Homeostasis

Objectives:

1. relate the structures of the skin to their functions.

2. explain the concept of homeostasis.
3. explain the concept of feedback mechanisms.
4. describe the regulation of blood sugar.
5. explain the regulation of water.
6. distinguish between heat and temperature.
7. describe the regulation of temperature.

What is homeostasis?

Homeostasis is a term that means maintaining a constant internal

environment in spite of changes in the external environment.

Examples of Homeostasis in Humans

A whole variety of factors are maintained at constant values in the

body by homeostasis.  For example (there are many more….):

 Blood pH

 Blood temperature

 Blood dilution

 Blood oxygen concentration

 Blood carbon dioxide concentration

 Blood glucose concentration

 Blood pressure
The Concept of Negative Feedback:

 Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal

or set point and returns conditions to this set point

 It works in the following way:

o if the level of something rises, control systems are

switched on to reduce it again

o if the level of something falls, control systems are switched

on to raise it again

 Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of

bringing levels down and then bringing them back up so that
overall, they stay within a narrow range of what is considered
‘normal’
The negative feedback cycle

Blood Glucose Control

 Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback

mechanism involving the production of two hormones -
 insulin and glucagon.

 Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration are

made in the pancreas.
  Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver
and muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen to be
stored.

 Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and stimulates

liver and muscle cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose
to be released into the blood.

Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels

 Note: The terms glucagon and glycogen are very often
mixed up by students as they sound similar. Remember: 

 Glucagon is the hormone

 Glycogen is the polysaccharide glucose is stored as

Learn the differences between the spellings and what each

one does so you do not get confused in the exam!

Type 1 Diabetes

 Type 1 diabetes is a condition where the blood glucose levels are

not able to be regulated as the insulin-secreting cells in the
pancreas are not able to produce insulin.

 This means that blood glucose levels are often far too high.

 It can be treated by injecting insulin.

 The extra insulin causes the liver to convert glucose into

glycogen, which reduces the blood glucose level.

 Symptoms of diabetes include extreme thirst, weakness or

tiredness, blurred vision, weight loss and loss of consciousness in
extreme cases.

 People with Type 1 diabetes have to monitor their blood glucose

levels throughout the day as their levels of physical activity and
their diet affect the amount of insulin needed.

 They can help to control their blood glucose level by being careful

with their diet -  eating foods that will not cause large increases
 in blood glucose level, and by exercising, which can lower blood
glucose levels due to increased respiration in the muscles.

Exam Tip

Type 2 diabetes is not in the specification, so you don't need to

learn the details of it. This is the diabetes form that doctors
are most concerned about because it is linked to obesity and
lifestyle factors. 

Y l d k h d fT 1

Thermoregulation

Homeostasis: Temperature Control

The Skin & Homeostasis

 Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism

 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal

environment

 This means that internal conditions within your body (such as

temperature, blood pressure, water concentration, glucose
concentration etc) need to be kept within set limits in order to
ensure that reactions in body cells can function and therefore
the organism as a whole can live.
  The human body maintains the temperature at which enzymes
work best, around 37°C.

 If body temperature increases over this temperature, enzymes

will denature and become less effective at catalysing reactions
such as respiration.

The Structure of the Skin

A cross-section of human skin

Temperature Regulation by the Skin

 Regulation is controlled by the brain which

contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood 
  The skin also has temperature receptors and sends nervous
impulses to the brain via sensory neurones

 The brain responds to this information by sending nerve impulses

to effectors in the skin to maintain the temperature within a
narrow range of the optimum, 37°C

 Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation to

prevent too much body heat being lost through the skin

Homeostatic responses to changes in body temperature

Responses to changes in temperature summary

Vasoconstriction & Vasodilation:

 When we are cold blood flow in capillaries slows down because

arterioles leading to the skin capillaries get narrower - this is
known as vasoconstriction

 This reduces the amount of heat lost from blood by

radiation as less blood flows through the surface of the skin

 When we are hot blood flow in capillaries increases because blood

vessels to the skin capillaries get wider - this is known
as vasodilation

 This cools the body as blood (which carries heat around the body)
is flowing at a faster rate through the skin’s surface and so more
heat is lost by radiation
Responses in the skin when hot
Responses in the skin when cold

Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the process by which the balance of salt and water
(osmotic pressure or water potential) is maintained across the fluids of
the body. This state of normalcy or balance of blood plasma
concentration is known as homeostasis. This is necessary to prevent
the unnecessary movement of water into or out of body cells.

Why do you need to regulate the dilution (or water potential) of

the blood?
If bodily fluids become too dilute, water enters the cells via osmosis,
causing the cells to swell. They may burst or lyse as a result.

If bodily fluids become too concentrated, water leaves the cells via
osmosis, causing the cells to shrink and become dehydrated. Metabolic
reactions cannot occur in the absence of water, so the cells die if too
much water leaves.

Remember: a hypertonic solution has a low water potential and is very

concentrated. A hypotonic solution has a very high water potential and
is very dilute.

The body does not exist in isolation, though. There is a constant input
of water and electrolytes into the system through food, drink and
water produced by cells from respiration. Excess water,
electrolytes, and wastes are transported to the kidneys and excreted
in the form of urine, to the skin as sweat and in faeces, helping to
maintain osmotic balance. Insufficient fluid intake results in fluid
conservation by the kidneys.
Without a mechanism to regulate osmotic pressure, or when a disease
damages this mechanism, toxic waste and water will accumulate, which
can have dire consequences.

The kidneys are responsible for the regulation of the osmotic

pressure/concentration of bodily fluids by controlling how much water
is reabsorbed into the blood plasma during selective reabsorption. This
determines how much water is lost in urine.

When body fluids are too dilute:

The osmoreceptor of the hypothalamus detects the decrease in fluid

concentration and stimulates the pituitary gland to stop secreting
ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone, also called Vasopressin). In the
absence of ADH, the walls of the second convoluted tubules and
collecting ducts remain nearly impermeable to water, and so very little
water is reabsorbed into the blood. Thus, large quantities of dilute
urine are produced, i.e. the urine excreted contains a lot of water.

When the body fluids are too concentrated:

The osmoreceptor of the hypothalamus detects the high concentration

of the blood plasma and begins to produce ADH and stimulates the
pituitary gland to secrete it. The blood carries ADH to the kidneys,
where its presence causes the walls of the second convoluted tubule
and collecting ducts to become more permeable to water. Much more
water is reabsorbed from the filtrate back into the blood and very
small quantities of concentrated urine are produced, i.e. the urine
excreted contains very little water.
Kidney Failure and Dialysis

Kidney failure is when the nephrons stop working correctly, and are
unable to remove waste from the blood and regulate the volume and
composition of blood plasma and body fluids. Toxic wastes including
urea build up in the blood, reaching potentially fatal levels. Kidney
failure is treated by either a kidney transplant or dialysis.
In dialysis, blood from a vein flows through a dialysis machine and is
then returned to the body. In the machine, blood is separated from
dialysis fluid by a partially permeable membrane. Waste products pass
from the blood into the dialysis fluid along with excess water and
excess salts. Waste from the blood is removed and the concentration
of the blood and body fluids are regulated. Most people suffering from
kidney failure require dialysis around three four-hour sessions weekly.