Piop02p 004 2023 B PDF

PROGRAMME IN INDUSTRIAL & ORGANISATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Module 2: PIOP02P
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORKPLACE
ONLY STUDY GUIDE FOR PIOP02P
COMPILED BY: PROF R M OOSTHUIZEN

© 2023 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the
University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
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PIOP02P
STUDY GUIDE
PROGRAMME IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORKPLACE
PIOP02P
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STUDY GUIDE
CONTENTS Page
Preface and orientation ......................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
2. Purpose of module 2 ................................................................................................. 1
3. Learning outcomes for module 2 ............................................................................... 2
4. Unisa's tuition rationale.............................................................................................. 2

4.1 Mutual expectations ................................................................................................... 2
4.2 Outcomes-based learning rationale ........................................................................... 3
4.2.1 Competencies ............................................................................................................ 3
4.2.2 Cross-field competencies .......................................................................................... 4
5. Completion and assessment of assignments ............................................................ 5

5.1 Lecturer assessment ................................................................................................. 5
5.2 Self-assessment ........................................................................................................ 7
6. Study material ............................................................................................................ 8

6.1 Prescribed book and chapters ................................................................................... 8
6.2 Tutorial letters ............................................................................................................ 9
6.3 Additional sources ..................................................................................................... 9
6.4 The study guide ....................................................................................................... 10
7. Organisation of study themes, study units and prescribed chapters ....................... 10

8 How to study this module ......................................................................................... 13
9 The meaning of icons ............................................................................................... 14
10 Overview of the learning outcomes for this module ................................................. 15
Study Theme I: Psychology as a study field and applied areas ................................... 19

Introduction and aim .............................................................................. 19
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Study unit 1: Psychology as science, study and applied areas (Chapter 1 in Weiten)
.................................................................................................................. 20
Learning outcomes ................................................................................................................. 20
1.1 Psychology as a science ......................................................................................... 21
1.2 Various thinking frameworks in psychology (schools of thought) ............................ 22
1.3 Psychological sub-fields and applied/ professional areas ....................................... 24
Self- assessment tasks .......................................................................................................... 25
Study unit 2: Research methodology in psychology (Chapter 2 in Weiten) ............ 27

2.1 Goals and advantages of scientific inquiry .............................................................. 27
2.2 Steps in scientific research ...................................................................................... 28
2.3 Research design and variables ............................................................................... 29
2.4 Problems and ethics in psychological research ....................................................... 31
2.5 Psychological training and practice frame works in South Africa ............................. 32
2.6 Self-assessment tasks ............................................................................................. 32
Study theme II: Fundamental behavioural processes.................................................... 33

Introduction and aim………………………………………………………… 33
Study unit 3: Biological basis of human behaviour (Chapter 3 in Weiten) ............. 35

3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 36
3.2 Communication in the nervous system .................................................................... 37
3.3 Organising the nervous system ............................................................................... 38
3.4 Right/Left brain: Cerebral specialisation .................................................................. 39
3.5 The endocrine system .............................................................................................. 40
3.6 Heredity and behaviour ............................................................................................ 41
Self-assessment tasks ........................................................................................................... 42
Study unit 4: Sensation and perception (Chapter 4 in Weiten) ................................. 44

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 44
4.2 The senses ............................................................................................................... 46
4.2.1 Vision ........................................................................................................................ 46
4.2.2 Hearing ..................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.3 Taste, smell and touch…………………………………………………………………… 49
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Study unit 5: Learning (Chapter 6 in Weiten) .............................................................. 52
5.1 Classical conditioning ............................................................................................... 53
5.2 Operant conditioning ................................................................................................ 55
5.3 Changing directions in the study of conditioning ...................................................... 57
5.3.1 Biological constraints on conditioning ...................................................................... 58
5.3.2 What is cognitive learning? ...................................................................................... 58
5.3.2.1 Insight learning ......................................................................................................... 59
5.4 Observational Learning ............................................................................................ 60
Study unit 6: Human memory, cognition and intelligence (Chapters 7, 8 and 9 in

Weiten) ..................................................................................................... 62
6.1 Human memory ........................................................................................................ 62
6.1.2 Forgetting ................................................................................................................. 63
6.2 Cognition .................................................................................................................. 64
6.3 Problems solving and decision-making: In search of a solution ............................... 64
6.3.1 What is intelligence? ................................................................................................ 65
6.3.1.1 How is intelligence measured? ................................................................................. 65
6.3.1.2 Heredity and environment as determinants of intelligence ....................................... 67
Study unit 7: Motivation and emotion (Chapter 10 in Weiten) ................................... 71

7.1 What is motivation? .................................................................................................. 71
7.2 Various motivation theories and concepts ................................................................ 72
7.2.1 Drive reduction theories of motivation ...................................................................... 72
7.2.2 Incentives theories ................................................................................................... 73
7.2.2.1 Drive theory vs incentive theory .............................................................................. 74
7.2.3 Evolutionary theory ................................................................................................... 74
7.2.4 The range and diversity of human motives .............................................................. 74
7.3 The motivation of hunger and eating ........................................................................ 74
7.4 Achievement: In search of excellence ...................................................................... 75
7.5 What is an emotion? ................................................................................................. 76
7.5.1 Elements of emotional experience ........................................................................... 77
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7.5.2 The biological bases of emotion ............................................................................... 77

7.5.3 Expression of emotion .............................................................................................. 77
7.5.4 Emotion and culture ................................................................................................. 78
7.6 Theories of emotion .................................................................................................. 78
Study theme III: Human development, personality and adjustment .............................. 83

Introduction and aim…………………………………………………. 83
Study unit 8: How human behaviour develops? (Chapter 11 in Weiten) .................. 84

8.1 What human development entails ............................................................................ 84
8.2 Various stages and domains of human development .............................................. 85
8.3 From adolescence to adulthood ............................................................................... 86
8.4 Human development, career development and individual differences ..................... 87
Self-assessment tasks ............................................................................................. 91
Study unit 9: Personality (chapter 12 in Weiten) ........................................................ 93

9.1 What is personality? ................................................................................................. 93
9.2 Various approaches to understanding personality ................................................... 94
9.2.1 Traits, types and styles ............................................................................................. 96
9.2.2 Psychodynamic perspectives ................................................................................... 97
9.2.3 Behavioural approaches ......................................................................................... 100
9.2.4 Humanistic perspectives ........................................................................................ 101
9.2.5 Biological approaches ............................................................................................ 102
9.2.6 Other perspectives ................................................................................................. 103
9.3 Determinants or influencing factors in personality development ............................ 104
9.4 Personality assessment ......................................................................................... 105
Self - assessment tasks ....................................................................................................... 107
Study unit 10: Aspects of psychological health and adjustment (chapters 14 and 15
in Weiten)............................................................................................... 109
Learning outcomes ............................................................................................................... 109
10.1 What psychological health and adjustment entails? ............................................... 109
10.2 Criteria to evaluate psychological health status ..................................................... 110
10.3 The determinants in psychological health, maladjustment and stress ................... 111
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10.4 Types of stress reactions ....................................................................................... 112

10.5 Types of psychological disorder ............................................................................. 114
10.6 Psychological health promotion and management ................................................. 115
Self - assessment tasks ....................................................................................................... 117
Study theme IV: Social processes…………………………………………………………… 118

Introduction and aim………………………………………………………. 118
Study unit 11: How people interact (chapter 13 in Weiten)……………………………… 119

Learning outcomes ............................................................................................................... 119
11.1 Explanations for social behaviour ........................................................................... 119
11.2 Influences in person perception ............................................................................. 120
11.3 Attribution processes in social behaviour ............................................................... 121
11.4 Interpersonal attraction and social behaviour ......................................................... 122
11.5 Attitudes in social behaviour ................................................................................... 124
11.6 Conformity and obedience in social behaviour ....................................................... 125
Self assessment tasks.......................................................................................................... 126
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………… 127
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………. 128
Contacts…………………………………………………………………………………………… 128
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PREFACE AND ORIENTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
We wish to welcome you as a student in PIOP02P (Module 02). We trust that you will find the
study contents interesting and of practical value for you personally, in general life and in your
work context. For some of you, this course may represent the first acquaintance with some of
the concepts, theories, research findings and practices in psychology. In addition to basic
knowledge, we will try to facilitate your deeper understanding and application of psychological
concepts in the work context.
The central themes of this certificate programme are aimed at a better understanding the
following aspects:
• the implications of being an employee or an employer;

• understanding, developing and managing human resources; and
• understanding, developing and managing talent at work and in an organisational
context.
Module 02 contributes to this by explaining human behaviour and related psychological

processes, which form the basis of work behaviour. In a sense then, you are the subject of
study in this module, because it is about human behaviour and psychological processes, and
you will always do well to assess how this knowledge applies to you and your context. Also,
as human resources practitioners and possible future professional psychologists, you must
have a basic knowledge of human behaviour and its applications in the workplace.
2. PURPOSE OF MODULE PIOP02P
The purpose or aim of this module is to:
• help you to obtain the necessary knowledge in basic psychological behaviour and
processes applicable in the work context;
• to develop certain applied competencies and the necessary attitudes and values
to be able to utilise the acquired psychological knowledge, applied competencies,
attitudes and values in your study; and
• to understand and deal with human behaviour in general and in the work context.
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3. LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE MODULE
During this programme and after completion, you should be able to achieve the following
learning outcomes:
• describe Psychology and Industrial and Organisational Psychology as a science,

and as fields of study, practice and profession;
• explain aspects of psychological research;
• explain, with examples, the biological basis of work or employee behaviour;
• illustrate an understanding of and apply the psychological principles and
processes of perception, learning, cognition and motivation to work behaviour;
• explain aspects in human development and its importance in work performance;
• describe the concepts of personality and its importance in work behaviour
according to various approaches;
• explain, with examples, methods of psychological and personality assessment ;
• give an overview of psychological wellness with regard to stress and
psychological disorders; and
• discuss social processes in employee and organisational behaviour.
4. UNISA'S TUITION RATIONALE
Unisa's tuition rationale is directed at facilitating adult and responsible learning with a view to
acquiring both foundational knowledge and the ability to apply knowledge and competencies
in the workplace and in other contexts.
4.1 Mutual expectations

As an open and distance learning institution, it is important to have interaction between
lecturers and learners. Therefore, you can expect the following from your lecturers and the
Centre for Industrial and Organisational Psychology:
• to provide quality study material;

• to have contact with you, for example during possible lectures or workshops and
through tutorial letters and the electronic media such as email to which you must
try to have excess;
• to provide you with the necessary information for your studies; and
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• to give you guidance and feedback with regard to the study material and your
performance, e.g. in assignments.
From your side, we would like you to take up your responsibilities with regard to your study,
including:
• obtaining the necessary study materials as early as possible;

• reading your tutorial letters;
• studying the prescribed study themes;
• executing the learning activities; and
• completing and submitting your assignments before or on the due dates.
4.2 Outcomes-based learning rationale
The aim of Unisa's outcomes-based learning model, through our shared tuition activities, is for
our students to achieve the abovementioned learning outcomes by developing certain
competencies, i.e. knowledge, skills, abilities and other personal attributes. If you have
achieved the mentioned learning outcomes by completing this module and qualification, you
will also be competent with regard to the application of these competencies in your work
environment or other contexts in which these study topics are relevant.
4.2.1 Competencies
The competencies that you should develop and use in this module are the following:
• Knowledge and understanding: This fundamental competency requires learners

to be able to show that they have acquired factual or theoretical knowledge, and
that they understand and have insight into this knowledge. During your study of
this module, you will achieve this by studying and applying your knowledge of the
study contents in self-assessment, answering questions in assignments and
examinations or by answering questions or applying knowledge during lectures
or in workshops.
• Application: This practical competency requires learners to develop the skills to

execute practical tasks by applying their theoretical knowledge of certain study
contents to solve simulated or real practical problems.
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• During your study, this can be achieved by analysing and answering questions on
case studies or scenarios, designing a task, constructing a measuring instrument,
etc.
In addition to these two important competencies, there are also the following reflective
competencies which we hope will be facilitated in students during their study of this module:
• Attitude: This refers to developing a mature and responsible attitude and mental
set about being a student. Evidence of this will be whether you obtain your study
materials, read and study the necessary material, complete assignments neatly
and on time, attending possible workshops, find additional study materials, write
the examinations and complete this certificate programme.
• Value: This competency entails developing the ability of valuing what you get out
of your learning experience and how you can make a difference by studying and
obtaining this qualification, for example, applying the knowledge and skills and
making a difference or contributing in your personal, work or other environments.
4.2.2 Cross-field competencies
We believe that during your studies you will use or develop one or more of the following
competencies (which are applicable in many contexts) in your learning experiences, i.e. as you
study your prescribed book, searching for information, answering assignments and
examination questions or consulting and talking to interested parties about your study and so
forth:
Learning skills: obtaining and exploring knowledge by using various learning

methods
Self-responsibility skills: demonstrating self-management by obtaining and exploring

information to complete and submit tasks
Research: obtaining, analysing, organising, evaluating and reporting

information
Problem-solving skills: considering information and selecting correct data or

alternatives to solve set problems, developing creative and
critical thinking
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Team behaviours: working effectively with others
Communication skills: using various forms of communication
Technological or utilising science and technology effectively and critically,

environmental literacy: including being critical about and promoting the health of
others and the environment
Developing a broader developing a macro-vision, recognising that various aspects

picture: relate to each other and that problems do not exist in isolation
Citizenship: taking responsibility by participating in the life of local,

national and global societies
Cultural and aesthetic being sensitive to differences in and between groups

understanding:
Employment-seeking exploring education and occupational opportunities

skills:
Entrepreneurship: developing creativity and new opportunities
Also note: In Weiten (2018), under the special features section, in a table it is indicated how
the various chapters are related to various skills, which overlap with the outcomes and
competencies in section 4.2.
5. COMPLETION AND ASSESSMENT OF ASSIGNMENTS
5.1 Lecturer assessment
At your level of study, you are expected to give evidence that you not only have the prescribed
factual or theoretical knowledge, but also have a good understanding of this knowledge and
the ability to apply this knowledge in real or simulated practical situations to solve possible
problems. Therefore, it is expected of you to recall, describe, explain, analyse, evaluate and
apply knowledge to theoretical and applied questions. These expectations are stated as
follows in level 5 of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF):
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NQF-level descriptors
Scope of knowledge: knowledge of the main areas of one or more fields, disciplines or
practices, including an understanding of the key terms, concepts,
facts, principles, rules and theories of that field, discipline or
practice.
Knowledge literacy: an awareness of how knowledge (or a knowledge system)
develops and evolves within the area of study or operation.
Method and procedure: an ability to select and apply standard methods, procedures,
and/or techniques within the field, discipline or practice, and to
plan and manage an implementation process within a supported
environment.
Problem solving: an ability to identify, evaluate and solve defined, routine and new
problems within a familiar context, and to apply solutions based
on relevant evidence and procedures and/or other forms of
explanation appropriate to the field, discipline or practice.
Ethics and an ability to take account of, and act in accordance with
professional practice: prescribed organisational and professional ethical codes of
conduct, values and practices and to seek guidance on ethical
and professional issues where necessary.
Accessing, processing an ability to gather information from a range of sources, including
and managing oral, written and/or symbolic texts, to select information
information: appropriate to the task, and to apply basic processes of analysis,
synthesis and evaluation on that information.
Producing and an ability to communicate information reliably, accurately and
communicating coherently, using conventions appropriate to the context, either
information: in writing, verbally or in practical demonstration, including an
understanding of and respect for conventions around intellectual
property, copyright and plagiarism.
Context and systems: an ability to operate in a range of familiar and new contexts,
demonstrating an understanding of different kinds of systems,
their constituent parts and the relationships between these parts,
and how actions in one area impact on other areas within the
same system.
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Management of an ability to assess own and others’ performance and to take

learning: appropriate action where necessary;
an ability to take responsibility for own learning within a
structured learning process and to promote the learning of
others.
Accountability: an ability to answer for own actions, to work effectively with and
respect others, and, in a defined context, to take supervisory
responsibility for others and for the responsible use of resources
where appropriate.
Lecturers will assess your knowledge by evaluating whether you have answered or executed
the tasks in the assignment tasks and questions, write personal remarks on your assignments
and also allocate a mark to each answer and assignment, the latter serving to indicate the level
of your performance and as an indication for examination admission.
After the completion and marking of assignments, lecturers will also send out tutorial letters
with general feedback on assignments, which you can use to compare or self-assess your
answers.
5.2 Self-assessment
NOTE: Before submitting your assignments, all students must allocate a mark to each answer
at the beginning of each answer. This will serve the purpose of self-assessment, and later to
compare your self-assessment to the lecturer's mark.
PLEASE NOTE that the application of knowledge (e.g. to analyse a situation or case study or
to give examples, etc.) in assignment and examination questions is mostly not discussed in
the prescribed book, although you will find good examples and many case studies. In applied
questions, it is expected of students to:
• think or reflect on the acquired knowledge;

• to simulate situations;
• to talk to other people;
• to search for examples and applications in the media or in other sources;
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• to observe how such knowledge is applied in your own or other people's lives or
in your environment, for example at work, in the family, friendships, church, sport,
politics, business, etc.
6. STUDY MATERIAL
Your prescribed sources for this module are as follows:
6.1 Prescribed book and chapters
The following prescribed book is available in English only and can be purchased or ordered
from any academic bookseller.
Weiten, W. (2018). Psychology: Themes and Variations 3rd South Africa Edition. Cengage
Learning (EMEA) Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4737-4858-3
Note: It is important to buy this prescribed textbook on which your study material is based.
* Note: For practical reasons we will refer to Weiten (2018) as Weiten.
• Apart from good theoretical knowledge, this interesting and stimulating book also
provides:
• research findings, examples and case studies
• personal and critical thinking applications
• many illustrations and art work
• key learning goals and reviews of these goals
• concept checks and practice tests
• brain maps like summaries, tables and figures
The authors also often provide some critical or evaluative viewpoints towards issues. Using
these study aids can only help you to better master the study contents.
• In many Personal Applications, in the chapters extra information is given and hints
to apply in situations.
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• All the study aids in Weiten, and in the study guide should help you, even as a first
time psychology student, to think critically about your study contents, and to
really get practical value from your studies.
Note: For completion of your assignments, you must only study the following chapters in
Weiten.
Chapters 1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15.
Note: In this study guide (at the various study units) it will be indicated if parts of chapters can
be left out.
6.2 Tutorial letters
Except for tutorial letter 101/2023, you will also receive other tutorial letters to provide feedback
on assignments, the examinations and so forth. Tutorial letters are also prescribed sources for
the examinations as they may contain additional information.
6.3 Additional sources
The prescribed chapters in the prescribed book and your study guide are your only
compulsory study material for assignments and the examinations.
You are, however, welcome, and we encourage such proactive learning strategies, to utilise
any other source that can assist you in your studies and for completion of assignments. This
may include:
• other books;
• journal articles;
• obtaining information in your work, in the media or from other institutions;
• consulting the internet; and
• talking to other people.
Students may also find it valuable to consult the following book:
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Bergh, Z.C & Geldenhuys, D.J. 2014 (5th ed.) Psychology in the work context. Oxford
University Press: Cape Town.
As indicated, for answering applied questions, you may find it necessary to also utilise other
sources.
6.4 The study guide
This study guide is a guiding manual for the prescribed book by Weiten. The Preface and
Orientation contains information on Unisa’s tuition rationale, learning outcomes and
competencies which form the basis of assessment activities in the study guide, in assignments
and the portfolio examination.
The organisation of your study material is explained in terms of the related study units and
chapters in Weiten. Each study theme and its related prescribed chapters in Weiten are
presented according to certain aims and learning outcomes, while under the content sections,
prescribed sections in Weiten are briefly explained or referred to, and illustrated by learning
activities which you will find advantageous to complete. Some of the learning activities will
involve activities which are provided in Weiten. You will also do well to check your learning by
doing the “concept check’ activities in Weiten. The key learning goals and their reviews in each
chapter and the multiple-choice questions in Weiten will also be valuable study aids.
7. ORGANISATION OF STUDY THEMES, STUDY UNITS AND PRESCRIBED

CHAPTERS
The table below contains the four study themes and the related study units in this study guide
and the prescribed chapters from Weiten.
Study Themes Study units Chapters in Weiten (2018)

i Psychology as a 1. Psychology as science, 1. The evolution of psychology
scientific study study and applied areas 2. Research methods in
field, and practice 2. Research method-ology psychology
areas in Psychology
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Study Themes Study units Chapters in Weiten (2018)

ii Fundamental 3. Biology and human 3. Biology of behaviour
behaviour processes behaviour
4. Sensation and 4. Sensory systems and
perception perception
5. How people learn 6. Conditioning and learning
6. Memory, cognitive 7. Key processes in memory
processes and 8. Language and Cognition
intelligence 9. Human intelligence
7. Motivational concepts 10. Theories of motives and
emotions
iii Human 8. How human behaviour 11. Human development
development, develops
personality and 9. Personality 12. Personality
adjustment 10. Psychological health 14. Stress, Coping and Health
and adjustment 15. Abnormal behaviour
iv Social processes 11. How people interact 13. Social Psychology
** Remember that psychology is the study of human behaviour or people, which includes
you and I, and that we function effectively as a total human being within many other
influences. This also applies to psychology – many or most topics are related,
therefore you may find many cross-references or concepts being used in various
contexts.
• Study theme I: It is explained how the science and academic discipline of psychology
grew from theoretical philosophical reflection and developed into various theoretical
approaches to human behaviour, paradigms or schools of thought, each with its own
assumptions. Although these approaches form the historical basis of the subject, they
remain significant in that they direct the development of psychology as a dynamic
applied science. The aim of science is to integrate theory with methods for explaining
and predicting phenomena.
This is accomplished through methodology, which systematizes theoretical knowledge

scientifically by means of descriptions, analyses, comparisons and classifications. In this part
of the study guide you will study the schools of thought, the various fields of industrial
psychology and the research methodology of the subject.
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• Study theme II: These topics are about fundamental individual processes, and
include biological processes like hereditary and related neurological and other
influencing factors, sensation and perception, learning, cognitive processes like
memory and intelligence, as well as motivational and emotional processes in human
behaviour. All these processes contribute to individual differences and similarities in
and between people, and will determine what employees “bring” to work and how they
react and adapt in work places.
Knowledge of these processes helps to explain the behaviour of people in their

various life roles and contexts. An example is that biological factors, such as genetic
material and related neurological structures, offer quantitative and qualitative
parameters of individual development and functioning – that is, we may expect certain
behaviours, but people may differ and also behave in different ways.
Note that development and personality (which forms part of study theme III) can also
be classified as individual behavioural processes and in fact contributes largely to the
development and manifestation of individual differences in and between people.
• Study theme III: It entails human development, personality and psychological health
and adjustment. Human development entails biological, emotional or psychological,
cognitive and other aspects of behaviour that contribute to the formation and
manifestation of personality, behaviour or individual differences, as well as
psychological or mental health, all of which form a large part of work behaviour. The
study of personality is about personality from various perspectives, as well as how
personality is assessed, the latter being an important applied area in most
psychological and industrial (including HR) psychological practice areas, because it
also represents individual differences which are utilised to assess and develop
employee capacities.
Aspects of psychological health and adjustment (stress and psychological disorders)

are also included in this study theme, because employee and organisational health
is, or should arguably be, the most important success criterion in business
performance.
• Study theme IV is about social behaviour, which includes aspects of how interaction
between individuals (and in groups) takes place, the latter also including work
organisations.
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This may include aspects such as how people perceive each other, ways of
interacting, attraction, conforming and obedience, how behaviour and events are
explained or attributed and attitudes. Effective cooperation in organisations and work
groups depends largely on the group's social and interactional processes.
Note: In the special features section and in chapter 1 in Weiten, you will find an interesting
schema of unifying themes related to psychology and industrial psychology, which runs more
or less throughout all the prescribed chapters that you must study in Weiten. This should
provide a handy tool or brain map for you to study and understand your study contents.
It is also a good idea before you start to study the prescribed book to get an overview of the
entire Weiten. Do this by scan or skim-reading, which entails reading the list of contents and
titles of chapters. You must consider doing the same with each chapter and note the
introductions, headings and sub-headings in chapters, as well as the conclusion. This will give
you an idea of what to expect.
8. HOW TO STUDY THIS MODULE
The study guide has been designed to ensure that the content is interactive and learner-
centred, that it fosters the development of skills and that it will empower you to utilise the
opportunities offered in the field of Psychology in the Workplace.
You will notice that each study unit contains a number of features designed to enhance your
learning. These include:
• Learning outcomes, which guide your learning, give you an overview of the study
unit content, and set out what you must be able to achieve after having studied
the study unit;
• Practical examples to illustrate concepts;
• Activities, exercises and brief case studies to enhance the learning process,
reinforce concepts and theory, and help you apply your knowledge to a practical
situation;
• Self-assessment questions to help you assess whether you have assimilated the
information in the study unit; and
• Icons printed in the margin to draw your attention to important aspects of the work,
to highlight activities, etc.
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9. THE MEANING OF ICONS
Various icon are used in this study guide to highlight important learning outcomes, tasks or
activities. The meanings of the icons are as follows:
Learning outcomes
Learning activities
Self-assessment tasks
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10. OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS MODULE

Study Learning Outcomes Page
Unit
1: Psychology as science, study and applied areas 20
• explain why psychology can be regarded as a scientific discipline in its study

of human behaviour
• describe the main assumptions of the various psychological thinking frame
works or schools of thought and indicate differences.
• be knowledgeable about important historical events in psychology.
• indicate more contemporary or new areas of interest in psychology.
• identify the fields of study and application (practice and professional areas) in
psychology.
• be knowledgeable about training and career opportunities in I-O psychology.
2: Research methodology in Psychology 27
• explain the goals of and advantages in psychological research.
• describe the steps in scientific research or investigation.
• define the types of research variables.
• distinguish between types of research design and data collection methods.
• explain the attributes of correlation and its advantages/ disadvantages.
• identify possible flaws in psychological research.
• reflect on the ethical issues in psychological research.
3: Biological basis of behaviour 35
• demonstrate a basic understanding of the structure and function of the neuron.

• demonstrate a basic understanding of the structure and function of the nervous
system.
• Describe the abilities of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
• Explain the logic behind the divisions of the peripheral nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system, and explain how they work together to regulate
the glands and smooth muscles of the body.
• Provide a detailed description of the functions of the endocrine system.
• Explain how hormones released by the endocrine system influence
metabolism, blood-sugar level, sex characteristics, and the body's reaction to
stress.
• display an understanding of the role of genetics and the relative contribution
of the environment in influencing psychological mechanisms of behaviour and
development.
• display a critical awareness of the evolutionary history of human capacities.
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Unit
4: Sensation and perception 44
• discuss main themes under the sense of vision, hearing, taste, smell and
touch.
• demonstrate an understanding of how people sense and interpret their
environment.
• explain the marked changes that can occur in levels of awareness.
• describe how experiences affect people’s ability to learn.
• discuss different factors affecting how people remember.
• explain the events which may alter the strength and direction of behaviour
(motivation) and produce feelings (emotion).
• explain the basic premise of Gestalt psychology and describe Gestalt
organizing principles of visual perception.
• explain the difference between monocular and binocular cues in depth and
distance.
• demonstrate your understanding of various types of illusions and provide an
example of an instance where the utilisation of illusions is evident..
5: How people learn 52
• indicate what you understand by the concept of learning.

• show your understanding of the various terminologies in classical and operant
conditioning, cognitive learning and social learning.
• Describe desensitisation therapy by also citing examples.
• distinguish between classical and operant conditioning.
• explain the principle of reinforcement
• define primary reinforcer and secondary reinforcer, and give examples of
each.
• define positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and
avoidance training.
• Identify four schedules of reinforcement and the pattern of response
associated with each.
• explain contingency theory, latent learning, insight, and observational learning.
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Unit
6: Memory, cognitive processes and intelligence 62
• define cognition and understand relevant processes in cognitive behaviour.

• define types of memory.
• describe the role of encoding, storage and retrieval in human memory.
• explain why people forget.
• explain problem-solving and barriers to effective problem-solving.
• discuss approaches to problem-solving.
• explain approaches to and problems in decision-making.
• define intelligence and compare the concepts of general ability to specific
abilities.
• explain the concepts of convergent and divergent thinking.
• Describe in detail the factors that contribute to intelligence.
• elaborate on the characteristics of a good intelligence test.
• distinguish between levels of intelligence from mental retardation to
giftedness.
7: Motivational concepts and emotion 71
• Define the concept of motivation.

• Distinguish between the various motivation theories and concepts.
• Discuss the need for achievement and its components
• Define the concept of emotion.
• Describe the three components of an emotional experience.
• Distinguish between different theories of emotions and provide a brief
discussion of each.
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Unit
8: How human behaviour develops 84
• explain what the study of human development entails

• describe motor, emotional, personality, cognitive and moral development in
the various development stages.
• indicate development issues during adolescence and adulthood.
• describe development theories with regard to attachment, personality,
cognitive and moral development.
• reflect on the importance of development domains (eg, emotional, cognitive
etc.) for working and career development.
• reason about individual differences (eg. gender differences) with regard to
development.
9: Personality 93
• explain what the study of human personality entails
• describe the main assumptions of five approaches to explain personality.
• explain development issues during adolescence and adulthood.
• reflect on personality development according to psychological theories.
• explain personality according to dimensions and traits.
• explain the assumptions of psychodynamic perspectives on personality.
• explain personality according to learning principles.
• compare the humanistic perspective on personality to other approaches.
• describe biological and evolutionary approaches in explaining personality.
• briefly reflect on factors which influence personality development.
• mention types and examples of personality assessment.
10: Psychological health and adjustment 109
• explain what psychological health, adjustment, stress and disorder means

• indicate criteria to recognise psychological disorders.
• describe the determinants or causing factors in psychological health.
• describe and give examples of stress-related responses and illness.
• give the main characteristics of type of psychological disorders.
• explain stress-management techniques.
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Unit
11: How people interact 120
• explain the social nature of human behaviour.

• describe principles which influence person perception.
• indicate how attribution processes explain social behaviour.
• explain factors which influence interpersonal attraction.
• describe the nature, formation and change of attitudes.
• relate conformity and obedience to social behaviour.
CONTENTS: STUDY THEMES AND STUDY UNITS
Study Theme Study units Chapters in Weiten (2018)

I Psychology as a 1. Psychology as 1. The evolution of
scientific study field, science, study and Psychology
and practice areas applied areas 2. Research methods in
2. Research method- Psychology
ology in Psychology
INTRODUCTION AND AIM
We think you must have wondered about human behaviour, and the many differences in
individuals and groups; or heard about people who consult psychologists for personal or other
reasons; or employees being unhappy at work and strike actions at work; or applicants being
assessed for positions or promotion; or you may have read books or seen movies in which
psychologists or persons with psychological problems are portrayed. You may also have
wondered how psychological disciplines obtain their knowledge and methods, and whether
psychological knowledge and methods are valid and reliable.
These examples, and examples in Weiten, illustrate some aspects of the study and practice
fields of psychology and industrial psychology, and the work psychologists do, all of which we
want to inform you more about in this module, especially the work-relatedness of psychological
knowledge. In fact, the study and application of human behaviour in the work context
represents the study and practice fields for Industrial and Organisational Psychology.
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The aim, then, in this theme and the related study units and prescribed material is to introduce
you to the nature of psychology and industrial psychology as a science, and their different
areas of study and application. This introduction to psychology and its related disciplines and
applied areas, as well as the other study topics, will lay the groundwork for your further studies
in this module, and for possible more advanced studies in I-O psychology.
We believe that this topic may start you on a challenging journey in which you discover I-O
psychology as a science, a study area and a career. Through our interventions, such as the
prescribed book by Weiten, this study guide and its many learning activities, tutorial letters and
assignments, and of course personal contact with you, we hope to enable you to develop your
interest in I-O psychology.
STUDY UNIT 1:
PSYCHOLOGY AS SCIENCE, STUDY AND APPLIED AREAS
(Chapter 1 in Weiten)
Learning outcomes
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
• explain why psychology can be regarded as a scientific discipline in its study of human
behaviour
• describe the main assumptions of the various psychological thinking frame works or
schools of thought and indicate differences
• be knowledgeable about important historical events in psychology
• indicate more contemporary or new areas of interest in psychology
• identify the fields of study and application (practice and professional areas) in
psychology
• be knowledgeable about training and career opportunities in I-O psychology
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STUDY CONTENTS
1.1 Psychology as a science
We agree with Chapter 1 in Weiten that Psychology has grown from speculation into a science,
is a fascinating field of study and have many applications and practice areas in its critical
questioning and dealings with human behaviour in all its manifestations. The theory, research
and other methods utilised by psychology in a scientific way are about us, in fact we are
studying and finding explanations and solutions for my, your and another person’s behaviour,
also in the work context, which is a reason why Human Resources or personnel departments
exist, and why industrial psychologists have careers. In Weiten you will find many references
to historical events and research, which help build psychology and its various sub-fields and
applications, into a scientific discipline (eg. see table in Weiten, chapter 1).
In this short explanation we have now indicated why psychology is a science:

• It has a vast array of theoretical assumptions, concepts and explanations (many of
which have been verified or tested by empirical research, and are utilised in many
applications to act on human behaviour, for example, select and train employees for
jobs, execute career counselling and organisational consultation, and manage
employee health). You will find psychology’s theoretical assumptions in all prescribed
chapters in Weiten.
• Psychology utilises scientific research processes to verify its theoretical concepts in
order to support applications and to build knowledge, as explained in chapter 2 of
Weiten.
• The various psychological disciplines use many methods in practices such as
assessment, training and development to understand and influence human
behaviour.
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Learning activity 1.1
Take about 10 minutes to do the following task.
(1) In five written lines or three sentences, explain why psychology can be deemed a
science.
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Feedback
Psychology is a science because of its well developed and verified theoretical base or
foundational knowledge, which is supported by empirical research methods and processes, as
well as other methods, which utilise the knowledge base. In Weiten (in the critical thinking
application) the importance in critical thinking related to scientific investigation is emphasised,
skills that are necessary in adult teaching and learning
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1.2 Various thinking frameworks in psychology (schools of thought)
Part of psychology’s scientific strengths is its many schools of thought or paradigms with its
related theories, assumptions and concepts, all of which provide thinking and explanatory
frameworks to be used in assessing, understanding, influencing and developing human
behaviour in general and in the work context.
The main schools of thought are discussed in Weiten, chapter 1. The major paradigms in
psychology as discussed in Weiten are the following:
• Psychoanalysis - explains human behaviour according to unconscious structures and

processes and past events
• Behaviourism - study observable behaviour as influenced and reinforced by various
environmental stimuli
• Humanism - emphasises uniqueness of each person, especially potential to grow and
freedom of choice
• Cognitive psychology - human behaviour explained by personal constructs based on
cognition and knowledge
• Biological - genetics and neurological/physiological processes determines behaviour
• Evolutionary - some human behaviour evolved from adaptive processes
If you study the table on psychology’s history in Weiten you will be able to trace events and
persons to these schools of thought.
Cognitive psychology is a later development, as is the emphasis on cultural diversity,

evolutionary psychology and positive psychology. The emphasis on cultural influences in
human behaviour is an endeavour by scientists and other interest groups to “indigenise”
psychology, that is, for example to find relevance and applicability of western-oriented
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psychological knowledge on other cultures, or to just consider the influence of cultural factors
in psychological research, in the application of psychological methodologies and in decisions
which are based on psychological knowledge.
Another, more recent approach is the so-called social constructionism, similar to a cultural
emphasis, which explains human behaviour according to people's social contexts and how
they and others have cognitively defined themselves and their circumstances. A person
working according to a social constructionist method, for example, will ask people to tell their
life stories (narrative or discourse analysis) in order to determine certain themes according to
which people construe their lives or events.
Note that some of these paradigms have historical value, for example structuralism and
functionalism, but some of the initial assumptions are still relevant in current psychological
theory and practices. In this regard all or most of psychological theory (e.g. theories on
personality in chapter 12), research practices or interventions (e.g. counselling, therapy,
assessment and training) can be classified into one or more psychological paradigm. If you,
for example, believe that people's behaviour is strongly determined by their unconscious minds
and childhood experiences, your assumptions and methods fall within the psychoanalytic
paradigm.
Similarly, if you believe that people's observed behaviours must be used to explain and assess
psychological processes, you are working from a behaviouristic stance. Please note that you
will also find other traditions or paradigms in psychology, for example, the trait or factor
approach, which explains human behaviour according to specific psychological traits or
elements, an approach which forms the basis of many personnel management practices, like
job analysis and psychometric assessment, that is, measuring employee attributes according
to objective psychological tests.
The quite recent emphasis of positive psychology created thinking, research and practices
which focus on positive aspects in human behaviour and life and a positive explanation and
facilitation of wellness, rather than a negative description and treatment of illness only.
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Take 20 minutes to execute the following tasks.
(1) Answer the key learning goals and concept checks in Weiten, chapter 1, to assess
your knowledge on the various schools of thought and newer developments.
(2) Write 10 instances of events, or contributions of persons, to illustrate its importance
in the history of psychology.
Feedback
For task 1 you need to know the central ideas in each of the paradigms, as described in Weiten.
These questions were also asked in the key learning goals in Weiten.
In task 2 you need to scrutinise the importance of historical events in psychology by reading
about all the paradigms or schools of thought in Weiten, and high-lighted and summarised in
the illustrated overview in Weiten. An example will be to indicate the first psychological
laboratories by James (1875) and Wundt (1879), emphasising conscious experience and the
impact of cultural and intellectual influences, Freud’s view of the unconscious in human
behaviour (1909) etc.
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1.3 Psychological sub-fields and applied/professional areas
The diversified nature of psychology is interestingly discussed in Weiten with regard to

research areas and applied and professional areas, and under certain unifying themes with
regard to the field of study and the study contents. All these areas are utilised in South Africa
in academic syllabi, in professional and business training and in psychological practices, and
many career opportunities exist in each of these application areas.
Professional psychological training and practice is directed by the Professional Board for
Psychology, a section of the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). Professional
psychological registration can be obtained after honours and masters study in psychology or
industrial psychology, the completion of applicable internships and the passing of the Board’s
national entrance examinations.
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Take about 30 minutes to complete the following tasks.
(1) Explain how psychology develops into a profession or applied science and list the
various study fields and applied or professional areas in psychology
(2) Briefly describe the focus of the various research and professional practice areas in
psychology and indicate, according to your knowledge and Weiten, possible jobs or
careers in each.
(3) Read the relevant key learning goals in Weiten to assess your understanding of the
unifying themes in psychology.
Feedback
In task 1, under the heading “Psychology comes of age as a profession” in Weiten, the
development as a profession and applied science is explained, whilst the various research
areas and professional specialist areas (see task 2) are discussed in Weiten.
Task 3 really is about the central ideas in the seven psychological unifying themes, as
discussed in Weiten.
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(1) Answer the multiple-choice questions (MCQ’s) in the practice test in Weiten, without
looking at the answers, and then compare your answers to those in Weiten. (15)
(2) Discuss seven unifying themes in Weiten to explain the nature of the study field of
psychology, and the subject matter in psychology. (15)
(3) How will you answer a person who argues that psychology is purely a speculative
pseudo-science? (10)
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(4) Give the main assumption in each of the schools of thought, and explain each school’s
value in reality by also giving examples. (25)
(5) Explain applied areas in psychology, and indicate possible types of jobs and career
possibilities. (25)
(6) Compare the assumptions of positive psychology and other approaches and indicate
similarities and differences. (15)
(7) Explain the importance of cultural considerations in psychological knowledge and

practice. (15)
(8) Briefly describe ten historical events or contributions which you think have shaped the
science of psychology. (25)
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STUDY UNIT 2:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN PSYCHOLOGY
Learning outcomes
• explain the goals of and advantages in psychological research

• describe the steps in scientific research or investigation
• define the types of research variables
• distinguish between types of research design and data collection methods
• explain the attributes of correlation and its advantages/disadvantages
• identify possible flaws in psychological research
• reflect on the ethical issues in psychological research
STUDY CONTENTS
2.1 Goals and advantages of scientific inquiry
This study unit and chapter 2 in Weiten aim to further explore the requirement that a scientific
discipline must have sound research methods and procedures. This is in contrast to
unscientific or speculative inquiry as discussed in the critical thinking application in Weiten,
chapter 2. Knowledge of scientific research processes will enable you to do scientific inquiry
in many applications, as well as assessing your own learning material and to read and
understand information in scientific psychological media, such as scientific articles, as
illustrated in the personal application in Weiten.
The general aim of scientific research in psychology is to verify (or test) and build theory,
concepts and methods, by asking relevant questions (eg hypotheses), doing systematic inquiry
(through various research methods) and reporting on and interpreting findings in order to
confirm existing knowledge (theory, concepts etc) and have control in applications. Weiten
summarises these procedures and goals of scientific inquiry as follows:
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• measurement and description

• understanding and prediction
• application and control
The advantages of scientific inquiry are clarity and precision of processes and findings, and
accuracy in that errors are limited. This means that in scientific research questions, variables
and processes are specified, and processes and findings are controlled and critically
evaluated.
2.2 Steps in scientific research
The findings in research will only be as good as the research processes and procedures—you
may have heard the saying “garbage in garbage out” to illustrate the point that research
findings often have no or little value because of how it was done!
You will see how these steps ensures preciseness, control, accuracy and an ongoing
coherency in all aspects of the research process in order to ensure scientific end results.
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Take about 20 minutes and execute the following tasks.
(1) Briefly indicate the goals and advantages of psychology being a science
(2) Make brief summaries of the steps in the research process
(3) List and briefly describe data collection techniques in psychological research
Feedback
For task 1 it is indicated in Weiten that through accurate measurement and control in research
processes, understanding and prediction of behaviour, as well as application of knowledge can
be clear, precise and relatively free of errors.
Tasks 2 and 3 require you to know and be able to summarise information from Weiten.
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Note: Also see the key learning goals on the goals of research, key steps and advantages in
Weiten.
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2.3 Research design and variables
You need only know, as indicated in Weiten that psychology uses various types of quantitative
and qualitative research designs or approaches, with associated assessment procedures and
methods to:
• obtain data;
• process such obtained data;
• describe, explain and predict human behaviour; and
• test and verify knowledge, concepts and theories about human behaviour.
Each one of the experimental, correlational, naturalistic observation, case study and survey
research designs have advantages and disadvantages in certain contexts. This makes it
crucial to select the most applicable research design with regard to the type of research,
research goals, data to be collected, budgets and so forth.
In all research designs, it is important to know the types of research variables which are utilised
and which influence research outcomes, as discussed in Weiten.
The most important variables are the dependent or outcome variable and independent or
predictor variable, and also knowing that external, moderator or confounding variables, must
be defined or controlled because they may influence the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables, and thus the outcomes of research. The types of variables will be
defined or determined by the research topic and the formulated research questions or
hypotheses.
An example would be to find the “relationship between two training methods and academic
performance in first year students at Unisa”. Immediately you will notice that the dependent
variable will be the academic performance, because that will be impacted on by the
independent variable, or the type of training methods (eg lectures and self-study), which are
utilised. The example also makes it clear that the research design is experimental and
correlational in nature (statistical relationship must be determined), and that at least two
research groups will have to be used (some form of sampling) and that more then one data
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collection technique will be used, for example, questionnaires, surveys and examinations.
Another aspect which is clear is that though the mentioned and other aspects can be controlled
(eg study level, age and gender), many extraneous or confounding variables may be
uncontrollable and may influence the research processes and findings, eg subjects utilising
other study methods, personality, previous knowledge and other training influences.
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This activity will take about 15 minutes of your time.
(1) Explain to a friend or colleague or briefly summarise the different types of research
designs and its advantages and disadvantages
(2) Construct your own example or refer to existing research to illustrate your knowledge
of the different research variables.
(3) What is correlation and what are its major attributes?
Feedback
For task 1 you will get a very useful summary in the illustrated overview in Weiten, which you
can use to compare your own summary with and to assess your knowledge.
Task 2 requires you to apply your knowledge, as in the above mentioned example, or by
analysing a description of existing research which you know of or which you may read about
in Weiten or in journal articles. Also see the key learning goals.
In task 3 you will have to indicate that correlation is a statistical or numerical indication of the
degree of relationship between two or more variables.
The strength of a correlation coefficient is indicated by its positive (+) or negative (-) nature
and will range between +1.00 (perfect positive correlation) and -1.00 (perfect negative or no
correlation). Other attributes of correlation is its predictive value, but correlation can not explain
any causal nature between variables. For example, if you know that personality is related to
the experience of stress, you may still not know why, or which factors in individuals caused
this relationship or why individuals differ so largely with regard to stress experiences.
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2.4 Problems and ethics in psychological research
A very important consideration, however, is the positive and negative power or influence which
scientific knowledge can bring, which also requires accurate evaluation of research processes,
attending to psychological ethical behaviour, and acting responsibly and accountable. These
aspects are emphasised in Weiten. In South Africa, for example, fair employment practices
are emphasised in many governmental acts and legislation, which also are part of ethics in
human resources management and in business, which in turn may also reflect on the quality
of psychological assessment and research.
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Take some 20 minutes to do the following tasks.
(1) Read the section under ”looking for flaws…” in Weiten, and then do the concept check
2.4 in Weiten which involves possible flaws in psychological research.
(2) Make a list of the ethical issues after you have read the section on ethics in Weiten,
and with which the related preview questions and the critical thinking application may
be helpful.
Feedback
With regard to task 1, the value, or validity and reliability, of research and its findings, will be
largely determined by all the research processes, and the integrity of researchers. These
possible influences are summarised in Weiten as sampling bias, placebo effects, distortions,
and experimenter bias, and you may think of other problems and limitations.
Concerning task 2, Weiten summarises six important ethical principles in research, and
especially emphasises deception in research, problems in animal research and also inaccurate
and unreliable sources used in data collection.
Note: Remember to also attend to the key learning goals.

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2.5 Psychological training and practice frame works in South Africa
A last issue to conclude study theme 1, is to briefly inform you about the status of Psychology
in South Africa, as a profession, should you want to further your studies in Psychology.
Currently, as from 2006, according to a new training model and practice framework for
psychologists, no differentiating categories for psychologists exist, and all professionally
qualified persons will be registered as psychologists, but working within a predetermined area
of practice, for example, as a clinical, counselling, industrial psychologist, educational or
research psychologist. The registration category of psychometrist (independent practice) is a
separate registration category after approved Honours study and a six-month practicum or
internship. Persons with an approved honours qualification and applicable practical work, can
be registered as a psychological counsellor within a designated practice area, for example,
career counselling, employee wellness, human resources, sport psychology, educational
psychology, etc.
Psychologist training and practice frameworks in South Africa are regulated by the
Professional Board for Psychology (part of the Health Professions Council of South Africa
(HPCSA), in association with universities and other stakeholders. Psychology’s interests are
also facilitated by the Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA), and in the case of
Industrial Psychologists by the Society of Industrial and Organisational Psychology (SIOPSA),
as well as other interest groups.
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(1) First complete the MCQ’s in the practice test in Weiten to assess your knowledge,
before comparing it to the answers which are given. (15)
(2) Explain the goals and advantages or possible disadvantages of psychology as a

scientific discipline. (10)
(3) Briefly describe the steps in psychological research. (25)
(4) Compare the various types of psychological research design. (25)
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(5) Explain different methods which can be used to gather data in psychological research.
(15)
(6) Using an example explain the meaning and function of various research variables.
(15)
(7) Indicate what correlation means by referring to its strength, predictive power and
causal explanation. (15)
(8) With examples explain how psychological research may become flawed. (15)
(9) Explain six ethical principles in psychological research and give examples. (15)
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II Fundamental 3. Biology and human 3. Biology of behaviour
behaviour processes behaviour
4. Sensation and 4. Sensory systems and
perception perception
5. How people learn 6. Conditioning and learning
6. Memory, cognitive 7. Key processes in memory
processes and 8. Language and Cognition
intelligence 9. Human intelligence
7. Motivational concepts 10. Theories of motives and
emotions
Being human, we are aware that our behaviour and personality is complex and we function
according to many domains, for example, genetic influences and psychological or emotional,
intellectual, moral and social aspects. In this regard you must have heard people say that
human beings are body and soul, which also illustrate the integrated bio-psycho-social nature
of human behaviour. This study theme and the related study units will introduce you to the
many types of behaviour and processes that constitute and are fundamental to human
behaviour in all its nuances. These behaviours and processes also contribute to the many
differences in individuals and groups, which are also part of work behaviour and the diversity
in work forces. To verify this, you can start out by analysing your behaviour in general or at
work, maybe just for an hour, and as you progress in your study of this theme observe how
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many of these behaviours and processes are necessary and relevant, sometimes without you
even being aware of it.
You may now also agree that all or most of our competencies (knowledge, skills and other
attributes) at work and in other life roles are made up of these behaviours.
The aim, then, in this theme and the related study units and prescribed chapters in Weiten, is
to introduce you to the fundamental types of behaviour and processes which influence and
direct human behaviour in general, and work behaviour specifically.
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STUDY UNIT 3:
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
Learning outcomes
• Demonstrate a basic understanding of the structure and function of the neuron.
• Demonstrate a basic understanding of the structure and function of the nervous

system.
• Describe the abilities of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
• Explain the logic behind the divisions of the peripheral nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system, and explain how they work together to regulate the glands
and smooth muscles of the body.
• Provide a detailed description of the functions of the endocrine system.
• Explain how hormones released by the endocrine system influence metabolism,

blood-sugar level, sex characteristics, and the body's reaction to stress.
• Display an understanding of the role of genetics and the relative contribution of the
environment in influencing psychological mechanisms of behaviour and development.
• Display a critical awareness of the evolutionary history of human capacities.
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STUDY CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction
Perhaps the most rewarding aspect of exploring the fascinating field of the mind and human
behaviour is the self-knowledge and personal understanding you will gain that will help you to
lead a more productive and self-fulfilling life.
To know yourself better, understand your motivations, emotions, thoughts and behaviours,
may well be the most important knowledge you acquire in your life.
In this study unit, the biological basis of human and animal behaviour will be presented.
Specifically, this study unit will cover material which focuses mainly on the central nervous
system. We will, however, cover some aspects of the peripheral nervous system.
Before you start this study unit, speed or skim-read it to get an overview of Chapter 3 in Weiten.
Did you notice that in this book the discussion of the biological basis of human behaviour is
focused mainly on the central nervous system?
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Take 10 minutes to execute the following task.
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Reading of the chapter resulted in the identification of the following main sub-themes:
Feedback
The main themes which are identified in chapter 3 in Weiten are the basic content areas of
neuron anatomy, impulse conduction, receptor function and general cellular mechanisms of
action that are necessary for a complete and scientific understanding of biological function as
it relates to behaviour.
Also discussed is the functioning of the left and right hemispheres of the brain including the
endocrine system and lastly the evolutionary bases of behaviour.
Does your answer include all the topics mentioned above? If yes, well done, you may proceed
with the rest of the study unit. If you notice that your answer left out a number of topics identified
above, it is advisable that you go back and re-familiarise yourself with the contents of the
introduction. This will help you build a solid foundation on which to add the rest of the theory.
Note: Also remember to use the relevant key learning goals, concept checks, personal and
critical thinking applications, as well as summaries in this chapter, which will only facilitate your
understanding of the contents.
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3.2 Communication in the nervous system
The brain is an essential part of the nervous system, a complex, highly coordinated network of
tissues that communicate via electrochemical signals. We use our brains in virtually everything
we do, from keeping our heart beating to deducing the reasoning behind the ozone layer.
Within our brains lie our deepest secrets, our earliest memories, our most amazing capabilities,
and the keys to the mystery of consciousness itself.
Study the section titled, ‘Communication in the nervous system’ in Weiten.
The type of discussion you will encounter in this section has a lot of names for different
structures and theoretical processes. You will need to familiarise yourself with these and the
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only way you can gain more control over the subject matter is to study over and over until the
content makes sense and you can understand the names of the structure of the nervous
system.
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(1) Answer the key learning goals in chapter 3 of Weiten to assess your knowledge on
the structures and processes involved in the communication in the human nervous
system.
Feedback
In chapter 3 of Weiten under the heading “communication in the nervous system” the structures
and processes involved in communication are discussed in detail.
Although you are not expected to draw or even reproduce any of the drawings or sketches
provided, you need to be able to explain how processes take place. For example, you will not
be asked to draw and label the neuron. You need, however, to be able to name the structure
involved in impulse conduction and explain the significance of each. Doing these drawings for
yourself may, though, assist you in better understanding these neurological structures and
processes.
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3.3 Organising the nervous system
Suppose the sound of an unfamiliar noise frightens you because you are working in the office
late after hours? You are more likely to experience autonomic arousal. Your heart beats
rapidly, your breathing rate increases and adrenalin is released as the sympathetic nervous
system activates the glands and prepares the body's ability to "fight or flee” from the perceived
danger.
This bodily reaction all happens without our conscious awareness or control. Responses are
automatic and involuntary, controlled by the autonomic nervous system which regulates
activities of the organs and glands to meet varying demands placed upon the body.
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Study the section titled, ‘Organising the nervous system’ in Weiten in chapter 3.
If you were to hear the same noise again and a voice yells "Hi, it is me John!", you would
realise it was just a new colleague who started work in your office two days ago. At this point
the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system sends signals for you to relax
and "calms" the internal organs.
This tendency of the body to adjust to stress and to return to a "normal" state is referred to as
homeostasis. It is actually an inner balancing mechanism which assists us to balance between
the "turned on" excited states triggered by the stimulation from the sympathetic system and
the calming functions of the parasympathetic system that relaxes the body so we can build up
and conserve body energy.
(1) Answer the relevant key learning goals in chapter 3 of Weiten to assess your
knowledge on the functions involved in the “organisation of the nervous system”.
Feedback
In Weiten under the heading “organisation of the nervous system”, the fundamentals of how
communication in the nervous system occurs, is discussed in detail.
NB. The section in Weiten titled ‘The brain and behaviour’ is not prescribed for this module.
However, it will be good to read this section in order to take note of the content
because it contains useful background information, which could enhance your
understanding of the biological basis of behaviour in the work context.
3.4 Right/Left brain: Cerebral specialisation
You need to study and understand the specific areas of specialisation of both the brain
hemispheres.
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Study the section titled, ‘Right/Left brain: Cerebral specialisation’ in Weiten.
Note the early research conducted by Roger Sperry, Michael Gazzaniga, and their colleagues
on lateralisation. Lateralisation refers to the fact that the right and left hemispheres of the brain
regulate different functions.
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(1) Answer the relevant key learning goals in Weiten to assess your knowledge on the
specialisation of cerebral hemispheres.
(2) In what type of circumstances is the split-brain surgery sometimes used?
Feedback
(1) In Weiten under the heading “right brain/left brain: cerebral specialisation” the
significant roles played by different structures of the brain hemispheres are discussed
in detail.
(2) Doctors sometimes use split-brain surgery as a treatment for epileptic seizures. Refer
to Weiten for more details.
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3.5 The endocrine system
In this section pay careful attention to the structure of the endocrine system and how it secretes
hormones into the bloodstream that govern and affect bodily processes. Make sure that you
understand why the pituitary gland is regarded as the master gland.
Study the section titled, “Endocrine system: Another way to communicate” in Weiten.
Also familiarise yourself with the important role of hormones in sexual identity and in
modulating human physiological development.
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(1) Answer the relevant key learning goals in Weiten to assess your knowledge on
structure and the functions of the endocrine system.
Feedback
In Weiten under the heading “The endocrine system: another way to communicate”, the
significant roles played by different structures of the endocrine system is discussed in detail.
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3.6 Heredity and behaviour
Which has the greater effect on human behaviour: nature or nurture? Hair colour, height, and
many other physical characteristics originate from genetic influences, or nature, but the origin
of psychological and social behaviour, intelligence, and personality is not so clear. Most
scientists agree that both genes and the environment play a role in behavioural development,
but disputes still rage over the degree of influence exerted by each.
Psychologists use a variety of methods to study the relationships between genes and various
behaviours. A branch of psychology known as behaviour genetics examines the genetic base
of behavioural and personality differences among people. Studies on strain helped to
determine the heritability of certain traits in inbred animals; selection studies estimate the
heritability of a trait by breeding animals with other animals that have the same trait.
Study the section titled, “Heredity and Behaviour: Is it all in the genes” in Weiten.
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(1) Answer the key learning goals in Weiten to assess your knowledge on heredity and
behaviour.
(2) What is the theory of natural selection?
(3) How can adoption studies give us information about whether a trait is genetically
transmitted?
Feedback
(1) Through family studies, scientists examine genetic influences on human behaviour,
whereas twin studies probe identical twins who share identical genetic makeup, as
opposed to fraternal twins who are only as genetically similar as regular siblings.
Adoption studies are useful in determining the influence of heredity and environment on
human behaviour.
(2) The theory of natural selection explains the process of evolution. It maintains that
inherited characteristics that give an organism a survival or reproductive advantage are
passed on more often to future generations than other inherited characteristics.
(3) Adoption studies compare adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents. If
the children are more similar in a trait to their biological parents than to their adoptive
parents, the trait may be genetically transmitted.
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(1) Even if you did not cover the full chapter, you will do well by answering the applicable
MCQ’s in Weiten. (15)
(2) Describe the structure of the neuron. (10)
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(3) Trace the path of a neural impulse, and explain how it transmits messages from cell
to cell. (15)
(4) Explain how neurons communicate. (10)
(5) Identify the roles of neurotransmitters and receptors. (10)
(6) Describe the divisions and structures of the brain, and explain the role of each. (25)
(7) Identify the functions of the sensory and motor projection areas. (15)
(8) Describe the abilities of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. (25)
(9) Describe the structure and function of reticular formation, limbic system, and spinal
cord. (25)
(10) Identify the divisions of the peripheral nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system, and explain how they work together to regulate the glands and smooth
muscles of the body. (25)
(11) Describe the functions of the endocrine system. (15)
(12) Explain how hormones released by the endocrine system affect metabolism, blood-
sugar level, sex characteristics, and the body's reaction to stress. (15)
(13) Describe the structure of chromosomes and the role they play in inherited traits and
characteristics. (25)
(14) Explain the concepts of dominant and recessive genes. (10)
(15) Identify several approaches to studying heritability of a trait. (15)
(16) Give examples of why or how various biological aspects are important for effective
work performance. (25)
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STUDY UNIT 4:
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Learning outcomes
• discuss main themes under the sense of vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch.
• demonstrate an understanding of how people sense and interpret their environment.
• explain the marked changes that can occur in levels of awareness.
• describe how experiences affect people’s ability to learn.
• discuss different factors affecting how people remember.
• explain the events which may alter the strength and direction of behaviour (motivation)
and produce feelings (emotion).
• explain the basic premise of Gestalt psychology and describe Gestalt organizing
principles of visual perception.
• explain the difference between monocular and binocular cues in depth and distance.
• demonstrate your understanding of various types of illusions and provide an example
of an instance where the utilisation of illusions is evident.
4.1 Introduction
Our knowledge of the world depends on our senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell, position,
movement, balance, and touch. If we were to watch any object or event, for example, a popular
artist dancing to a tune, our eyes and ears pick up stimuli such as light and sound waves and
send neural signals to the brain.
Before you start this study unit, you need to get an overview of the entire chapter 4 in Weiten.
Do this by speed or skim-reading which entails reading the introduction and then all the
headings of the chapter as well as the conclusion. This gives you an idea of what to expect.
Also see the illustrated overview of the five senses in Weiten.
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Your skim-reading exercise would have made you aware of a number of sub-themes that are
discussed in Chapter 4 in Weiten. Did you notice that in this book the discussion of sensation
and perception is grouped under at least five main sub-themes? What are these? You will also
benefit by doing all the applicable preview questions, the concept checks and the personal and
critical thinking applications.
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(1) Read chapter 4 and identify the main sub-themes.
Feedback
The main themes that are identified in Weiten are the senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell,
position, movement, balance, and touch.
Study the section titled, “The visual system: Essentials of sight” in Weiten.
Referring back to our previous example of a dancing artist, when we watch a popular artist
dancing to a tune, the physical energy from objects in the world or in the body stimulates our
sense organs through a process called sensation.
Only when the signals come together meaningfully do we actually perceive the dancing artist.
Perception happens when the brain organises and interprets sensory information. Sensation
and perception occur together, and normally we don’t distinguish between the two separate
processes.
We use all five of our senses and organise the information we get from them. The discussion
of sensation and perception in Chapter 4 of Weiten also does not distinguish between the two
concepts.
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4.2 The senses
Weiten provides a number of diagrams or figures, which provide schematic representation of

some structures of the senses. Do not worry about memorizing the diagrams provided in
Weiten, because we do not expect you to reproduce any of the diagrams or schematic figures,
but these visual illustrations will help your understanding of the learning contents. We do
however expect you to be able to provide a detailed explanation of how the processes involved
in, for example, hearing and the other senses are enhanced by the physical structures as
illustrated.
Psychophysics studies the relationship between the physical characteristics of stimuli and
people’s experience of stimuli. Psychologists assess the acuity of our senses by measuring
the absolute threshold and the difference threshold and by applying signal detection theory.
Sensory adaptation is the decrease in sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus. When babies are
born, they already have all the basic sensory abilities and some perceptual skills, which
develop and become more sensitive over time.
4.2.1 Vision
The sense of vision depends on light, which is a kind of electromagnetic radiation emitted by
the sun, stars, fire, and light bulbs. We experience light as colour, brightness, and saturation,
which depend respectively on wavelength, amplitude, and complexity of light waves. The eye
is composed of the cornea, the iris, the pupil, the lens, the retina, and the fovea. The lens
adjusts its shape to focus light from objects that are near or far away in a process called
accommodation.
Dark and light adaptation are processes by which receptor cells sensitise and desensitise to
light, respectively. After being processed in the brain, visual signals reach the primary visual
cortex, where feature detectors respond to the signals. Colour is a psychological experience
created when the eyes and the brain interpret light.
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(1) Assess your knowledge on the various theories of colour vision.

various aspects of the visual system.
Feedback
In Weiten, with regard to task 1, some theories of vision are discussed. Note the difference
between the trichromatic theory, or the Young and Helmholtz theory, which accounts for colour
blindness, and the opponent process theory which accounts for afterimages, or colours
perceived after other complementary colours are removed. For task 2 Weiten discusses some
interesting aspects of the visual system.
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(1) Explain how it may happen that an illusion of motion may be created using non-
moving stimuli through a process called apparent movement or the phi-phenomenon.
Feedback
You may have noticed this type of movement in some neon signs when adjacent bulbs switch
in an illusion of movement, which appears as if images are presented in a series, the one after
the other.
Gestalt psychologists describe the principles which people use to organise vision into units
that make sense, including figure and ground, proximity, closure, similarity, continuity, and
simplicity.
Note how binocular and monocular cues enable people to determine distance between objects.
Perceptual and visual constancy have a critical role to play when an object is recognised to be
the same when it produces different images on the retina which include shape, size,
brightness, colour, and location.
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(1) Complete the relevant key learning goals in Weiten to assess your knowledge on the
various principles of visual perceptual process.
Feedback
The various laws, mostly involving the Gestalt concept, entails inter alia form and
depth/distance perception. In Weiten, the concept of illusion is explained in much more detail.
Visual illusions are described as misinterpretations of visual stimuli. The interpretation of
illusions is very much dependent on peoples’ selective attention, in particular, their ability to
focus on some pieces of sensory information and ignore others.
You should know the various perceptual laws and processes as discussed in Weiten.
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4.2.2 Hearing
Hearing, or audition, depends on the presence of sound waves, which travel much slower than
light waves.
Sound waves are changes in pressure generated by vibrating molecules. Pay careful attention
to the three physical characteristics of sound waves namely, the amplitude, frequency, and
complexity and how they influence the three psychological features of sound: loudness, pitch,
and timbre.
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(1) Answer the key learning goals in Weiten to assess your knowledge on the sense of
hearing.
(2) Assess your knowledge on the difference between the sense of vision and that of
hearing.
Feedback
For task (1) you need to know the central ideas in discussion of the sense of hearing, as
described in Weiten.
In task (2) you need to scrutinise the importance of the difference between the sense of vision
and that of hearing by reading Weiten. The ear comprises the outer ear, the middle ear, and
the inner ear. These parts contain the pinna, the eardrum, ossicles, oval window, cochlea, and
cilia. Neurons in the ear form the auditory nerve, which sends impulses from the ear to the
brain. The thalamus and auditory cortex receive auditory information. Place theory and
frequency theory explain how people distinguish the pitch of different sounds.
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4.2.3 Taste, smell and touch
The stimuli for taste and smell are chemicals. Taste occurs when chemicals stimulate receptors
in the tongue and throat.
The four primary tastes are salty, sweet, sour and bitter. Smell occurs when chemicals in the
air are inhaled into the nose. Smell receptors send impulses along the olfactory nerve to the
brain.
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(1) Assess your knowledge on the sense of taste, smell and touch.
Feedback
The sense of touch encompasses pressure, pain, cold, and warmth. Pressure has specific
receptors. You need to understand how the gate-control theory of pain proposes that pain uses
a pattern of neural activity to deny access or allow the processing of pain signals.
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(1) Answer the questions in the practice test in Weiten, without looking at the answers,
and then compare your answers to those in Weiten. (15)
(2) Discuss main themes under the sense of vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch.(25)
(3) How will you answer a person who argues that the concepts of sensations and
perceptions are nothing in common? (10)
(4) With the aid of advertisements you may find in newspapers or magazines, discuss
how stimulus attributes are used to get the reader’s attention. (15)
(5) Explain the basic premise of Gestalt psychology and describe Gestalt organizing
principles of visual perception. (25)
(6) Provide examples explaining laws of grouping. (25)
(7) Briefly explain the difference between monocular and binocular cues in depth and
distance. (10)
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(8) Define the various types of illusions and provide an example of an instance where the
utilisation of illusions is evident. (15)
(0) Explain the significance or role of perceptual constancy in your life. (10)
(10) Using examples from work behaviour and work environments, explain the importance
of sensation and perception. (25)
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STUDY UNIT 5:
LEARNING
Learning outcomes
• indicate what you understand by the concept of learning.

• show your understanding of the various terminologies in classical and operant
conditioning, cognitive learning and social learning.
• distinguish between classical and operant conditioning.
• explain the principle of reinforcement
• define primary reinforcer and secondary reinforcer, and give examples of each.
• define positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and avoidance
training.
• Identify four schedules of reinforcement and the pattern of response associated with
each.
• explain contingency theory, latent learning, insight, cognitive and observational
learning.
From the day we are born, we begin a process of learning that lasts throughout life. A vast
amount of time and effort is spent on the business of learning, and any teacher or student will
agree that learning is not always a simple matter.
Before you start this study unit, skim-read to get an overview of the entire Chapter 6 of Weiten.
Did you notice that in this book the discussion of learning is defined mainly from the three types
of learning?
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(1) Read chapter 6 in Weiten and identify the main sub-themes on learning.
Feedback
Learning has been defined in a number of different ways, but many psychologists describe
learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience.
Three kinds of learning are of particular importance to psychologists.
• Classical conditioning is learning that depends on associations between events, such

as a driver having to learn that when the electrical robots are off, the intersection
should be treated as a four-way-stop to avoid collisions with other motorists.
• Operant conditioning is learning that depends on the consequences of behaviour,
such as learning that getting a good night’s sleep before you are to sit for you
PIOP02P exam will help you to feel refreshed and relaxed and may aid you obtaining
a very good pass mark.
• Observational learning involves learning by watching others, such as learning to
change the wheel of your car, which makes more sense after you have seen someone
actually performing the act rather than reading from a manufacturer’s manual.
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5.1 Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov was the first to describe classical conditioning, the type of learning in which a
subject comes to respond to a neutral stimulus as he would to another stimulus by learning to
associate the two stimuli (the so-called Stimulus-Response or S-R principle). Classical
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conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that
causes a reflex response and it is often called respondent conditioning.
Study the section titled, “Classical conditioning” in Weiten.
As you have already noticed, in classical conditioning, subjects acquire a conditioned response
when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioning works best
if the conditioned stimulus appears just before the unconditioned stimulus and both stimuli end
at about the same time.
In the above example, an unconditioned response is the naturally occurring response; an

unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus that evokes an innate or original response. A
conditioned response is the learned response; a conditioned stimulus is the learned or
associated stimulus.
A conditioned response is acquired when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an

unconditioned stimulus.
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(1) Answer the key learning goals and review of these in Weiten and do concept check 6.1
to assess your knowledge on the assumptions, concepts and processes involved in
classical conditioning.
(2) Give an example of classical conditioning, then identify the unconditioned and
conditioned stimuli and responses.
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Feedback
With regard to tasks (1) and (2) under the heading “classical conditioning” the assumptions,
concepts and processes involved in classical conditioning are discussed and illustrated.
As far as task (2) goes, a typical answer that satisfies the requirements of this question would
be to provide an example that correctly highlights the basic concepts and processes of
classical conditioning and the conditions under which each of the concept and process can be
attained. Here is a typical example: Petunia has always felt calm and relaxed when listening
to classical music. Lately, she’s been lighting a candle just before she listens to classical music.
Now she doesn’t even need the classical music to feel relaxed. She can just light a candle.
Unconditioned stimulus = classical music; unconditioned response = relaxation; conditioned
stimulus = lit candle; conditioned response = relaxation.
In order to assess your understanding of the terminology used in classical conditioning, expand
on the above example by bringing in conditions or circumstances under which the following
concepts will be realised:
• extinction;
• spontaneous recovery ;
• stimulus generalisation;
• stimulus discrimination; and
• higher-order conditioning.
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5.2 Operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner extended Thorndike's laws of learning and developed a vocabulary to assist us
in understanding how we learn through operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a type of
learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences. Learning or
conditioning in operant conditioning involves higher mental processes, as it depends on the
predictive power of the conditioned stimulus rather than mere association of stimuli.
Study the section titled, “Operant conditioning” in Weiten.

According to Skinner (in Weiten [2018]) people learn how to operate, manipulate or even
control their environment to bring about a particular desired response and how to avoid
punishment or negative consequences (the so-called Stimulus-Organism-Response or S-O-R
principle). He also argued that people learn from experience that positive or negative
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responses are contingent (dependent) upon their behaviour. Weiten illustrate this process and
indicates the differences between classical and operant conditioning.
Skinner's primary aim was to analyze how behaviour was changed by its consequences. He
reasoned that one could then control the reinforcers, the consequences of behaviour; one
could literally control human behaviour. His demonstrations of the power of reinforcement in
shaping the behaviour of animals clearly proved the validity of his theory that we learn through
operant conditioning, but quickly led to the fear of "big brother", the question of who would
decide how we would be conditioned. The question is, if we were merely "programmed
puppets", who would pull the strings?
(1) Reinforcement is delivery of a consequence that increases the likelihood that a

response will occur.
(2) Skinner identified two types of reinforcing events - those in which a reward is given;
and those in which something bad is removed.
In either case, the point of reinforcement is to increase the frequency or probability of
a response occurring again. Refer to Weiten to acquire more details on both positive
and negative reinforcement.
You will also need to familiarise yourself with the terminology used in operant conditioning.
Refer to the relevant sections in Weiten, which provide examples to test your understanding
of the following concepts which are associated with operant conditioning:
• Punishment.
• Positive and negative punishment.
• Primary and secondary reinforcers.
• Primary and secondary punishers.
• Shaping.
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basic premise of the schedules of reinforcement.
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(2) In operant conditioning, what is the difference between reinforcement and

punishment?
(3) How do schedules of reinforcement affect learning?
Feedback
(1) In Weiten, under the heading “schedules of reinforcement”, the different types of
schedules are discussed in detail.
(2) Reinforcement is delivery of a consequence that increases the likelihood that a certain
response will occur. Punishment is delivery of a consequence that decreases the
likelihood that a certain consequence will occur.
(3) Skinner suggested schedules of reinforcement. A schedule of reinforcement can be

defined as "a specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time. Rather than
giving a reinforcement (i.e. a food pellet) after every response (i.e. a lever press),
Skinner fixed the operant conditioning chamber to give a reinforcement only after 2 or
3 responses. This is called a partial reinforcement schedule and is more resistant to
extinction. Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated
response is reinforced.
In laboratories this method is commonly used to shape and establish a new response
before moving on to more realistic schedules involving intermittent reinforcement.
Intermittent reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only
some of the time. Intermittent reinforcement makes a response more resistant to
extinction than continuous. There are four main intermittent reinforcement schedules.
Refer to Weiten to study these particularly, note the specific conditions under which
each one occurs
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5.3 Changing directions in the study of conditioning
Two major changes in thinking about conditioning have occurred:
(1) Recognition that an organism’s biological heritage can limit or channel conditioning
(2) Recognition of cognitive processes in conditioning.
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5.3.1 Biological constraints on conditioning
Biological factors can limit conditioning. For example, taste aversion to a particular taste can
be conditioned only by pairing the taste with nausea.
Instinctive drift occurs when an animal’s innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning
processes. It was first described by the Brelands, the operant psychologists who went into the
business of training animals for commercial purposes. Refer to Weiten to learn more about
this form of conditioning.
5.3.2 What is cognitive learning?
Cognitive learning is learning that takes place as a result of changes in cognition. It includes
our thoughts, ideas, believes, understanding, and knowledge. It entails a process whereby
information is taken in and organised in order to understand and predict events.
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changing directions in the study of conditioning
(2) Provide a detailed explanation of how a cognitive psychologist would perceive
Pavlov’s classical conditioning.
Feedback
(1) In Weiten under the heading “Changing directions in the study of conditioning” two
new types of learning are discussed in detail.
(2) Whereas Pavlov, Skinner and their followers claimed that higher cognitive or thought
processes could not be involved in the process of conditioning, cognitive
psychologists maintain that there is another phenomenon in the conditioning process
between stimulus and response, namely thought processes or mental activity from
the organism. This is more or less similar to the S-O-R principle).
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This would therefore mean that according to cognitive learning, animals and humans
can be aware of conditioning experiences. In this manner, the passive dog in Pavlov’s
classical conditioning experiment would be regarded as being able to anticipate future
events and form expectations of what is going to happen.
Consequently, the dog would then adapt its behaviour to obtain the required results.
For example, when the dog hears the bell or rustling of dog food in the bag, it develops
an expectation (a cognitive process) that the sound (previously neutral) will be
followed by food. According to cognitive psychologists this learned expectation lies at
the root of all learning processes.
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5.3.2.1 Insight learning
Note: The topic of insight learning is not covered in Weiten. You need only study the following
section in this study guide.
Insight learning is another type of learning which is of interest to psychologists. Insight learning
refers to the sudden awareness of relationships between elements that were previously
unseen. Insights are sudden, seemingly creative understandings or solutions to problems.
Insight psychotherapies, for instance, rely on the sudden personal discovery by the patient of
psychological processes that have caused personal problems. Psychoanalysis and humanistic
and cognitive therapies all rely on the patient gaining insight, awareness and understanding of
relationships, motives or feelings that were previously poorly understood.
Perhaps the study of psychology so far has given you insight into factors such as early
childhood experiences that affect your current behaviour. Certainly, insight is one of the most
complicated and important ways we learn as humans.
Your success in this PIOP02P course is probably strongly related to your ability to achieve
insight learning, in other words, that sudden flash of understanding in which you grasp a
complex psychological theory or concept!
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5.4 Observational learning
Observational learning is the process of learning to respond in a particular way by watching

and imitating others, or models. Albert Bandura conducted experiments showing that children
who watched adults behaving aggressively were more likely to behave aggressively
themselves.
In summary, you will benefit by comparing the types of learning by utilizing the illustrated
overview in Weiten. Though you have many examples in the chapter, the personal and critical
applications also give valuable illustrations on the practical value of learning assumptions.
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(1) Answer the MCQ’s in chapter 6 on learning before checking the answers. (15)
(2) Define learning. (15)
(3) Briefly describe the concepts of unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,

conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. (25)
(4) With examples, distinguish between classical and operant conditioning. (10)
(5) Explain the principle of reinforcement and define primary reinforcer and secondary
reinforcer, and give examples of each. (15)
(6) Define positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and avoidance

training. (20)
(7) Explain extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation, discrimination, and

higher-order conditioning. (25)
(8) Identify four schedules of reinforcement and the pattern of response.associated with
each by also giving examples from the world of work. (25)
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(9) Explain contingency theory. (10)
(10) Describe latent learning, insight, cognitive and observational learning. (15)
(11) Using examples in general and from work, explain how learning is applied in education
and training practices. (25)
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STUDY UNIT 6:
HUMAN MEMORY, COGNITION AND INTELLIGENCE
(Chapters 7, 8 and 9 in Weiten, 2018)
Learning outcomes
• define cognition and understand relevant processes in cognitive behaviour.

• define types of memory.
• describe the role of encoding, storage and retrieval in human memory.
• explain why people forget.
• explain problem-solving and barriers to effective problem-solving.
• discuss approaches to problem-solving.
• explain approaches to and problems in decision-making.
• define intelligence and compare the concepts of general ability to specific abilities.
• explain the concepts of convergent and divergent thinking.
• describe in detail the factors that contribute to intelligence.
• elaborate on the characteristics of a good intelligence test.
• distinguish between levels of intelligence from mental retardation to giftedness.
6.1 Human memory
According to Weiten, the three processes involved in memory are encoding, storage, and
retrieval.
Study the sections titled, ‘Encoding, storage and retrieval with regard to obtaining, maintaining
and getting rid of information, in Weiten.
(1) Encoding is putting information into memory and includes structural, phonemic, and
semantic encoding.
(2) In storage, information is maintained in a three-stage process involving sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
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(3) Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory. Retrieval cues are
stimuli that help get information out of memory. Retrieval cues include associations,
context, and mood.
6.1.2 Forgetting
Memory failures are almost daily occurrences, for example, forgetting where you left your keys,
forgetting to return a phone call and forgetting peoples’ names. Forgetting is so common that
we typically rely on numerous methods to help us remember important information, such as
jotting down notes in a daily planner or scheduling important events in your cellular phone,
dairy or a calendar.
As you frantically search for your missing car keys, you may think that the information about
where you have placed the keys is permanently gone from your memory. However, forgetting
is generally not about actually losing or erasing this information from your long-term memory,
but typically involves a failure in memory retrieval. While the information is somewhere in your
long-term memory, you are not able to actually retrieve and remember it. See the section on
“Retrieval: Getting information out of memory” in Weiten.
Study the section titled, “Forgetting: When memory lapses” in Weiten.

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(1) Answer the relevant key learning goals and do the concept checks on the various
aspects of memory in Weiten to assess your knowledge of memory and on forgetting.
(2) Discuss the ideas of Baddeley and Hermann Ebbinghaus in detail.
Feedback
(1) In Weiten, the various aspects of memory, retrieval and forgetting are discussed in
detail, also why people forget, and the types of memory.
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(2) Baddeley suggested a model for working memory, while Hermann Ebbinghaus was
the first researcher to conduct scientific studies of forgetting. Using himself as a
subject, he discovered that much information is forgotten within a few hours after
learning it.
Retention, on the other hand is the proportion of learned information that is remembered.
Researchers use three methods to measure forgetting and retention: recall, recognition, and
relearning. Causes of forgetting include ineffective encoding, decay, interference, retrieval
failure, and motivated forgetting. Note that the personal and critical applications also indicate
sources of good or poor memory.
Memory is enhanced by rehearsal, over-learning, distributed practice, minimizing interference,

deep processing, organizing information, mnemonic devices, and visual imagery (also see
personal application).
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6.2 Cognition (Chapter 8 in Weiten)
Cognition refers to all processes people utilise to obtain and process information in order to
learn and be knowledgeable, solve problems and predict events. In this study unit, problem-
solving, decision-making and intelligence are emphasised. Please remember that learning and
memory also are important processes in cognition, as are processes like perception, thinking
and reasoning.
6.3 Problem-solving and decision-making: In search of a solution
Problem-solving and decision-making are related cognitive processes in peoples’ efforts to

consider information in order to solve problems.
Problem-solving entails efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not
readily attainable as Weiten explains. On a daily basis people around the world are faced with
problems which have to be solved. There are many types of problems and these can be as
simple as changing a flat tire or as complex as a physician diagnosing a rare disease or solving
an intricate mathematical problem. Problem-solving is executed according to certain
approaches, for example trial and error and analogies, but is also hindered by many barriers,
for example, poor information, functional fixedness (or rigid methods and mental sets) and so
forth.
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Decision-making entails the process whereby information and alternatives are weighed in
order to make choices so as to solve problems. Here too, very logical and effective processes
can be followed, as explained in Weiten. Decision-making is however, often hampered by poor
methods and human preferences.
With regard to problem-solving you need only study the sections “Barriers to effective problem-
solving” and “Approaches to problem-solving”.
On both “problem-solving” and “decision-making you can add to your knowledge by doing all
the concept checks in the chapter and by revising and reflecting on the key learning goals and
their reviews
Executing the relevant preview questions and concept checks of Weiten will assist you in your
learning.
6.3.1 What is intelligence? (Chapter 9 in Weiten)
Weiten (2018) defines intelligence as the ability to successfully adapt to the environment by
using cognitive processes to guide behaviour. Obviously there are many definitions which may
emphasise specific cognitive aspects or be more integrative and emphasise multiple factors
which may determine cognitive behaviour.
6.3.1.1 How is intelligence measured?
The following types of measurement can be utilised:
• Psychometrics: This branch of psychology entails, inter alia, the construction of

standardised psychological measures which demonstrate reliability and validity to
determine, for example, intelligence and other individual difference factors. Various
types of ability and personality tests can be classified as psychometric instruments.
• Intelligence tests
- Individual intelligence tests: tests one person at a time (are applied school
systems, industry etc), for example the Stanford- Binet and Wechsler tests.
- Group Intelligence tests: test groups of persons (not as wide ranging and
effective as individual tests).
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Many other types of ability tests, eg. aptitude tests, are also used to assess specific or group
ability factors.
The so-called Intelligence Quotient (IQ) refers to a ratio of mental age to chronological age
and is a well-known method to express the level of intelligence. You must study to determine
whether you understand how the formula is used.
Certain psychometric requirements in psychological assessment are emphasised strongly to

ensure best practices and execute fair, non-discriminatory and ethical assessment practices
which are also required by South African labour laws. Two most important issues are reliability
(whether tests yield consistent measures) and validity (whether a test measures what is
supposed to be measured or what it claims to measure).
Both these concepts must be studied in more detail in Weiten. Many other requirements are
also necessary, for example that instruments must be standardised (having standardised
instructions for administration, scoring and interpretation) and being economical with regards
to time and money for users. Tests with adequate psychometric requirements will also be more
effective in assessment practices, for example, to select people for jobs, to predict work
performance and vocational success.
There are many possible errors of measurement which can influence psychological
measurement (eg. intelligence measures). Such errors may be in the instrument, the
assessment procedures (eg application, scoring and interpretation), as well as in the
subjectivity of people who use psychological measurements and make decisions based on
assessment results. In the chapter on perception you have read about perceptual errors which
may also influence psychological measurement.
Cultural bias is one subjective factor that can influence the construction, application and use
of psychological instruments and results. A culturally biased test may provide an unfair
advantage for test takers from certain cultural or ethnic backgrounds, and will be unfair to test
takers from other cultures - a practice which will represent a discriminatory assessment
practice
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(1) Answer the key learning goals in Weiten to assess your knowledge on the measuring
of intelligence.
(2) Review the section on the measurement of intelligence in Weiten and briefly give
reasons why it is an acceptable practice.
Feedback
(1) You will have to study the whole section on intelligence for the answers to the key
learning goals.
(2) It is clear from Weiten that intelligence tests have adequate validity and reliability.
Weiten also mentions that IQ tests do seem to best measure the ability of a person to
perform academically in an elementary school and to a lesser degree more advanced
academic ability. They do not measure all of the factors of intelligence described by
Gardner, Sternberg and Guilford. The individual IQ tests can be used to assess some
of the factors of intelligence which can provide a profile of a person's strengths and
weaknesses and can point the way to how that person can remediate their
weaknesses through strengths. Ability measures have adequate relationship with
various types of work performance measures.
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6.3.1.2 Heredity and environment as determinants of intelligence
Study the section titled, ‘Heredity and environment as determinants of intelligence in Weiten.
• Heritability: The degree to which a trait can be attributed to the effects of genetics.
• Environmental influences: The degree to which learning, experience and external
factors, such as health, socioeconomic status and stimulating home environments
contribute to the development of human attributes, for example intelligence.
• Cultural difference refers to the fact that differences exist, and an ongoing debate
exists whether culture and specifically race have an influence on Intelligence and
intellectual functioning.
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• Interaction of heredity and environmental factors which refers to a combination of the

above two determinants—genetics may provide specific attributes and the
parameters or potential, whilst environmental factors may determine the level of
development and growth in human capacities.
In conclusion, also read the section on “new directions in the assessment and study of
intelligence”.
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(1) Answer the key learning goals and their review in Weiten to assess your knowledge
on heredity and environment as determinants of intelligence.
(2) Review Weiten and explain if culture or race is a critical factor in the determination of
intelligence.
Feedback
You will find the answer by studying the relevant sections in Weiten
With regard to similarities amongst cultures, there is very little evidence for a ‘g’ or general
factor of intelligence. It purports to measure a ‘g’ factor but is more a measure of elementary
school academic ability and is far less a measure of a person's ability to understand the world
and resourcefulness to cope with its challenges. Race (as noted above) is a social, not a
scientific concept, and what should rather be considered are possible genetic differences and
especially environmental influences to attribute variation in intelligence to racial factors seems
to be unscientific and unfounded, but it is causing an ongoing debate.
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(1) Do the MCQ’s in chapter 7 which are applicable to the prescribed sections, before
you check the answers. (15)
(2) Do the MCQ’s in chapter 8 and 9 before you check the correct answers. (15)
(3) Briefly explain the roles of encoding, storage and retrieval in human memory. (20)
(4) Explain why people forget and how memory can be enhanced. (15)
(5) Give the key steps in the process of using cognitive operations to solve problems.
(25)
(6) Explain creative problem solving, and distinguish between convergent and divergent
thinking. (15)
(7) Define intelligence and compare the position of psychologists who view intelligence
as a general ability to those who view it as several specific abilities. (15)
(8) Name the most widely used intelligence tests and discuss how IQ measurement is
useful. (10)
(9) Define IQ and the normal distribution of scores on "the bell curve." (10)
(10) List the characteristics of good intelligence tests. (10)
(11) Identify the factors that contribute to intelligence. (15)
(12) Distinguish between different ranges of intelligence--from mental retardation to

giftedness. (10)
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(13) Using examples explain the important role of cognitive factors and processes in the
task of most employees. (25)
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STUDY UNIT 7:
MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS
Learning outcomes
• Define the concept of motivation

• Distinguish between the various motivation theories and concepts
• Discuss the need for achievement and its components
• Define the concept of emotion
• Describe the three components of an emotional experience
• Distinguish between different theories of emotions and provide a brief discussion of
each.
7.1 What is motivation?
Have you ever wonder why some people seem to be very happy, successful or even highly
motivated individuals? Where does the energy, the drive, or the direction come
from? Motivation is an area of psychology that has gotten a great deal of attention, especially
in the recent years and in work organisations. The reason is because we all want to be
successful, we all want direction and drive, and we all want to be seen as motivated, and
organisations and employees in an ever changing world of business and work must be
competitive and ready.
Read the introductory part of chapter 10 in Weiten.
Motivation can be described as an internal process (either a need or desire) that energises
and directs us and keeps us moving toward our goals. Like intelligence (which you studied in
study unit 6), motivation cannot easily be directly observed. Instead, it can only be inferred by
a person’s behaviour and achievements. Motivation may be extrinsic (outside the person),
intrinsic, or both.
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7.2 Various motivation theories and concepts
There are several distinct theories and related concepts which have been proposed by different
researchers in an attempt to try to explain human motivation. Some include basic biological
forces, while others seem to transcend concrete explanation.
In the context of this course you are expected to study only the theories discussed in the
section titled, “Motivational theories and concepts” in Weiten.
These theories and concepts include:
• Drive reduction theories

• Incentive theories
• Evolutionary theories and
• The range and diversity of human motives
7.2.1 Drive reduction theories of motivation
The main idea behind these theories is that people act in order to reduce needs and to maintain
a constant physiological state. According to these theories, people act in order to reduce needs
and maintain a constant physiological state. Researchers who subscribe to this theory regard
the essence or goal of motivation as a process aimed at reducing tension and in order to
restore homeostasis. The idea of homeostasis is central to drive reduction theories and it would
explain the need for a sense of calmness.
A prime example would be the internal feelings of hunger or thirst, which motivates us to eat
or drink. The discussion of how the human body uses various methods to regulate its
temperature is an example you are very familiar with.
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(1) Answer the key learning goals and their review in Weiten to assess your knowledge
on motivation theories and concepts.
(2) Discuss the criticism leveled against the drive reduction theory.
Feedback
(1) In Weiten under the heading “Motivational theories and concepts”, the different
theories and concepts which seek to shed more light in the understanding of
motivation are discussed in detail.
(2) Some researchers felt that the drive reduction theories failed to explain several
aspects of motivation. Clearly, drive theory can be used to explain certain biologically
driven behaviours. However, more and more, psychologists agree that it cannot offer
explanation of behaviours which deviate from the socially acceptable norms. For
example, what motivates some people to become a late-night workaholic or why
others experience eating-disorders? In particular, the drive theory cannot explain why
people often engage in activities that increase rather than reduce tension.
Have you ever wondered what motives or drives the contestants of shows which entail daring
and sometimes dangerous activities, like “Fear Factor”, where contestants may be willing to
be exposed to acts which drastically deviate from the norms of typical societies or even walk
on the wing of an airplane while in flight?
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7.2.2 Incentives theories
With reference to the stunts performed on the “Fear Factor” TV show, would you agree that
something of greater significance than a mere need to reduce a drive may be responsible for
the motivation of the contestants? Could the potential of winning the incentives be the
motivating force? If your answer is affirmative, then you would understand the foundation of
the incentive theory of motivation.
In a way, this theory is almost self explanatory. It suggests that people are motivated to behave
in ways that produce a valued incentive, for example money. The significance of incentives
work when its expected incentive is valued.
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7.2.2.1 Drive theory vs incentive theory
Refer to Weiten and note the significance of locality of the motivator in distinguishing between
a drive and a motive. Contrast the drive and the incentive models along the “push and pull”
behaviour.
7.2.3 Evolutionary theory
According to the theory of evolution, motivation refers to purposeful behaviour that is ultimately
directed toward the fundamental goal of inclusive fitness. Pay careful attention to how Weiten’s
proposal that motivation may be measured in terms of individual differences, and more so
when explaining the need for dominance and the motive for affiliation.
7.2.4 The range and diversity of human motives
This section answers the question, ‘What do motivation theorists agree on?”
Weiten offers a number of biological and social motives which manifest themselves differently
amongst different people. Most motivation theorists are in consensus with regard to the
existence of an enormous diversity in human behaviour.
7.3 The motivation of hunger and eating
Weiten suggests that hunger is a complex motivational system.
Study the section titled, “The motivation of hunger and eating” in Weiten.
Note the key roles played by the following processes in the regulation of hunger.
• The lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial and paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus.
• The digestive system and hormones such as insulin and leptin. For example,
fluctuations (especially dips) in glucose levels may lead to increases in hunger.
• Environmental factors such as availability of foods, learned preferences, habits,

stress and eating behaviours.
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• Problems with eating which can result in all sorts of problems.

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(1) Answer the key learning goals in Weiten to assess your knowledge on the motivation
of hunger and eating.
(2) Assess your knowledge on the factors involved in the regulation of hunger.
Feedback
For task 1 you need to know the central ideas in discussion of the motivation of hunger and
eating, as described in Weiten.
In (2) you need to scrutinise the role played by different factors in the regulation of hunger as
discussed in Weiten.
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NB. The section in Weiten titled “Sexual motivation and behaviour” is not prescribed for
this module. Reading this section should, however, provide useful background
information which could enhance your understanding of the causes of motivation in
human behaviour.
7.4 Achievement: In search of excellence
Achievement motivation refers to the need to perform excellently. Researchers often use the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure the need for achievement.
Study the section titled “Achievement: In search of excellence” in Weiten.
Note how Weiten characterised people with the high need for achievement with higher needs
to master difficult challenges, outperform others, and to meet high standards.
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Take 15 minutes to execute the following tasks
(1) Answer the key learning goals in Weiten to assess your knowledge on the need for
achievement.
(2) Assess your understanding on the determinants of achievement behaviour.
Feedback
For (1) you need to know the central ideas in discussion of the need for achievement, as
In task (2) you need to scrutinise the importance of distinguishing characteristics of people who
have a high achievement motivation and tend to exhibit a strong need to master difficult
challenges and to meet high standards. They are also persistent and hardworking. They are
more likely to delay gratification to meet long-term goals, and they tend to choose careers that
allow them to compete and even outperform others.
According to Weiten people achieve optimally when they have high expectations of success,
incentives that reward competence, control over tasks, opportunities to achieve, and effective
goals. Goals are most effective when they are specific, moderately difficult, and framed in
terms of what must be done rather than what must be avoided.
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7.5 What is an emotion?
Is it a feeling? If yes, then what is a feeling? These terms are difficult to define and even more
difficult to understand completely. People have been attempting to understand this
phenomenon for thousands of years, and will most likely debate for a thousand more.
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7.5.1 Elements/components of emotional experience
Study the section titled, “Elements of emotional experience” in Weiten.
This section of the study unit will present the various theories related to the acquisition of
emotion.
7.5.2 The biological bases of emotion
Emotion involves activation of the brain and the autonomic nervous system.
Information about emotion-evoking events moves along two pathways in the brain. Weiten
distinguishes between the functioning of the pathway that goes to the amygdala and the one
that goes to the cortex.
Researchers use autonomic responses to measure emotion. An instrument like the polygraph,
or lie detector, is a device that has been used (in some instances is still being used) to detect
changes in autonomic arousal. It is often inaccurate in determining whether or not a person is
telling lies.
Different emotions differ in pattern of brain activation, neurotransmitters released, and

autonomic nervous system activity.
7.5.3 Expression of emotion
According to Weiten, researchers worldwide have determined that people can generally
successfully identify six primary emotions, namely:
• Happiness;
• Sadness;
• Anger;
• Fear;
• Surprise; and
• Disgust.
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elements of emotional experience.
(2) Give a few ideas on emotional expression.
Feedback
For (1) you need to know the central ideas in discussion of emotions, as described in Weiten.
It is important to be able to explain the various components of emotional experience.
For (2) Weiten deals with this aspect, eg. the cognitive and physiological aspects, the
behavioural component and facial expressions. Doing the relevant review of key learning goals
in Weiten will give you the opportunity to assess your knowledge in this regard.
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7.5.4 Emotion and culture
There are universal physiological indicators of emotion. However, people in different cultures
often categorise emotions differently. Different cultures consider different emotions to be
primary. The same situation may evoke different emotions in different cultures. Nonverbal
expressions of emotion differ across cultures.
Refer to Weiten to study the roles which cultural norms play in the determination of how and
when to display emotions that are not actually felt.
7.6 Theories of emotion
A typical definition of emotion refers to a feeling state involving thoughts, physiological

changes, and an outward expression or behaviour. Compare this definition with that of Weiten
(2018) which suggests that an emotion has three components. What are these components?
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Study the section titled “Theories of emotion” in Weiten.
These theories attempt to understand why people experience emotion.
• James-Lange theory
• Cannon-Bard theory
• Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory
• Evolution theory of emotion
When studying these four theories, pay attention to the sequence in which each of the
components discussed manifest themselves. But what comes first -- the thought, physiological
arousal or the behaviour? What is the view of each theory with regard to existence or
emergence of emotions? Do they suggest that emotion exists in a vacuum in relation to other
components? Do all these three components need to be present for a true emotion to be
realised? It is also necessary to specify what each theory regards as the role of emotion in
human existence.
Also study the personal application on “exploring the ingredients of happiness” in Weiten.
Happiness is a subjective experience of feeling well and experiencing general life satisfaction.
Happiness is one the concepts utilised in Psychology, especially by Positive Psychologists, to
study and promote health or wellness in people by emphasising the positive resources in
people which promote health.
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theories of emotions.
(2) Look at the following sketch and match each block A, B and C with the corresponding
theory of emotions
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A EVENT AROUSAL INTERPRETATION EMOTION
B AROUSAL
EVENT
EMOTION
C EVENT AROUSAL REASONING EMOTION
(3) Discuss the evolution theory of motivation.

(4) Indicate what factors you will emphasise and rather avoid to promote happiness in
people.
(5) What is the significance of motivation and emotions for Industrial Psychologists?
Feedback
For (1) you need to know the central ideas in discussion of the need for achievement, as
(1) In order to be able to answer this question you need to assign A, B and C to its
corresponding theory of emotions in the sketch. Weiten contains all the information you
require.
(2) Evolutionary theorists base their explanations on the difference in parental investment
between males and females. Note how evolutionary theories make prediction on how
different genders choose their partners. Furthermore, according to evolutionary
theories, emotions originate in the brain and most theorists agree that the basic
emotions are largely innate reactions to certain stimuli and develop because of their
adaptive value in the evolutionary process, allowing the organism to avoid danger and
survive.
(3) The indicators for happiness are discussed in Weiten, under the heading “Exploring
the ingredients of happiness” in the personal application. Factors such as money, age,
parenthood, intelligence and attractiveness may not necessarily enhance happiness,
while factors such as health, religion, love and marriage, work and certain personality
factors may be better predictors of happiness.
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(4) As the main subject of Industrial Psychology is peoples’ behaviour in the workplace,
there is an implied necessity for Industrial Psychologists to be concerned with the
mechanism which will enhance employee performance and motivation. In essence, if
you want to motivate people, you need to understand the reasons and processes by
which they are motivated!
(5) Motivation is what drives or activates specific behaviour, particularly human

behaviour. Reasons for motivation may vary, from basic needs, an object, goal, state
of being or an ideal, all on which people may differ. The theories of motivation, in part,
aim to explain the reason behind peoples’ motivation, for example why they have
certain needs, expectancies or express certain emotions.
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(1) First answer the MCQ’s in Weiten before checking the correct answers. (15)
(2) Distinguish between motivation and emotion. (10)
(3) Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. (10)
(4) Distinguish between different theories and concepts of motivation. (25)
(5) Explain the need for achievement. (10)
(6) Explain the various components of emotional experience. (25)
(7) Reason why you think that culture influence emotional expression. (10)
(8) Distinguish among the James-Lange theory, the Cannon-Bard theory, and the
cognitive theory of emotion. (25)
(9) Discuss happiness as an indicator of subjective well-being and also indicate factors
will enhance or decrease happiness. (15)
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(10) Indicate how you will use motivational concepts to improve work motivation in a
diverse work force. (25)
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III Human 8. How human behaviour 11. Human development
development, develops
personality and 9. Personality 12. Personality
adjustment 10. Psychological health 14. Stress, Coping and Health
and adjustment 15. Abnormal behaviour
In this study theme and the related study units and chapters in Weiten, you will be informed
about:
• human development as it spans across peoples’ lives in many domains;

• personality, which is discussed from various approaches; and
• psychological health and adjustment, which is also influenced by developmental
processes and personality.
These three phenomena are important study areas in psychology, and are utilised through
many applications and practice areas. In the workplace, understanding these phenomena in
employees and applications from these areas are important in personnel selection,
performance management, training, career development and employee and organisational
health promotion. Your learning in these chapters may verify some of your observations or
questions which you have about the many differences between people and groups, and why
people behave strangely or have psychological health problems.
The aim, then, in this theme and the related study units and prescribed material is to introduce
you to human development, personality and psychological adjustment. These topics are
important in their own right, but are also related, and important for industrial psychology as a
science, and in different areas of study and application. This introduction to these topics and
applied areas may lay the groundwork if you further your studies in I-O psychology, for
example, career psychology, individual differences, psychological assessment and employee
and organisational wellness.
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STUDY UNIT 8:
HOW HUMAN BEHAVIOUR DEVELOPS
Learning outcomes
• explain what the study of human development entails

• describe motor, emotional, personality, cognitive and moral development in the
various development stages
• indicate development issues during adolescence and adulthood
• describe development theories with regard to attachment, personality, cognitive and
moral development
• reflect on the importance of development domains (eg, emotional, cognitive etc.) for
working and career development
• reason about individual differences (eg. gender differences) with regard to
development
STUDY CONTENTS
8.1 What human development entails
In the beginning of chapter 11 in Weiten it becomes clear that human development refers to
age-related changes and maturation across the life span, as determined and influenced by
many biological, environmental and cultural factors. In the rest of the chapter, important
development events or tasks during different life stages, and in the areas or domains of motor
and biological, emotional, cognitive, personality and moral development, are emphasised. All
these aspects also contribute to human personality (see chapter 12), and have consequences
for psychological adjustment and well-being which is discussed in chapters 14 and 15.
Events during all the development stages and in the various domains have implications for the
progression and maturity in work values, attitudes, competencies and career development.
These aspects are not specifically described in Weiten, but are aspects which you must reflect
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on. You may use other sources, or just think about how your own work competencies and
career development evolved.
The study of human development is necessary to enable psychologists, and other experts, to
have development norms, which are necessary standards to utilise in the many efforts to
develop and promote human behaviour in various life contexts and roles. We must, for
example, know what to expect from a preschool child, or why a primary school child experience
learning problems, have some knowledge why some students can not make career decisions,
or what to expect if an employee applies for a senior executive position.
8.2 Various stages and domains of human development
Weiten explains human development according to four stages, that is:
• prenatal up to birth;
• childhood;
• adolescence; and
• adulthood.
During each phase development shows order, level of complexity and progression according
to certain motor (biological and neurological), emotional (eg. attachment behaviours),
cognitive, personality and moral tasks, activities and skills, which will eventually result in a
more or less integrated mature and adult personality and behaviour profile. If certain
development stages or tasks do not take place or are “hindered”, certain human behaviour and
processes in these domains may be more or less, temporarily or permanently damaged.
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Take about 30 minutes to execute the following activities
(1) Skim-read chapter 10 and make a summary frame work (eg. a table), which you later
can complete, of the various development stages and the main aspects (headings)
under each.
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(2) Make a summary of not more than two pages, of development during the childhood
stage
(3) Briefly answer the key learning goals in Weiten.
Feedback
In task 1, you must only create a frame work with the main headings, which you can use as a
brain map to complete for your study purposes. In task 2 you will practice your summary skill,
which is important for the examination. Briefly state the main ideas for the childhood stage
under the domains of motor, emotional, personality, cognitive and moral development, as
discussed in Weiten. Answering the preview questions, and the two concept checks, will help
you to understand the theoretical explanations and concepts related to childhood development
(see learning outcome 5) above.
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8.3 From adolescence to adulthood
Though the early and later childhood stages are equally important for adult development, also
with regard to working, the adolescent and adult stages are mostly emphasised. The young
adult, or adolescent stage, is characterised by physical, emotional, cognitive, personality and
moral development tasks related to and important for identity and stability in adult behaviour
and the execution of study, work and other life choices.
Adulthood is supposed to be characterised by maturity and stability, but also has its own
problems (eg. mid-life crisis, work entrance, performance and adjustment problems) and also
recognised by various transitions in work-and family life, as well as progressive ageing with all
its physical and cognitive changes.
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Take 15 minutes of time after having studied the section on adolescence and adulthood, to
answer the following questions.
1. Explain the search with regard to identity in adolescence, for example, according to
Erikson and Marcia.
2. Answer the key learning goals in Weiten on adulthood.
3. Discuss factors that influence human development and briefly compare the roles of
mothers and fathers.
Feedback
Answering these questions will make you read the sections on adolescence and adulthood in
Weiten, and also analyse it to isolate influencing factors. With regard to the latter, you should
have identified factors like genetic and biological factors, transitions in life roles (eg work,
marriage, parenthood etc), cultural and other social and environmental influences, like family
and so forth. Reading the personal application on gender differences and the critical thinking
application in Weiten will also give you information on influencing factors. Studying the
illustrated overview will help you to assess your knowledge of the various stages in and
contributors to the field of human development.
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8.4 Human development, career development and individual differences
In this section we want you to create your own ideas, as they are not directly in the book. For
this you can use information in books, talk to people or analyse your own personal and career
development. We know that the development of a work ethic, work competencies and work
values and attitudes, and also work adjustment and career development problems are closely
related to human development tasks and transitions and the development domains (eg
cognitive, social and emotional) during the various stages across the life span. One way to
obtain and analyse your own or other peoples’ situation to obtain information, is to identify and
analyse influencing factors across your life span, how your study and career development
progressed, what achievements and problems occurred in what stage or in which domain and
so forth.
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The table below is not from Weiten, but gives you an indication of career development and
performance issues.
Although Campbell and Cellini's taxonomy (1981) of adult career problems may overlap in
some instances with other work dysfunction classifications (problems of work performance
impairment), it is more specifically aimed at classifying problems during various career
transitions and in work performance in organisations. This taxonomy is quite broad, and really
refers to the majority of individual psychological problems and work dysfunctions, as well as
organisational dysfunctions. The taxonomy is based on a number of career development
theories and research into adult career developmental and adjustment problems. It explains
career development and performance problems in terms of expected development tasks, sub-
tasks in and during four broad career development stages and in organisational functioning.
The model also indicates the various factors in the person, in the organisation and in the
external environment which may impair healthy career development and work performance
(Campbell & Cellini, 1981, pp 175-190; Lowman, 1993, in Bergh & Geldenhuys, 2014).
1 PROBLEMS IN MAKING CAREER DECISIONS
1.1 Getting started in • lacks awareness that a decision is needed

a job • does not understand the decision-making process
• knows a decision must be made, but avoids doing so because
is reluctant to take personal responsibility for decisions
1.2 Obtaining • inadequate, contradictory, and/or insufficient in formation
information • information overload (eg excessive information that confuses
the decision-maker)
• lack of knowledge on how to obtain information (ie where from,
how to organise and evaluate information)
• unwillingness to accept the information as correct because it
contradicts self-concept
1.3 Generating, • difficulty in deciding, because of conflicts between multiple
evaluating, and career options (ie too many equally attractive career choices)
selecting • failure to generate sufficient career options because of personal
alternatives limitations, such as health, resources, ability, or education
• inability to decide owing to anxiety such as fear of failure in
chosen career, fear of social disapproval, and/or fear of
commitment to a course of action
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• unrealistic choice (ie aspiring to goals either too low or too high,
based on false perception of aptitudes, interests, values,
resources, personal circumstances)
• interfering personal constraints that impair choices (eg
interpersonal influences and conflicts, circumstances,
resources, health)
• inability to assess alternatives because of lack of knowledge of
evaluation criteria (eg criteria could include values, interests,
aptitudes, skills, resources, health, age, and personal
circumstances)
1.4 The formulation • lack of knowledge of necessary processes and steps in
of plans to formulating plans
implement • inability to use a future time perspective in planning
decisions • unwillingness and/or inability to acquire the necessary
information for formulating a plan
2 PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTING CAREER PLANS
2.1 Personal • failure to undertake necessary steps to implement plan

attributes of the • failure or inability to successfully complete the steps necessary
individual for attaining goals
• adverse circumstances or changes in family situation
2.2 Characteristics • unfavourable socioeconomic and cultural conditions
external to the • unfavourable situation in the organisation, central to the
individual implementation of career plans
• adverse circumstances or changes in the individual's family
situation
3 PROBLEMS IN ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
3.1 Deficiencies in • insufficient skills, abilities, and/or knowledge during career or

skills, abilities, or job entry (ie underqualified and therefore unable to perform
knowledge satisfactorily)
• deterioration of skills, abilities, and/or knowledge over time in
the job because of temporary assignment to another position,
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leave, and/or lack of continual practice or development of the

skill
• failure to modify or update skills, abilities, and/or knowledge to
stay abreast of job changes (ie job obsolescence following new
technology, tools, and knowledge)
3.2 Personal factors • personality characteristics incongruent with the job (eg values,
interests, work habits)
• debilitating physical and/or emotional disorders
• adverse off-the-job personal circumstances and/or stressors
(eg family pressure, financial problems, personal conflicts)
• occurrence of interpersonal conflicts on the job specific to
performance requirements (eg getting along with supervisor,
co-workers, customers, clients)
3.3 Conditions of • ambiguous or inappropriate job requirements (eg lack of clarity
organisational of tasks, work overload, conflicting tasks)
• deficiencies in operational structure of the organisation
environment
• inadequate support facilities, supplies, or resources (eg
insufficient lighting, ventilation, tools, support personnel,
materials)
• insufficient reward system (eg compensation, fringe benefits,
status recognition, opportunities for advancement)
4 PROBLEMS IN ADJUSTING IN AND TO THE ORGANISATION
4.1 Initial entry into • ignorant of organisational rules and procedures

the job • failure to accept or adhere to organisational rules and
procedures
• inability to assimilate large quantities of new information (eg
information overload)
• discomfort in a new geographic location
• discrepancies between individual's expectations and the
realities of the organisational environment
4.2 Changes over • changes over the life span in one's attitudes, values, lifestyle,
time career plans, or commitment to the organisation that lead to a
lack of harmony between the individual and the environment
(eg physical and administrative structure, policies,
procedures)
• change in the organisational environment which leads to a lack
of harmony between the individual and the environment (eg
changes in structure, policies and procedures)
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4.3 Interpersonal • interpersonal conflicts arising from differences of opinion,

relationships style, values, mannerisms, etc
• occurrence of verbal or physical abuse or sexual harassment
This model should allow you to assess at what stage you are now in your career, the types of
problems you have experienced or still have, and the causes of these problems.
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1. Briefly reason about gender differences with regard to human development.

2. In summary, now explain the role of human development on work competencies and
career development.
Feedback
With regard to task 1, if you read the personal application on gender differences in Weiten, you
will have your answer, and you will be able to think more truthful and relevant with regard to
gender issues in human development. You may also be aware of some stereotypes, clichés
and untruths with regard to these issues. In task 2 you may briefly summarise content from
other sources, or report your own findings when analysing your own or other peoples’ career
development progress, achievements and problems. Surely, the classification by Campbell &
Cellini would have helped you to structure your thoughts and findings?
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(1) First complete the questions on human development in the practice test in Weiten to
assess your knowledge, before comparing it to the answers which are given. (15)
(2) Explain what the study of human development entails (5)
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(3) Write brief notes on the motor, emotional, personality, cognitive and moral
development in the various development stages. (25)
(4) Explain development issues during adolescence and adulthood. (25)
(5) Describe development theories with regard to cognitive and moral development, with
special reference to Piaget and Kohlberg. (15)
(6) Reflect on the importance of development domains (eg, emotional, cognitive etc.) for
working and career development. (15)
(7) Indicate individual differences (eg. gender differences) with regard to development,
and with special reference to gender and parental roles. (15)
(8) Discuss possible career development and performance problems according to

Campbell & Cellini. (25)
(9) Explain development theories with regard to attachment, emotional and personality
development, with special reference to Harlow, Bowlby & colleagues, Erikson and
Marcia. (25)
(10) Reflect on factors that influence human development, also referring to the role of
cultural factors (15)
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STUDY UNIT 9:
PERSONALITY
Learning outcomes
• explain what the study of human personality entails

• describe the main assumptions of five approaches to explain personality
• explain development issues during adolescence and adulthood
• reflect on personality development according to psychological theories
• explain personality according to dimensions and traits
• explain the assumptions of psychodynamic perspectives on personality
• explain personality according to learning principles
• compare the humanistic perspective on personality to other approaches
• describe biological and evolutionary approaches in explaining personality
• briefly reflect on factors which influence personality development
• mention types and examples of personality assessment
STUDY CONTENTS
9.1 What is personality?
Personality represents the more or less consistent and distinctive patterns of attributes and
behaviours that characterise a person’s behaviour across time and situations (see Weiten in
the section “the nature of personality”). A related concept is individual differences which denote
all the personality and personal factors (eg. ability, personality traits, values, interests and
biographical factors [age, gender etc.]) that may distinguish people among each other
(uniqueness), or indicate similarities and are used in personality assessment.
Other concepts which are also used to indicate personality as a unitary concept, or aspects of
personality, are character, temperament and self (Bergh & Geldenhuys, 2014). Together with
other psychological aspects (genetics, learning, perception, motivation. etc), personality
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factors represent individual differences factors which employees “bring” to the work place and
which must be considered in the management and development of human resources.
The study of personality is an integrating discipline and alludes to many areas of study in the
various psychological disciplines. It considers human behaviour and functioning in the
physical, cognitive, emotional, social and spiritual domains. All these domains of behaviour are
needed in the various life roles of child, adult, worker, partner, parent and societal member. In
the work context, employee competencies, like knowledge and skills, other required
psychological attributes and psychological wellbeing, are primarily based on the direct and
moderating effects of personality variables. The scientific and optimal management and
development of human resources in organisations also depend on the ability to assess and
manage individual differences in and between employee personality attributes and their
congruence with organisational and job requirements and attributes, because personality
factors definitely influence work performance. Organisational culture and effectiveness are
also dependent on the collective "personality profile" which employees attribute to the
organisation.
9.2 Various approaches to understanding personality
In study unit 1, under the schools of thought, we have briefly summarised the main ideas in
each paradigm. These schools of thought are more or less represented by the various classical
personality theories as described in Weiten.
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This learning activity may take about 30 minutes of your time.
(1) Write expressions or descriptions down which you have heard being used to describe
other peoples’ personality or aspects of personality.
(2) Write down at least 10 words or terms that you think describe your personality and
behaviour consistently across time and situations, and which you know your parents
and best friends will agree with.
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(3) Now write a brief sentence to define the behaviour which you attribute to each of the
10 words or terms.
(4) Without reading study unit one again try to pick the corresponding main idea/s in block
B for each one of the personality approaches in block A.
A B
1. Psychoanalysis a. some human behaviour evolved from adaptive
processes
2. Behaviourism b. emphasises uniqueness of each person, especially
potential to grow and freedom of choice
3. Humanism c. human behaviour explained by personal constructs
based on cognition and knowledge
4. Dimensional d. genetic and physiological processes determines all
behaviour
5. Cognitive e. study observable behaviour as influenced and
reinforced by various environmental stimuli
6. Biological f. explains human behaviour according to
unconscious structures and processes
7. Evolutionary g. behaviour is represented in attributes like traits,
types and styles
Feedback
We often have our own “theories” and explanations for phenomena in life, such as personality.
In this regard also read the critical thinking application at the end of this chapter, just before
the chapter review. Some of these ideas may be close to more scientific explanations and
definitions (as in Weiten), however, more than often it will be based on clichés, bias, prejudice,
“hearsay” and other misconceptions. So - how do your findings in task 1 compare to
descriptions in Weiten? With regard to tasks 2 and 3, you will find it quite difficult, especially if
you must include both positive and negative aspects. If you think about your behaviour in
general and fit it to a word or term you are on the right track. An example may help you -- being
silent, mostly lonely, unadventurous, timid, unenergetic, unassertive and often showing
negative emotions may relate to the term or concept of introversion. From study unit one you
may have known most of the answers to task 3, but after having studied chapter 11 in Weiten
you will be able to verify these answers and expand on them.
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Let us now further explore the various approaches to studying personality and individual
differences. Note that psychoanalysis, behaviourism and humanism are considered to be the
main forces in personality psychology, while the trait approaches, cognitive, biological and
evolutionary perspectives are later developments or have been emphasised later with regard
to personality.
9.2.1 Traits, types and styles
As discussed in Weiten, chapter 12, personality is explained in terms of innate and acquired
dispositions, dimensions, traits, factors or attributes which can be observed in more or less
consistent ways of behaviour in situations and across time. Many examples of trait theories
exist, for example, Eysenck’s three-factor model, Cattell’s 16-factor model and the five-factor
model of personality by McCrae et al.
Each one of the personality factors (eg the five-factor model) consist of various sub-factors
which are utilised to measure and explain personality as a unitary concept, as well as
identifying differences and similarities between individuals, groups and even cultures. Except
for the mentioned three, five and 16 trait classifications of personality, many others also exist
and also with regard to other areas of personality and behaviour.
Examples are in job descriptions, the healthy personality, leadership, management,

entrepreneurial behaviour, citizenship or organisational behaviour, consumer behaviour and in
many type and style descriptions of personality and behaviour, for example type A-personality,
learning styles, conflict management and coping styles.
Traits as personality constructs have huge appeal in lay and scientific use. Many of our own
descriptions of other people are according to trait, style and type concepts. More scientifically,
however, traits find application in many psychological practices, especially personality
assessment, and primarily through the use of personality questionnaires. A body of research
indicates that in general and more specifically with regard to types of jobs and situations, traits
can be used effectively to predict human behaviour in various life contexts, as well as with
regard to many work performance criteria.
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Take a few minutes to do the following tasks.
(1) Briefly summarise how personality is explained by trait approaches.

(2) In a paragraph describe yourself or another person’s personality by explaining typical
or characteristic behaviour. Now classify these behaviours in trait descriptions
according to the five-factor model as given in Weiten.
Feedback
If you read Weiten, it is clearly indicated that the trait approaches explain all aspects of
personality according to traits or attributes as illustrated by characteristic behaviour across
situations and time. Different type of traits manifest differently in different people, and traits can
be measured to indicate differences and similarities between people, especially by utilising
personality questionnaires. The relatedness of personality traits to different spheres of life, for
example, to predict work performance has been established by a vast body of correlation
research.
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9.2.2 Psychodynamic perspectives
Initiated by Freud, the many psychodynamic theories explain personality according to

unconscious motives (especially of an aggressive and sexual nature), past experiences,
defence mechanisms and behaviours which resulted from the ways people have coped with
the many conflicts which could arise from the unconscious processes and structures, and
during personality development, especially during the infant years (Weiten, 2018).
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Take about 60 minutes to execute the following tasks, which should facilitate your
understanding.
1. Answer all the key learning goals on the psychodynamic perspective in Weiten. These
questions involve your knowledge on:
(a) The role of unconscious forces
(b) How the structure of personality is viewed, that is, role of the id, ego, superego
and the three levels of awareness, which are conscious, preconscious and
unconscious.
(c) What the aggressive and sexual motives involve
(d) What defense mechanisms are and how they operate
(e) The importance of psycho-sexual stages in human development
(f) How Jung and Adler differ from Freud
(g) Contributions of psychodynamic theories and criticism
2. Analyse your own or another person’s characteristic behaviour in daily life (also
when under stress or when facing problems) and indicate which of the behaviours in
Weiten apply to it.
Feedback
With regard to task 1 (a) to (e), having read the section on psychodynamic perspectives in
chapter 12 in Weiten, you should understand the role of unconscious and other “irrational”
processes in all aspects of personality, according to these approaches. Unconscious forces,
due to repression of conflicts and threatening impulses may continue to motivate and influence
personality and behaviour during ongoing development in an adult life. These conflicts may be
sourced or energised from the ongoing “rivalry’ between the id, ego and superego, or as a
result of threatening aggressive and sexual instincts, unresolved developmental issues during
the critical childhood phases in the first five years, which also include some of the psycho-
sexual development issues, as well as other traumatic life experiences and the “incorrect” use
of defence mechanisms.
These same mechanisms may be relevant in the work context, since individual employees also
bring their unconscious contents into the work place and it may be activated by certain events
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or persons and groups, for example rebellion against a very strict supervisor (the latter may be
associated with a father figure). Even organisations or other groups as collectives may have
repressed unconscious contents which may influence employee and organisational
functioning. According to the Freudian psychoanalytic perspective, most of personality
functioning is determined by unconscious levels of awareness.
Personality is made up (structure of personality) of the awareness levels of conscious,

preconscious and unconscious, in and from which the components of the id, ego and super-
ego function. The fact that we mostly function rationally is explained by the reality principle in
the ego. However, the ego is in an ongoing battle or conflict with and to control the impulsive
nature of the id’s instinctive aggressive and sexual drives which are aimed at immediate
gratification and pleasure. The ego further generates stress and conflict, because it must
mediate between the super-ego’s moral values and the id-expressions in people. The super-
ego wants to inhibit certain expressions of behaviour, and even create feelings or guilt,
especially with regard to unacceptable sexual and aggressive behaviour.
With regard to personality development, the psycho-sexual stages of development are

important, because it represents the adaptive or maladaptive socialisation (learning and
development) of the person across the various life stages and into adulthood.
Healthy ways of solving possible conflicts with regard to aggressive and sexual instincts and
gender identification issues (eg with parents, work roles, relationships etc) will enhance
maturity and psychological well-being. Unresolved issues, though, will result in fixation, which
means that these conflicts may be repressed to the unconscious or have an ongoing influence
on consequent phases of development and in adulthood. People try to cope with conflicts
during personality development by utilising defence mechanisms which are the ego’s ways to
handle stress, for example from strong emotions generated by anxiety and guilt.
Some of these defence mechanisms can be “normal” in most people if it is used in acceptable
and realistic ways, but may also represent maladjustment if the person uses it in unacceptable
or maladjusted ways, for example, a style of projection and blaming may be a sign of deep-
seated suspicion and even paranoia.
With regard to task 1 (f) and (g), Weiten indicates that though Jung and Adler (and many others
later in psychology) have been influenced by Freud’s psychoanalytic view, they have a more
positive view of human nature and ways in which people strive to overcome problems and to
achieve their inner potential. Psychodynamic approaches contribute enormously to
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understanding the subjectiveness in human behaviour. It has an ongoing influence in

psychological theory and practices (eg in group and organisational dynamics and in therapy)
and also stimulates lay interest in psychology, However, as Weiten asserts, it also generates
much criticism with regard to sexism and problems to scientifically verify its concepts and
assumptions.
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9.2.3 Behavioural approaches
By this time you may have a good grasp of this approach (from your study of learning in chapter
6) because many of the same authors, concepts and assumptions are involved. According to
the learning approaches in general, personality is the characteristic observable patterns of
behaviour or response tendencies acquired through learning and reinforcement or rewarding
and the impact of many environmental influences. The original classical behaviourists (eg
Skinner), used the assumptions of classical conditioning to view personality as a stimulus-
response (S-R) association only. This rather pessimistic view of personality was changed when
later behaviourists (social learning and social cognitive learning theories (eg Bandura and
Mischel etc) viewed personality as a more active phenomenon in which the person or organism
(S-O-R principle) pro-actively (and also situations and the combination of the person and
situations and consequent behaviour) influence the way personality is formed and how human
behaviour is motivated. The concept of self-efficacy, for example, illustrates how cognitive
perceptions may shape outcomes in behaviour.
Quite equal in importance to the trait approaches, the assumptions and concepts in
behaviouristic theory have been verified by extensive research, and many contributions exist
with regard to psychological practices, for example in the field of psychological assessment,
motivation, training and also therapeutic processes.
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The next activities will be valuable and may take about 20 minutes
(1) Make brief summaries of behaviouristic views with regard to personality structure,
personality development and methods according to which people learn.
(2) At the start of any day, or when doing a specific activity (eg at a party), write down or
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notice all your actions or behaviour—now decide whether these behaviours are
relevant in most similar situations and how you differ from some one else. Why are
there differences?
(3) Analyse the practices in your or another person’s work place, and identify where and
how principles and assumptions of learning theories are utilised, for example in
training, performance management (motivating and rewarding employees) etc.
Feedback
For task 1, you have all the information in chapter 12. This task will also assess or develop
your skills to summarise - that is to give facts briefly and to the point - much the same way you
are expected to answer examination questions.
In task 2, also using a research and assessment technique, you will find that most peoples’
daily routines or behaviour in specific situations consist of certain behaviour repertoires and
some alternative behaviours should situations differ. Many people also may have similar
response patterns, but will also often be dissimilar because people have learnt differently or
encounter different type of situations.
In task 3 you are expected to use your research skills and your ability to recognise the value
of your fundamental knowledge in used practices. Answering the key learning goals in Weiten
will also assist you to master the contents with regard to the learning perspectives.
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9.2.4 Humanistic perspectives
As indicated in chapter 12 in Weiten, the humanistic perspective (actually made up of ideas

from humanistic, phenomenological and existentialist views), is aimed at bringing the person
back into personality psychology, because they believe that the psychodynamic and
behaviouristic perspectives had a pessimistic and de-humanised approach on personality. In
contemporary or more recent humanistic perspectives the so-called “self theories” (eg Rogers
and Maslow), with its emphasis on self development, positive aspects of human potential and
interpersonal influences, form the core of the humanistic perspective. And even more recently,
the positive psychology movement (see chapter 1 in Weiten) emphasises the positive
resources in human nature which can facilitate optimal functioning, happiness and
psychological well-being.
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According to these perspectives, personality will progressively evolve as the person or self
develops in interaction with the person’s subjective experiences in his or her total experiential
field or environment. In this development towards a fully functioning self or person, important
requirements are freedom to grow, own potential and positive regard from important others,
which will allow the person to accumulate many “I”, ‘me’ and “mine” experiences which will be
expressions of a persons believes of what he or she is, what to believe and how to behave.
The healthy personality is also continuously able to self-actualise and to grow potential and is
characterised by certain self-actualising behaviours. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explains
stress reduction in people if their basic needs are satisfied up to the highest level where people
are in a position to realise potential. People have the valuing ability to integrate new
experiences with existing self-concept evaluations if they are congruent, and to reject negative
or incongruent experiences which do not supplement the self concept. Incongruent self-
experiences are also the cause of anxiety and defensive behaviour.
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Take about 30 minutes to execute the following tasks.
(1) Summarise your answers on the key learning goals with regard to the humanistic
perspectives.
(2) Indicate how these indications of need satisfaction apply to you.
Feedback
The preview questions will make you revise or read the whole section in chapter 12 on the
humanistic approach. The second task means self-reflection to determine what your level of
need satisfaction is and whether you are a self-actualising personality.
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9.2.5 Biological approaches
It is clear from Weiten that there are many variations, but in general biological approaches
ascribe personality to innate or genetic processes and related biological, neurological and
physiological processes. As a matter of fact, some of the strongest resemblances and
differences between people with regard to personality and behaviour can be associated with
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genetic influences (heritability estimates), and strong evidence for this is findings with regard
to twin studies as compared to studies on fraternal twins and other siblings, irrespective of
shared family environments. Even in trait psychology, for example Eysenck’s theory, certain
traits, like extroversion and introversion, are associated with genetics, as was traits associated
with the big five factor model.
Related to the biological perspectives is the idea of evolution in human behaviour, which briefly
states that people also adapt to adjustment demands or that certain attributes and behaviour
will facilitate adjustment to change (“survival of the fittest”). Evolutionary influences have been
associated with many behaviours, for example, reproductive selections and affiliation
behaviours.
9.2.6 Other perspectives
The abovementioned approaches are some of the most cited and used in psychological theory
and practice, however, other approaches or other classifications are also utilised. An important
omission from Weiten (2018) is cognitive perspectives, of which you will find aspects in social
learning, social cognitive theories, and even in self-theories, as well as in many other themes
in psychology (see Weiten’s subject index). According to these perspectives all aspects of
personality consist of the cognitive constructs, schemas and evaluations people form about
themselves, others and the world. Through cognition people obtain knowledge and meaning
in order to understand and predict events.
Some approaches are more integrative in nature. In Weiten, the so-called “terror management
theory” also involves cognitive appraisal, as well as references to self-esteem, biological theory
(eg instinct for survival) and the influence of culture, all of which explain how people preserve
their own self-worth, culture and buffer anxiety, for example, with regard to the inevitability of
death.
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Take about 30 minutes to do the following tasks.
(1) Make a brief summary of the assumptions in the biological theories.

(2) Briefly summarise the assumptions of the terror management theory
(3) Explain the importance of culture in personality and behaviour
(4) Do a table or another form of brain map to compare the various perspectives on
personality.
Feedback
With regard to tasks one and two you should now be skilled in summarising, that is, to write
down the main points of these approaches in a brief or economic manner.
In task three you should have gathered that culture is a major influencing factor or determinant
in personality and behaviour. In this regard the more individual orientation in personality or the
self and related behaviours in Western culture is emphasised in comparison to the more
collective or interdependent view in African and Asian cultures. An important point too, is that
according to trait research between cultures many similarities exist, but interesting differences
are also reported.
If you utilise the illustrated overview in Weiten, you will be able to construct your own table or
figure. An interesting feature of the table in Weiten is its comparison of personality theories
with regard to various aspects, that is, the various theorists, methods of research, how
behaviour is motivated, personality structure, personality development and possible
psychological problems which may flow from inadequate personality development and
functioning.
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9.3 Determinants or influencing factors in personality development
In psychology you will find many classifications of influencing factors (etiology) or determinants
of human behaviour. These classifications are mostly more or less similar, but applied to
various areas, such as development, personality, psychological adjustment and
maladjustment and so forth. However, influencing factors are mostly categorized as
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genetic/biological, psychological/emotional/social (including work), environmental and external

factors. You now will have a good idea of these factors and would have encountered it during
your studies in other chapters too. To this end it will be necessary for you to complete the
following task.
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This activity will take more or less 60 minutes of reflecting and reading of material. The results
will be evidence of your application to create your own integrated body of knowledge.
(1) By reading chapter 12 in Weiten (you may also read other chapters or use other
sources) list all aspects which you understand to influence the formation and
functioning of personality.
(2) Then classify them under the following categories (you may use your own structure).
• Individual genetic/biological factors and other influences specific to a person
which influence behaviour)
• Social factors
• Psychological factors
• Culture and other demographic factors
• Environmental influences
• Work-related influencing factors
• External factors
Feedback
In a very broad sense it is possible to classify all influencing factors as either genetic or
environmental, but we think more specific and detailed classifications are necessary.
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9.4 Personality assessment
Personality assessment is an important component of psychological assessment, yet does not

represent all areas in the field of psychological assessment. At your level of study we want you
to only introduce yourself to what personality and psychological assessment is and how it is
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done. In more advanced studies you will obtain more in-depth knowledge and skills with regard
to psychological assessment.
Note that psychological testing and assessment represents a psychological act and may by
law only be executed by registered psychologists.
For our purposes your reading of the personal application on psychological assessment will
suffice, because it provides a balanced approach and a very concise summary. With regard to
the theory and practices of psychological assessment, however, there are much more, also
how it is applied in the work context.
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Read the section on personality assessment and then take a few minutes to execute the
following tasks:
(1) Make a list of the advantages and disadvantages of personality assessment

(2) What are the requirements for any form of psychological assessment?
(3) Briefly describe and compare self-report inventories (questionnaires) and projective
techniques.
Feedback
Tasks 1 and 3 you could complete from your information in Weiten, however, you might have
found it necessary to think outside Weiten with regard to task 1, because not all possibilities
are discussed in Weiten! Could you obtain more information?
For task 2 you also may find some information in Weiten, for example, in chapter 8. Very briefly,
some of the most important requirements for any psychological assessment instrument (tests
and other techniques) are the following:
• Validity - do instruments measure the concepts (eg. intelligence) which are claimed
they measure in order to allow users to understand and predict behaviour with regard
to these concepts and their associations (eg. relationship with other constructs and
work performance)? An important form of validity is “face validity”, which refers to the
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assessment instrument’s appeal to users, which could determine user attitudes during
assessment.
• Reliability - does an instrument provide consistent scores or results if used by different
persons in more or less similar circumstances - much the same as a ruler or your car’s
fuel gauge which must indicate consistent measures.
• Do instruments have standardised instructions and procedures, for example, how to
use the tests, on whom, how to score or mark it and how to interpret findings or
scores?
• Utility - are assessment methods economical with regard to time and expenditure for
consumers to use for specific purposes?
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Self assessment tasks
(1) First complete the questions on personality in the practice test in Weiten to assess
your knowledge, before comparing it to the answers which are given. (15)
(2) Explain what the study of personality entails and distinguish between personality and
individual differences. (10)
(3) Write brief notes on the main assumptions in four perspectives on personality. (25)
(4) (a) Explain the interaction between the levels of awareness (conscious etc) and
the three structural components of personality (id, ego, super-ego) according
to psycho-analytic theory. (15)
(b) Give examples of behaviour that will illustrate functioning according to the id,
ego and super-ego. (10)
(5) Compare four perspectives on personality with regard to personality structure,

motivation and psychological adjustment. (25)
(6) Explain the role of personality development according to the psychodynamic and
humanistic theories. (15)
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(7) Indicate the value of the trait perspective by analysing research findings in Weiten,
chapter 12. (15)
(8) Discuss the terror management theory and indicate how it uses concepts and ideas
from various other theories. (25)
(9) Indicate the importance of culture with regard to personality and human behaviour
(15)
(10) Briefly describe
(a) two approaches in the measurement of personality,
(b) their advantages and disadvantages and
(c) the requirements for effective psychological assessment. (25)
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STUDY UNIT 10:

ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH AND ADJUSTMENT
(Chapters 14 and 15 in Weiten)
Learning outcomes
After studying this study unit you should be able to do the following:
• explain what psychological health, adjustment, stress and disorder means

• indicate criteria to recognise psychological disorders
• describe the determinants or causing factors in psychological health
• describe and give examples of stress-related responses and illness
• give the main characteristics of type of psychological disorders
• explain stress-management techniques
STUDY CONTENTS
10.1 What psychological health and adjustment entails?
Health can be used as an umbrella term, which may include physical and psychological
aspects, or refer to good or positive health and poor or negative health status. Psychological
health then refers to health or ill-health behaviours which can be considered to be
psychologically or emotionally related, which may include physical, neurological, cognitive,
emotional, social, moral and spiritual aspects of human behaviour. In Weiten, for example, the
bio-psycho-social model indicates that illness can be a function of the interaction between
biological, psychological and socio-cultural factors.
In general, then, psychological health or well-being and good adjustment may refer to a
person’s subjective experience (and observed by others) of a quality of health which allows
effective functioning in life roles and to enjoy the related pleasures of life without undue pain
and discomfort for the person and others.
Psychological adjustment, as discussed in chapter 11 in human development, indicates a level

of maturity at a certain life stage in which behaviour is applicable and certain developmental
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tasks have been acquired. Psychological ill-health or maladjustment may refer to many less
serious and more serious behaviours and conditions (stress, distorted perceptions and
behaviour, psychological disorders, impairments in work performance etc) which do not allow
effective functioning, enjoyment and happiness in life and work roles and which create
discomfort and pain for the person and others. In chapter 12, some of the theories on
personality aspects of psychological health and maladjustment have also been covered. In
chapters 14 and 15 in Weiten, psychological health is explored according to stress and
psychological disorders or psychopathology.
10.2 Criteria to evaluate psychological health status
Psychologists define and evaluate health or illness status according to various approaches
(eg. the personality theories in chapter 12) and other approaches, as well as research and
assessment which provide the standards or criteria to evaluate psychological health status. In
this regard you can read Maslow’s ideas of the healthy personality in chapter 12 of Weiten
again. These criteria, those discussed in chapter 15, and other similar criteria are general
criteria, and are specified when used in diagnostic assessment to identify and diagnose
psychological disorders. This means that very specific attributes must exist in psychological
assessments (eg illness or medical history, background, test results, etc) before a psychologist
can say that a person suffers from a specific psychological disorder. This is also necessary to
allocate specific treatment procedures and to communicate accurately about psychological
health. However, general criteria at least informs you, that some problem may exist to enable
you to refer such a person to an expert.
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Take some time out and do the following tasks.
(1) Explain the concepts of psychological health and adjustment, stress and
psychological disorder.
(2) List and explain criteria for psychological health and maladjustment.
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Feedback
Explanations for these concepts are given in Weiten, chapters 14 and 15.
The criteria for psychological health or maladjustment are explained in chapter 14, but can
also apply to stress conditions as indicated by the aspect of personal distress. Remember that
certain stress-related conditions can be very serious in themselves, for example, post
traumatic stress disorders, or may arouse disrupting emotional reactions such as fear and
anxiety in which case all these criteria apply to stress condition, too.
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10.3 The determinants in psychological health, maladjustment and stress
In chapters 14 and 15 you will identify many determinants or causal factors or stressors which
influence psychological health and which relate to stress. The causing factors also apply with
regard to psychological health, illness and stress if people experience such factors negatively.
As indicated in chapter 14, stress is an appraised or perceived situation which taxes or

overtaxes a person’s immune system and other coping resources and in which the stress
reactions may influence physical and psychological well-being. Important contributing events
in stress reactions are discussed in Weiten as major types of stress, that is, frustration, conflict,
pressure and change. In chapter 15 on psychological disorders, causal or etiological factors
are classified in each type of psychological disorder, and include factors such as biological,
learning, cognitive factors, personality and interpersonal factors, sick roles, various types of
stressors and the role of culture.
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Take more or less 30 minutes to complete the following activities.
(1) Make a list of the 10 most enjoyable factors (“uplifts”) and negative factors (“hassles”)
which you know you have experienced every day or most of the time during the last
6 to 12 months.
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(2) Utilise chapter 14 and describe which and how some life events have impacted on
your life and health.
(3) Make a list of all etiological factors with regard to psychological disorders.
Feedback
In task 1 you have determined factors which are mostly present and will cause chronic stress.
This is also a method to assess stress.
Task 2 again illustrates life events which often have sudden impact and may cause acute
stress. The so-called Social Readjustment Rating Scale is a well-known method to assess
stress.
For task 3 you must summarise the causal or etiological factors from the discussions on the
various psychological disorders in Weiten, chapter 15.
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10.4 Types of stress reactions
The effects of stressors only become positive or harmful stress when stressors are appraised
as such which will give rise to various types of stress responses and which may influence
health in various ways. Weiten refers to emotional, physiological and behavioural responses,
as well as physical health. With regard to stress reactions, it is acknowledged that a
relationship exists between levels of stress and performance, while the body’s immune system
plays an important role in stress adaptation. In this regard, the General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS), described by Selye, explains how during stress experiences the human organism
adapts physiologically and psychologically. The behavioural responses actually include ways
of coping with stress-related consequences.
Weiten also explains how stress relates to physical and psychological health, because it is now
acknowledged that a strong relationship exists between physiological and psychological
behaviour. Some examples of how stress is related to health is how personality and negative
emotions relate to heart disease and how stress influences the immune system to cause or
contribute to many types of physical diseases.
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The following tasks will take about 30 minutes but will contribute to you mastering this learning
outcome.
(1) Briefly explain the stress process, including types of responses.

(2) Write a scenario which explains a stress experience which you or some one else had.
Now use stages according to the GAS to explain your adaptation to this stress
situation.
(3) Briefly explain behavioural responses to stress and give examples from your life to
illustrate each type.
(4) Use the applicable key learning goals to illustrate the relationship between stress and
physical health according to Weiten.
(5) Utilising Weiten, try to give examples from your own life and experience to confirm
these findings.
Feedback
The content related to all these tasks is explained in chapter 14 in the sections “responding to
stress” and “stress and physical health”.
Using the GAS description in the section on “physiological responses” will help you to
understand your stress adaptation or decompensation (not adjusting), which will include both
physical and emotional reactions.
Task 3 requires analysis of the behavioural responses to determine whether you also utilise
some of these, and whether your coping behaviours are self-defeating, negative, defensive or
constructive.
Task 4 requires you to read the section on stress and physical health to be able to answer the
first five of the preview questions.
In task 5 you should determine whether physical illnesses occurred in your life and how stress
influenced these.
For chapter 14, make use of all the key learning goals and concept checks to aid your learning.
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10.5 Types of psychological disorder
A classification of psychological disorder according to DSM is given in Weiten. This illustrates

how DSM works according to the five axes.
Following this, various psychological disorders are discussed with regard to its main
characteristics and etiological factors. For this theme you must only know the various types
and sub-types of disorders and the main characteristic of each disorder, including the eating
disorders as discussed under the personal application. You will find reading the various
disorders interesting and informative because Weiten provides interesting cases studies and
other learning material. You may possibly also recognise some of these disorders from
personal experience, and you will definitely recognise many symptoms in people (see the
critical thinking application). Remember, though, that people cannot be diagnosed on one
symptom or sign only. If done so, it will be unethical and an unfair labelling practice.
Though this knowledge is necessary for you to at least be aware if people experience
problems, diagnoses may only be made by qualified and experienced professional
psychologists and psychiatrists utilising a body of assessment data, for example according to
the DSM-system. An interesting aspect which now has become best practice is to also consider
the role of culture in psychological disorders. Though psychological disorders manifest quite
similarly across cultures, even if referred to by other names, specific culture bound syndromes
have been identified, because it manifest in unique ways in certain cultures.
Please note that not all psychological disorders were discussed here and also not in all detail.
For example, though implied in chapter 14 in Weiten, stress-related psychological disorders
are often included as a separate category in handbooks on psychological disorders.
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Take about an hour to execute the following important task:
(1) Make a table of four columns to summarise the various psychological disorders. You
may use the first column to indicate the type of disorder and the second column to
give its main characteristics. The third column is used to indicate sub-types of
disorders and the fourth column to give the main characteristics of each sub-type.
Feedback
We think that by this time you can easily make a brain map or summary in this or another
format, also after having done the same with regard to the personality theories in study unit 9.
The illustrated summary in Weiten would also have helped you a lot.
Again using the key learning goals and concept checks in Weiten would have helped to study
the contents.
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10.6 Psychological health promotion and management
This is a very broad area and may include managing and promoting health in general, aspects
related to psychological and psychiatric interventions, as well as strategies and techniques to
manage personal and work stress, as well as approaches to manage and promote work-
related physical and psychological health. In Weiten certain aspects only are addressed, that
is, factors which moderate stress, health impairing behaviour and reactions to illness (chapter
14). The personal application “improving coping and stress management”, also includes
techniques on stress management. The personal application on “improving coping and stress
management” in chapter 14 includes some aspects which relate to psychological therapy, for
example Ellis’s rational thinking.
If you are interested you can read chapter 16 in Weiten on the treatment of psychological
disorders, just to be able to mention types of psychological therapies, but this is not prescribed
or expected from you to know psychological therapies in detail. Psychological therapies are
mostly associated with the well-known theories in psychology and personality, for example
those which you studied in study unit 9 on personality.
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A possibility which you can consider is to only read through the personal application and the
critical thinking application in chapter 16, which will also give you some insights into aspects
with regard to psychological treatment.
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Take 40 minutes to do the following task.
(1) You are requested by your management or some one else to write a brief manual on
how to improve stress management among employees (or other people). Use
information from chapter 14 in Weiten (and other information) if you want to, to
educate people on types of techniques, and give some hints where possible.
Feedback
For this task we think you should also tell people what stress is, what factors can cause stress
and typical stress reactions, including possible symptoms of psychological disorders (chapter
15) - before they will buy into utilising certain techniques. After creating understanding and
motivation to change you may then give them hints on using methods to change attitudes and
poor habits and life style, for example with regard to smoking, exercising, nutrition, sexual
behaviour (HIV/AIDS), seeking medical and psychological advice, using relaxation techniques
and so forth.
With regard to emphasising a positive approach in health promotion, you may also relate to
the factors which moderate stress and the relationship between health and illness, eg. social
support, optimism and other positive enhancing behaviours.
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Self assessment tasks
(1) First complete the questions on stress, coping and health in the practice test in Weiten
to assess your knowledge, before comparing it to the answers which are given.
(15)
(2) Also complete the questions in the practice test in Weiten to assess your knowledge,
(3) Explain what the study of psychological health, adjustment, stress and disorder
means. (10)
(4) Explain criteria and psycho-diagnosis with regard to psychological disorders, and
briefly indicate your understanding of the DSM-system. (15)
(5) Write brief notes on what the stress process entails. (25)
(6) Discuss factors which can cause stress reactions. (15)
(7) Explain the various types of etiological factors with regard to psychological disorders.
(15)
(8) Give an integrated discussion of various types of stress-related reactions and
illnesses. (25)
(9) Give a classification of psychological disorders, sub-types and the main characteristic
in each disorder. (25)
(10) Explain approaches and methods which can be utilised to manage and promote
psychological health, emphasizing stress management. (25)
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IV Social processes 11. How people interact 13. Social Psychology
If you observe people around you, you may agree that human behaviour seldom occurs outside
of social or interpersonal relationships - and yet people often are left alone or find them isolated
and alone. If you observe your own relationships, interactions in your work group, at church,
at your sports club and in your family you will note how and why people interact. The social
drive or instinct in people is considered to be a very basic innate and acquired need and people
will do much to feel accepted and loved. How people interact, form and maintain relationships
throughout life, for example in couples, groups and at work organisations, is based on how
people have learned to attach or bond and relate. In this regard you may now be able to recall
ideas with regard to human development and in personality development which emphasise the
critical influence of socialisation during early childhood and of important care givers.
The study of people as social beings or social behaviour is the content area of social
psychology. Social psychology studies social behaviour at individual and group levels but can
also relate to abstract social issues such as racism and other attitudes. Social Psychology is,
however, mostly concerned with the ways in which people mutually influence each other by
their mere presence and even their absence.
The aim, then, in this theme and the related study unit and chapter 13 in Weiten is to introduce
you to the social nature of human behaviour, which represents much of personality and how
people interact in their personal lives and other contexts, for example at work. The contents of
chapter 13 in Weiten include social processes and principles which characterise and influence
social relationships. These are clearly illustrated in Weiten’s introductory case study and its
analysis in Chapter 13. Group behaviour is not repeated here because it is the topic of study
in module 3.
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STUDY UNIT 11:

HOW PEOPLE INTERACT
Learning outcomes
• explain the social nature of human behaviour

• describe principles which influence person perception
• indicate how attribution processes explain social behaviour
• explain factors which influence interpersonal attraction
• describe the nature, formation and change of attitudes
• relate conformity and obedience to social behaviour
STUDY CONTENTS
11.1 Explanations for social behaviour
Though not specifically discussed in Weiten, you may find references and explanations for
human behaviour in social context. Actually most personality theories give some attention to
social influences in personality formation and functioning and in psychological adjustment.
Some theories associate social behaviour to genetic/biological reasons that is, the social drive
for belonging and love is innate and instinctive - as illustrated by babies’ dependence on
mothers and other care givers for basic biological needs and love. In adults too, people are
dependent on each other for satisfaction of basic and social needs. In a related approach, the
evolutionary perspective, it is assumed that people, for survival, have learned to be selective
with regard to certain social relationships, for example, choosing mates to produce off-spring
and to fulfil a caring role. In most psychological theories it is also assumed that people form
and maintain relationships to fulfil their social needs for belonging and love.
The behaviouristic or learning perspective associates relationship behaviour with acquired or

learned social behaviours rewarded in the social environments. In this regard related theories
associate social behaviour to peoples’ needs for stimulation, that is, they will choose
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relationships in which they can achieve certain goals and fulfil certain needs. In some social
psychological theories, especially the so-called exchange and equity theories, social behaviour
is explained according to cost and reward ratios, and feelings of being treated equally to others.
Social relationships will be maintained if people feel that their inputs (money, approach
behaviour, acceptance, friendship etc) are rewarded in equal terms from other parties. If the
discomfort and pain in relationships become too much, people may withdraw. Cultural
explanations relate to the social behaviour, habits, preferences and norms which are upheld
and rewarded in certain groups.
11.2 Influences in person perception
In study theme II perceptual processes have been discussed. Some of these perceptual
processes also apply to social stimuli and behaviour. In person perception especially
impression formation may be influenced by perceptual preferences and errors.
Aspects which influence person perception or impression-formation are physical appearance,

social-cognitive schemas, stereotypes and also evolutionary preferences.
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Take about 20 minutes to execute the following tasks.
1. Explain what social behaviour implies and briefly describe explanations for social
behaviour.
2. Briefly define the five influencing factors in person perception.
3. Write scenarios or examples in which five factors that influence person perception are
illustrated.
Feedback
Tasks 1 and 2 are knowledge reflection from chapter 12 and section 1 in this study unit.
Answering the key learning goals under person perception will also assist you.
For the applications in task 3 you may analyse your own perceptions, or observe social
behaviour in your context or in South Africa at large. Weiten also provides examples which you
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can use to stimulate your ideas. An example may assist you. With regard to physical
appearance you may encounter a lot of positive and negative clichés, stereotypes and
misperceptions on a more or less daily basis. These consist of the belief that “what is beautiful
is good, clever etc”, “blondes are less intelligent” or the many clichés about male and female
behaviour.
For both these questions use the relevant key learning goals to assess your knowledge.
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11.3 Attribution processes in social behaviour
As Weiten explains, attributions are assumptions or inferences people make about the causes
or reasons for events, own behaviours and the behaviour of others. Important determining
factors in attributions are whether the reasons of events and behaviour are ascribed to internal
attributes or external causes, previous events (eg success or failure), bias, observing own
behaviour as opposed to observations by others, own interests and culture.
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The following tasks will take you about 40 minutes but will be interesting and informative.
(1) Briefly define attribution and summarise each one of the six factors which explain
attribution.
(2) Write down your explanations or another person’s for own or other peoples’ behaviour
during a week’s time, analyse it and explain which inferences are used if compared
to the six possible explanations in Weiten.
(3) With regard to culture and attributions, utilise the information in Weiten to analyse
your work group’s behaviour, which most likely are diverse (eg black, white and Asian
cultures) and explain whether you observe differences in different peoples’ or groups’
attribution according to the categories of individualism and collectivism.
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Feedback
For task 1 you must recall and reproduce your knowledge from chapter 13. It will help if you
also answer the preview questions under attribution.
In task 2 you have to do self-reflection. If you know the different explanations it will be easy for
you to relate peoples’ explanations for the causes or reasons of behaviour and events to
specific explanations. You may find that some people use some explanations more than others
and may also be characterised by positive or negative tones, for example to blame, projection
etc.
Task 3 too, requires analysis and the ability to apply your knowledge. It is a well-known finding
that African and Asian cultures are more collectivistic as compared to Western cultures which
are more individualistic, which definitely influence peoples’ world views, and how they perceive
things and act on them. Your findings may then also serve to verify the basic cultural premise
on individualism and collectivism or you may find less difference between groups. Cross-
cultural influences, for example, in diverse and integrated societies, may change fundamental
cultural aspects.
Attention to the relevant key learning goals and the concept checks will assist your learning.
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11.4 Interpersonal attraction and social behaviour
Interpersonal attraction or the way we feel about another person and the reasons for attraction,
is an important determinant in social relationships. Though also important, it is often incorrectly
assumed (note the attribution) that physical attractiveness or beauty is the most important and
binding factor, which often is not the case - or if it is an initial factor, other attraction factors
may later become more important. These factors may be similarity, reciprocity, romantic ideals
and culture. Similarity and reciprocity may arguably be the most important and may include
peoples’ preference to affiliate with others if they are alike in many respects, especially being
similar in values or they may supplement each other in many ways. Note that bonding or
attachment styles as they developed across all life stages are very important in forming and
maintaining relationships. Culture as a determinant is once again emphasised because cultural
behaviour, norms, habits and values definitely influence interpersonal attractiveness, for
example, being similar in values and attitudes or preferences with regard to choosing romantic
mates, religious issues etc. The evolutionary perspective relates to preferences and similarities
as it evolved across time and cultures.
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The following learning activity tasks may take about 30 minutes to complete.
(1) Answer the key learning goals under interpersonal attraction.

(2) Think about your personal and other relationships and explain on which attraction
principles you have initiated and are maintaining these relationships. Explain why you
say one or more of the attraction principles are more or less binding in relationships.
(3) Utilise examples in your context to illustrate the effectiveness or abuse of physical
attractiveness or beauty to influence peoples’ behaviour.
Feedback
For task 1, answering the key learning goals will require you to read the section on
interpersonal attraction.
In task 2 we believe you should be able to locate your type of attachment style and be informed
on why you form and maintain personal, romantic and work relationships.
In task 3 you should determine that many physically beautiful people stay attracted to each
other, may be for this reason, but also because of other attraction factors like similarity and
reciprocity. You may also find that in some cases, beauty is only skin deep and not lasting in
relationships; or that the overemphasis on beauty may also cause discomfort and pain for
many people.
In business, you should find many examples of realistic and appropriate use of physical
attractiveness in advertisements and for marketing, however, we believe you should also note
many instances of inappropriate use and even abuse of physical beauty.
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11.5 Attitudes in social behaviour
Attitudes refer to the emotional, cognitive and behavioural aspects expressed in the positive
or negative evaluations about people. Attitudes express peoples’ underlying feelings and
thoughts about, for example, other people, employment, management, work circumstances
and issues such as racism, prejudice etc., and may be predispositions for (tendencies to act
in certain ways) or may energise or motivate subsequent actions. In your other modules you
may have encountered work-related attitudes like job satisfaction, work commitment and
engagement, organisational trust and so forth.
Attitude formation and change have many explanations, for example, learning and dissonance
theory, and the likelihood model. In relationships between individuals and in groups, attitude
change is an important factor in behaviour change and to motivate people, but never an easy
task, as illustrated by many relationship failures and when organisations try to merge or change
the organisational culture. Factors which influence attitude change are the source, message
and receiver factors in the interpersonal persuasion and communication processes.
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The tasks in this activity will take about 25 minutes.
(1) Define attitudes and explain the attitude components with examples.
(2) Briefly summarise theoretical explanations for attitude formation and change.
(3) Indicate determining factors in attitude change and draw your own model to illustrate
a persuasion process in attitude change.
Feedback
In tasks 1 and 2 you must recall knowledge as given in chapter 13.
Task 3 requires you to recall the influencing factors and apply your knowledge by drawing a
figure or model. If you work creatively you may possibly not only indicate the persuasion
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process but also the influencing factors. In this regard the critical thinking application in Weiten
will also provide additional information.
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11.6 Conformity and obedience in social behaviour
Conformity and obedience are some of the factors at the heart of order and structure in human
behaviour in general and of social behaviour in societies. Both these concepts refer to
behaviours when people yield to real or imagined social pressure or authority to execute certain
actions.
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(1) Define conformity and obedience and indicate factors which will influence these
behaviours.
(2) Answer the key learning goals under conformity and obedience with regard to the
studies on conformity and obedience.
(3) Write notes on the role of culture and situations with regard to conformity and
obedience.
Feedback
All three questions relate to each other, but tasks 2 and 3 require you to go into more depth
with regard to specific issues. In task 1 you must recall your learning, but you will have to read
the whole section to isolate the influencing factors. What factors did you define?
In tasks 2 and 3 you will actually define the main findings and in that manner also the
influencing factors which you must mention in task 1. In task 3 you must specifically comment
or reason about cultural differences and situational influences with regard to conformity and
obedience.
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Using all relevant key learning goals and other learning aids such as concept checks will aid
your learning in this chapter.
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In summary of this study unit, we repeat that you need not study group behaviour, but rather
use it as a supplement to your study of groups in module 3. Note that the mere definition of a
group as people in interaction, implies social or interpersonal behaviour which form the basis
of the social structures in organisations. Social behaviour in groups is characterised by inter
alia, the social processes discussed in this study unit, and you may find it valuable to just read
the section on group behaviour.
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- Self - assessment tasks
(1) First complete the questions in the practice test in Weiten to assess your knowledge,
(2) Explain what social behaviour and social psychology is. (10)
(3) Describe various theoretical explanations with regard to person perception,

attribution, attraction and attitudes. (25)
(4) With examples indicate how at least five factors may influence person perception.
(25)
(5) Define social attribution and explain influencing factors. (5)
(6) Explain the influences and processes which may contribute to or hinder attitude
change. (25)
(7) Define the concepts of dissonance, conformity and obedience. (10)
(8) Critically reason about the experimental and research findings with regard to
conformity and obedience. (15)
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(9) Give an integrated discussion on the role of culture in social behaviour by referring to
attribution, attraction, as well as conformity and obedience. (25)
(10) Define prejudice and indicate factors which may influence prejudiced attitudes (15)
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Conclusion
We believe that you have enjoyed your learning experience and achieved the learning
outcomes in this module. By now you also realise the complex nature of human behaviour and
the many ways in which it may influence work behaviour. Your study of this module should
prepare you well for more applied and advanced studies in Industrial and Organisational
Psychology.
127
PIOP02P
STUDY GUIDE
Bibliography
Bergh, Z.C & Geldenhuys, D.J. 2014 (5th ed.) Psychology in the work context. Oxford
University Press: Cape Town.
Weiten, W. (2018). Psychology: Themes and variations 3rd South African Edition. Cengage
Learning (EMEA) Ltd.
Campbell, R.E., & Cellini, J.V. (1981). A diagnostic taxonomy of adult career problems. Journal
of Vocational Behaviour, 19, 175-190.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONTACTS
Lecturer
Prof R M Oosthuizen
Room: 3-86, AJH Van der Walt Building
Tel: (012) 429-8245
E-mail: oosthrm@unisa.ac.za
Centre Administration
Unisa Centre for Life Long Learning
Solomon Mahlangu Building, Office 211
360 Lilian Ngoyi Street, Pretoria, 0001
Unisa, PO Box 392, 0003
For enquires contact:

Mr Sekhutlo Dikhoba
Email: dikhosg @unisa.ac.za or cbm@unisa.ac.za
012 429 8548
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PROGRAMME IN INDUSTRIAL & ORGANISATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORKPLACE

ONLY STUDY GUIDE FOR PIOP02P

COMPILED BY: PROF R M OOSTHUIZEN

PROGRAMME IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORKPLACE

Preface and orientation ......................................................................................................... 1

2. Purpose of module 2 ................................................................................................. 1

3. Learning outcomes for module 2 ............................................................................... 2

4. Unisa's tuition rationale.............................................................................................. 2

5. Completion and assessment of assignments ............................................................ 5

6. Study material ............................................................................................................ 8

7. Organisation of study themes, study units and prescribed chapters ....................... 10

Study Theme I: Psychology as a study field and applied areas ................................... 19

Study unit 2: Research methodology in psychology (Chapter 2 in Weiten) ............ 27

Study theme II: Fundamental behavioural processes.................................................... 33

Study unit 3: Biological basis of human behaviour (Chapter 3 in Weiten) ............. 35

Study unit 4: Sensation and perception (Chapter 4 in Weiten) ................................. 44

Self-assessment tasks ........................................................................................................... 50

Study unit 6: Human memory, cognition and intelligence (Chapters 7, 8 and 9 in

Study unit 7: Motivation and emotion (Chapter 10 in Weiten) ................................... 71

7.5.2 The biological bases of emotion ............................................................................... 77

Study theme III: Human development, personality and adjustment .............................. 83

Study unit 8: How human behaviour develops? (Chapter 11 in Weiten) .................. 84

Study unit 9: Personality (chapter 12 in Weiten) ........................................................ 93

10.4 Types of stress reactions ....................................................................................... 112

Study theme IV: Social processes…………………………………………………………… 118

Study unit 11: How people interact (chapter 13 in Weiten)……………………………… 119

• the implications of being an employee or an employer;

Module 02 contributes to this by explaining human behaviour and related psychological

2. PURPOSE OF MODULE PIOP02P

The purpose or aim of this module is to:

3. LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE MODULE

• describe Psychology and Industrial and Organisational Psychology as a science,

4. UNISA'S TUITION RATIONALE

4.1 Mutual expectations

• to provide quality study material;

• obtaining the necessary study materials as early as possible;

4.2 Outcomes-based learning rationale

• Knowledge and understanding: This fundamental competency requires learners

• Application: This practical competency requires learners to develop the skills to

4.2.2 Cross-field competencies

Learning skills: obtaining and exploring knowledge by using various learning

Self-responsibility skills: demonstrating self-management by obtaining and exploring

Research: obtaining, analysing, organising, evaluating and reporting

Problem-solving skills: considering information and selecting correct data or

Team behaviours: working effectively with others

Communication skills: using various forms of communication

Technological or utilising science and technology effectively and critically,

Developing a broader developing a macro-vision, recognising that various aspects

Citizenship: taking responsibility by participating in the life of local,

Cultural and aesthetic being sensitive to differences in and between groups

Employment-seeking exploring education and occupational opportunities

Entrepreneurship: developing creativity and new opportunities

5. COMPLETION AND ASSESSMENT OF ASSIGNMENTS

5.1 Lecturer assessment

Management of an ability to assess own and others’ performance and to take

• think or reflect on the acquired knowledge;

Your prescribed sources for this module are as follows:

6.1 Prescribed book and chapters

* Note: For practical reasons we will refer to Weiten (2018) as Weiten.

Chapters 1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15.

6.2 Tutorial letters