t ∂x 2
1 ∂ y ∂2 y
⇒ 2 2 = 2
c ∂t ∂x
 1 ∂2 y ∂2 y
Wave Equation ⇒ 2 2 = 2
c ∂t ∂x
At the point x,
• The 1st derivative is the slope of the string.

• The second derivative is the rate of change of the slope: in other

words, how much the string is curved at x.

• And, it’s this curvature that ensures the T’s at the two ends of a bit
of string are pointing along slightly different directions, and
therefore don’t cancel.

• This force, then, gives the mass times acceleration on the right.
 Wave Equation
1 ∂2 y ∂2 y
⇒ 2 2 = 2
c ∂t ∂x

• All traveling waves move at the same speed and the speed is
determined by the tension and the mass per unit length.

• The wave can travel in any direction +x or –x.

• So there are two solution of the above wave equation.

f (x ± c t)
• Then sum of the two is also a solution to the equation: which is
superposition of the two.
 Standing Waves from Traveling Waves

Superpose harmonic traveling waves moving in opposite directions to get

a standing wave:

Standing waves on
a Stretched string
l

1 ∂2 y ∂2 y ⇒ y ( x, t ) = A cos(k x − ω t )
= 2
c ∂t
2 2
∂x ⇒ y ( x, t ) = A cos(− k x − ω t )

Boundary conditions At, x = 0, y = 0

At, x = l , y = 0
⇒ y ( x, t ) = A e i (ω t − k x ) + B e i (ω t + k x )

At, x = 0, y = 0 ⇒ A + B = 0
i (ω t − k x ) i (ω t + k x )
⇒ y ( x, t ) = A e − Ae
( )
= A ei ω t e −i k x − ei k x = − Aei ω t 2i sin( kx)

At x = l , y = 0
sin kl = 0, ⇒ kl = n π

iω t  nπ 
y ( x, t ) = − A(2i ) e sin  x
 l 
 iω t  nπ 
y ( x, t ) = − A(2i ) e sin  x
 l 
(n-1) nodes between boundaries
 This is standing wave

iω t  nπ 
y ( x, t ) = − A(2i ) e sin  x
 l 
Wave equation for transverse wave
n
nth wavelength, l = λn On a string (both ends are fixed)
2
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
or,ν n =
c nc
= = 2 2
λn 2 l ∂x 2
c ∂t
 ωn x 
⇒ y ( x, t ) = An sin   cos ωnt ;
 c 
 
nπ T
where, ωn = = n ω1
L µ
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 Sinusoidal waves

They are
Progressive
Wave

This is standing wave

iω t
y ( x, t ) = − Ae 2i sin( kx)

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We have a general form,
ξ ( x, t ) = A ei ( k x −ω t )

t
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 x

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 Let us define phase as

New position of at

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 Phase velocity =The speed with which the
constant phase moves

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 Group velocity

superposition of two waves, y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t ),

y ( x, t ) = A cos(k1 x − ω1 t ) + A cos(k 2 x − ω2 t )
= 2 A cos(k x − ω t ) cos(∆k − ∆ω t )
Where,

ω1 = ω + ∆ω , & ω2 = ω − ∆ω ,
k1 = k + ∆k , & k 2 = k − ∆k ,
Wave packet consist of individual waves whose
amplitude is modulated by an envelop
Speed of envelop=Group velocity (vg)
Speed of wavelets=Phase velocity (vp)
Non dispersive : All colored sphere moves with same speed

t0 t1 t2
Dispersive : Red sphere moves faster than blue sphere
 Phase and Group velocity
Phase velocity follows straight line

Group velocity is
defined at a point by
the tangent at that
point

vg
P’
 Non dispersive waves vp = Constant
Signal is propagated without distortion
More generally vp is a function of (or k)
 Prism expt in 1st year lab

 A + δm 
sin  
µ (λ ) =  2  µ 2 − µ1
ω=
 A µ −1
sin  
2