CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Nonlinear loads, such as EV chargers, will often introduce power quality (PQ)
issues within distribution circuits, which can have detrimental effects on system
components. PQ encompasses several specific concepts such as harmonic distortion,
DC offset, phase imbalance, and voltage deviations, among others, and these are
quantified in myriad ways. Power quality (PQ) is a measure of the fitness of electrical
power from the utility to the electrical customer. Low PQ is of concern because it can
cause variations in voltage magnitude, issues with continuity of service from utilities,
and transient voltages and currents. Harmonic distortion is a primary culprit in the
causation of reduced power quality. Our research is focused on investigating three
hypotheses. One, we hypothesized that, because EV charge controllers are nonlinear
loads and because EVs demand a large amount of power, the PQ issues presented by
EV charging could have an impact on distribution feeders. Two, we also hypothesized
that the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the current drawn by an EV charge
controller would change as a function of time as the charge controller moved through
various phases of the charging cycle. And third, we hypothesized that the cumulative
effects of multiple charge controllers on the same feeder would result in distortion
greater than that of any one charge controller, thereby setting an upper bound on the
maximum number of EV charging stations that could be connected to a single feeder.
As specified by IEEE 519.1992, that impact is a function of the size of the distribution
feeder, as measured by the ratio of the short circuit current available at the point of
common connection to the maximum fundamental load current, and quantified by the
quantity total demand distortion (TDD). The perpetually escalating demands for energy
and the finite nature of the fossil fuel supply, accompanied by global warming and
climate change are the main concerns of environmentalists and researchers in the 21st
century. The CO2 emissions from the transportation sector are one of the main causes
of global warming and climate change.
Researchers have stressed the positive impact of replacing Internal Combustion
Engine (ICE) driven vehicles with Electric Vehicles (EVs) to minimize the greenhouse
gas contributions of the transport sector. The paradigm shift from conventional vehicles
to EVs has many environmental and economic advantages. The increasing number of

1
EVs is however accompanied by a rise in charging demand. Hence, the development of
the charging infrastructure as well as efficient Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) has
become necessary to meet the requirements of substantial operation of the EVs. For
instance, in the United States (US), the National Program Charging Point America has
taken an initiative of building nearly 5000 EV charging stations to offer charging
services in nine regions of the U.S. Even a developing country like Bhutan has taken
an initiative to set up charging infrastructure for the promotion of the EVs. The
establishment of charging stations imposes an additional burden on the power grid, as
the high charging loads of fast EV charging stations will degrade the operating
parameters of the distribution network. The degradation of voltage profile, increase in
peak load, harmonic distortions are some of the consequences of the uncoordinated
charging of EVs. Many references demonstrate the adverse impact of EV charging
loads on different parameters of the distribution network like voltage profile, harmonics
and peak load.
The potential impact of EV charging station loads on the voltage profile of
distribution networks has been investigated by a number of researchers. In analyzed the
impact of the EV charging station loads on a low voltage distribution network in Europe
for different EV penetration scenarios. It was concluded in that the network was robust
enough to support a low intake of EVs 1–2%. However, it was observed that the voltage
profile of the node where multiple charging stations were placed degraded to some
extent and the high loads of EV charging stations caused degradation of the voltage
profile of the weak buses of the system. In examined the impact of EV charging loads
on a 13 node distribution network for different EV penetration scenarios. In analyzed
the impact of EV charging loads on a standard distribution network with 14 buses. It
was concluded that the transient voltage stability index degraded for high penetration
of EVs. The impact of EV charging loads on the voltage stability of distribution network
was also analyzed. From the findings of it is observed that most of the distribution
networks could withstand the penetration of EVs up to a certain level. However,
networks designed a decade ago are not equipped to withstand any large-scale
integration of EVs. Harmonics being a crucial outcome of EV integration have been
analyzed in depth by researchers in recent years. In investigated the effect of EV
charging loads on the harmonic voltages of distribution system by applying statistical
analysis. The authors classified the chargers based on the total harmonic distortion
(THDI ) produced and concluded that even with 45% EV penetration there was
2
negligible harmonic distortion during summer. The effect of non-linear EV charging
loads on power quality of the distribution system was analyzed in where it was reported
that the lifecycle of distribution network assets was reduced by the harmonic distortion
produced by the EV loads. In that the EV battery charging loads caused harmonic
distortion of even 50% in the most extreme cases. In simulated the harmonics caused
by Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) chargers by a probabilistic Monte Carlo
approach considering the uncertainties. It was concluded that residential Level 1
chargers (1.8 kW) had a severe impact on the power quality. In recent years researchers
have concentrated on quantifying the variation of peak load demand after the placement
of EV charging stations in the distribution network. In examined the effect of the PHEV
loads on the metropolitan distribution network of Australia, concluding that with
uncoordinated charging and 100% PEV penetration 43% peak load shifting was
required to enable smooth operation of the distribution network. In analyzed the effect
of the uncontrolled EV charging on the daily load profile.
The improvement in load profile by incorporating coordinated charging was
also illustrated. In concluded that disorderly charging would increase the peak load
demand and recommended tariff based charging. In analyzed the impact of EV charging
on daily load demand in the parking lots and devised an optimal strategy for controlling
the charging activities in the parking lots. In analyzed the impact of fast EV chargers
on a retail building’s load demand and concluded that 38% of the PHEV load demand
could be absorbed by demand management and photovoltaics. In proposed a two stage
demand response model to control the increase in peak load due to the charging of EVs.

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

AK Karmaker, MR Ahmed, MA Hossain, and MM Sikder , The rapid increase
in electric vehicle (EV) in Bangladesh requires more energy to run these vehicles.
Moreover, the transportation sector produces Green House Gas (GHG) especially CO2
emissions. Due to the excess power needed to recharge these EVs, the national grid has
to supply more than 500 MW daily. This paper proposes an Electric Vehicle Charging
Station (EVCS) based on solar and biogas to reduce the burden on the national grid.
The proposed EVCS integrates a combination of a solar PV module (10 kW), three
biogas generators (10 kW), 25 lead acid batteries (each 100 Ah), a converter (10 kW)
and charging assemblies. This paper analyzes the technical, economic and
environmental feasibility of the proposed EVCS using the Hybrid Optimization of
3
Multiple Energy Renewables (HOMER) Pro software. This configuration estimates a
Cost of Energy (COE) of $0.1302/kWh, total net present cost (NPC) of $56,202 and
operating cost of $2540. In addition, the proposed model reduces the CO2 emissions
by 34.68% compared to a conventional grid-based charging station. The designed
EVCS saves approximately $12–$18 per month to recharge an EV which increases the
socio-economic standard of EV owner.
Durante, Larry, Matthew Nielsen, and Prasanta Ghosh, Interconnection of EVs
could impact adversely the power system operation including power quality and safety
of the power grid since the present electric power distribution network may not be
designed to support the expected proliferation of EV along with other nonlinear loads
and resources that are expected to occur in the future. Numerous studies on the effects
of charging EVs using the existing local distribution grid has been reported in the
literature, but most works on EVs impact on the distribution network are focused on
the fundamental current and voltage waveforms (i.e., 60 Hz) to derive the associated
impacts to the electric grid delivery system. In this paper we present our initial work
that broadens the above analysis to include current harmonic distortion (iTHD) and the
associated voltage harmonic distortion (vTHD) injected into the grid from EV battery
charger.
Godina, Radu, Eduardo MG Rodrigues, N. G. Paterakis, Ozan Erdinc, and Joao
PS Catalao, Widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) could bring social and
economic benefits. The effort of promoting the use of EVs in transportation is
indispensable to meet the climate change related targets and to reduce the dependency
on the ever unstable prices of diminishing fossil fuels. However, there are still many
uncertainties in the market regarding the acceptability of EVs by the final consumer.
As a new contribution to earlier studies, this paper assesses the impact of EV charging
load on the dielectric oil deterioration of two real power distribution transformers
(PDT), one residential and one industrial, located in the insular grid of São Miguel
Island. A PDT thermal model is used to estimate the hot-spot temperature given the
load ratio. Real data are used for the main inputs of the model, namely, the daily
residential load curve, the daily private industrial client load curve, the PDT parameters,
time-of use rates and EV parameters.

4
1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION
With the universal resurgence of Electric Vehicles (EVs) the adverse impact of
the EV charging loads on the operating parameters of the power system has been
noticed. The detrimental impact of EV charging station loads on the electricity
distribution network cannot be neglected. The high charging loads of the fast charging
stations results in increased peak load demand, reduced reserve margins, voltage
instability, and reliability problems. Further, the penalty paid by the utility for the
degrading performance of the power system cannot be neglected.

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THESIS

This work aims to investigate the impact of the EV charging station loads on
the voltage stability, power losses, reliability indices, as well as economic losses of the
distribution network. In this project, impact of EVs on the power distribution network
is analyzed by MATLAB simulation. This project presents harmonics and voltage
profile along with the losses of distribution transformer when overloading with EV
chargers.

5
 CHAPTER-2
POWER QUALITY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Conceivably, the best electrical supply would be a steady greatness and
frequency sinusoidal voltage waveform. On account of the non-zero impedance of the
supply framework, of the expansive assortment of loads that may be experienced and
of other phenomena, for example, transients and outages, the truth is regularly diverse.
The Power Quality of a system communicates to which degree a practical supply system
looks like the perfect supply system.
If the Power Quality of the system is good, then any loads associated with it will
run satisfactory and efficiently. Establishment running expenses and carbon footprint
impression will be insignificant.
If the Power Quality of the system is awful, then loads joined with it will fail or
will have a decreased lifetime, and the efficiency of the electrical establishment will
diminish. Establishment running expenses and carbon footprint impression will be high
and/or operation may not be conceivable at all cost of poor power quality.
Poor Power Quality can be depicted as any occasion identified with the
electrical system network that ultimately results in a budgetary misfortune. Conceivable
results of poor Power Quality incorporate
 Unexpected power supply failures (breakers tripping, wires blowing).
 Equipment failure or failing
 Equipment overheating (transformers, engines) are prompting their lifetime
reduction.
 Damage to delicate supplies (Pc‘s, production line control frameworks).
 Increase of system power losses
Generation of the existence of waveform pollution and harmonics in power
system networks are important problems facing the power utilities. However, these
limits are based on conventional power quality indexes (PQIs), such as total harmonic
distortion (THD), which determines how much the waveform is distorted with high-
frequency harmonic components. The THD regulates the harmonic pollution of each
load. However, it is insufficient for analyzing the effects of polluted loads on an overall
power system with the only THD factor. Therefore, a new PQI is necessary to deal with

6
this issue. In addition, measurement methods and several PQIs have been reported with
the analysis of distorted voltage and current waveforms. However no research has
investigated the use of the PQI, which focuses on the direct relationship between
distortion power and harmonic problem. This project introduces the new PQI to monitor
the effect of each nonlinear load on a point of common coupling (PCC) of a distribution
power system by using the concept of distortion power generated from each load.
To overcome this problem and achieve its reliable and consistent performance
without regard to any given conditions, this project proposes the new distortion power
quality index consisting of the electrical load composition rate (LCR) estimated by the
reduced multivariate polynomial (RMP) model and the Euclidean norm of THDs of the
measured voltage and current waveforms. The proposed provides the relative harmonic
pollution ranking (HPR) of each nonlinear load in the existence of distorted voltage at
PCC. The HPR can be practically used as an important factor that determines how much
effect each load has on the PCC with the relative ranking for distortion power
generation. Moreover, the only uses the load currents and the voltage at the PCC from
instrument readings without calculating apparent, fundamental active power and
fundamental reactive power directly.

2.2 DEFINITION OF POWER QUALITY

Power quality could be a term which means various things to completely
different individuals. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) normal
IEEE1100 defines power quality as “the conception of powering and grounding
sensitive instrumentation equipment in an exceedingly manner appropriate for the
equipment. All electrical devices are prone to malfunction or failure when exposed to
more power quality problems. The electrical machine be a transformer, an electric
motor, a computer a generator, a printer, a household appliance, or a communication
equipment. Depending on the severity of problems others and all of these devices react
adversely to power quality issues.
An easier and perhaps extra pointed, definition would conceivably state: "power
quality could be a defined of electrical limits that allows a bit of device to perform in
its gathered way while not huge loss of lifetime or execution .This definition gives two
things that we tend to request from an electrical device lifetime and execution. Any
power related disadvantage that bargains either trait could be a quality concern. In light

7
of this meaning of force quality, this section gives a prologue to the extra basic power
quality terms. In conjunction clarifications are encased in enclosures wherever
necessary with meanings of the terms. This section clarify however power quality
variables act in an electrical framework.

2.3 POWER QUALITY PROGRESSION

Since the invention of power 300 years ago, the distribution, generation and use
of electricity have correctly evolved. New and innovative suggest to generate and use
electricity the economic revolution, and since then engineers, scientists, and hobbyists
have contributed to its continued evolution. In the starting stage, electrical devices and
machines were crude at best but nonetheless more utilitarian. They performed quite
well and consumed gaint amounts of electricity. The machines were designed with price
consideration solely secondary to performance issues. They were probably liable to
however the consequences were not readily discernible, whatever power quality
problems existed at the time, and due partly to the robustness of the machines and due
to the lack of good ways to measure parameters of power quality. However, within the
last 50 years or so, the economic years to the need for products which are to be
economically competitive, that meant that electrical machines were smaller and more
efficient and were designed without performance margins. At a uniformity time, diverse
variables were becoming possibly the most important factor. Expanded requests for
power distribution and generation. Commercial enterprises requested bigger and bigger
shares of the generated power, which, along great he side pf the developing utilization
of power in the private part, stretched electricity generation as possible. Today,
electrical utilities are no more freely worked elements; they are some piece of an
expansive network of utilities entwined in a complex matrix. The mixture of these
components has made electrical systems obliging power quality.
The difficulty in quantifying power quality considerations is explained by the
character of the interaction between susceptible equipment and power quality. What is
bad power for one piece of instrument might be good power for another one. Because
of differences in their component tolerance and manufacturing or two identical pieces
or devices of equipment might react differently to the actual power quality parameters
attributes to variations.

8
 An issue may not be obvious at the delivering plant, yet once the gear is
introduced in antagonistic electrical surroundings the issue could surface and execution
endures. Given the way of the electrical working limits and the requirement for
electrical supplies to perform palatably in such an environment, it is progressively
fundamental for specialists, professionals, and office administrators to become familiar
with force quality issues. It is trusted that this project will help in this bearing.

2.4 POWER QUALITY NOMENCLATURE

Webster’s New World Dictionary defines nomenclature as the “the terms
employed in a specific art science etc.” Understanding the terms employed in any
branch of humanities or science is basic to developing a way of familiarity with the
topic. The science of power quality is not any exception. Most commonly used power
quality terms are explained and outlined below:
Bonding: Inter connecting the conductive parts electrically to ensure common voltage
between the connected parts. Electrical bonding is done for two reasons. When bonded
using low impedance connections, conductive parts, would be at the same electrical
potential, which means that the difference in voltage between the connected parts would
be negligible or minimal. Electrical Bonding additionally states current likely imposed
on a metal part should be safely conducted to other grid systems or ground serving as
ground.
Capacitance: It is the Property of a circuit element .it is characterized by an insulating
medium which contains two conductive parts. The capacitance unit is Farad (F), named
for the scientist Michael Faraday. Capacitance values are commonly expressed in
microfarad (F), which is 10-6 of a Farad.
Coupling: The Process by which electrical noise or energy in one circuit will be
transferred to another circuit that may be electrically connected to it.
Crest factor: It is the Ratio of the peak value of a periodic wave form and the root
mean square (RMS) value of a periodic waveform is called crest factor. From its ideal
characteristics, Crest factor is the indications of the distortion in a periodic waveform.
Distortion: The variation of a periodic wave from its ideal waveform characteristics is
called distortion. The distortion which is introduced in a wave will create waveform
phase shift as well as deformity.

9
Frequency: Number of cycles per second is called frequency. The frequency of the
electrical parameters such as voltage and current is expressed in hertz (Hz).
Distortion factor: The percentage expressed as a Ratio between the RMS of the
periodic wave consists of a harmonic content to the RMS of the fundamental content of
the wave. This is also called as the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).

Figure 2.1 Distortion

Flicker: To allow the visual observation of a change in electric light source intensity
variation of input voltage sufficient in duration. The flicker can be expressed as the
change in voltage over nominal voltage.
Form factor: Form factor can be defined as the ratio between the RMS value and
average value of the periodic waveform. Form factor is another indicator of the
deviation of a periodic waveform from the ideal characteristics. For example, The RMS
value of the sinusoidal wave is 0.707 times the peak value, the average value of a pure
sinusoidal wave averaged over a cycle is 0.637 times the peak value. The form factor,
is calculated as Form Factor = 0.707/0.637 = 1.11.
Ground electrode: To provide a connection with the ground, Conductor or a body of
conductors in intimate contact with earth.
Ground grid: System of interconnected bare conductors buried below the surface of
the earth and arranged over a specified area in a specified pattern.
Ground loop: If two points in an electrical system which are nominally at ground
potential will be connected by a conducting path such that both or either points are not
at the same ground potential, potentially detrimental loop formed.
Ground ring: Ring encircling the structure or building which is directly contact with
the earth. This ring will be at a depth below the surface of the earth which not less than

10
2.5 ft and it also consist of at least 21 ft of empty copper conductor which is not smaller
than #2 AWG.
Grounding: Conducting connection by which an equipment or electrical circuit is
which connected to the earth or some conducting part of relatively high extent which
serves in place of the earth. The metallic noncurrent carrying parts of equipment
grounding is done primarily for safety reasons. In the case of a fault between the frame
and an energized conductor, the metal frame of equipment grounding protects anyone
entering into contact with the equipment frame from electrical shock. Grounding the
equipment frame also ensures that plane ground a protective device or prompt passage
of fault current to the ground electrode would separate the faulty equipment from the
electrical power supply clear the fault and operated to clear the faults.
Harmonic distortion: The distortion from a pure sinusoidal waveform.
Harmonic: A periodic wave of Sinusoidal component which is having a frequency
which is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. So if the fundamental
frequency is 60 Hz, then the third harmonic is a sinusoidal wave of 180 Hz, the sixth
harmonic is a sinusoidal wave of 360 Hz, and so on.
Impulse: Normally Impulse used to indicate a short duration overvoltage occurs with
certain fall and raise characteristics. The Standards have affected including the term
impulse in the category of transients.
Inrush: when a machine is initially turned on, the large current that a load draws are
called inrush currents.
Interruption: Complete loss of current or voltage for a time period.
Inductance: Inductance is that the relationship between the magnetic lines of flux (Ø)
which links a circuit due to the current (I) producing the flux. If I will be the current in
a wire which produces a magnetic flux of Ø lines, so the self inductance of the wire, L,
is equal to Ø/I. The Mutual inductance (M) is relationship between the magnetic flux
Ø2 linking an adjacent circuit 2 due to current I1 in circuit 1. This can be stated as M
= Ø2/I2.
The unit for inductance is the Henry [H], which is named for the scientist Joseph
Henry from America. The normal unit for inductance is the milli Henry [mH] which is
equal to 10-3H. To determine the characteristic of waveform notches and impulse
voltage transients self inductance of a circuit is important. We also are concerned with
the mutual inductance as it relates to how current in one circuit can induce disturbance
and noise in an adjacent circuit, in studies of power quality.
11
Isolation: suggest that the electrical circuits which are energized are uncoupled from
each other. Primary and secondary windings of two winding transformers are one
example of isolation between circuits. Capacitance between the secondary and primary
the windings causes some coupling will still exists in a two winding transformer
actually
Linear loads: A linear load consist only the fundamental component of the current. In
steady-state operation electrical load presents constant essentially impedance to the
power source throughout the cycle of voltage applied.
Noise: Electrical noise is an unwanted electrical signal that produces undesirable effects
in the control systems circuits in which they occur.
Nonlinear load: Electrical load which draws currents discontinuously is called
nonlinear load .And it is also defined as the impedance that varies during each cycle of
the waveform of input AC voltage.
Notch: Disturbance of the conventional power voltage waveform loosing less than a
half cycle, disturbance is initially of opposite polarity rather than the waveform and, so
subtracts from the waveform.
Periodic: A voltage or current is periodic If the value of the function at time t which is
equal to the value at time t +T, where T is the period of the function.
Power disturbance: In input AC characteristics, if there is any deviation from the
nominal value then it is called power disturbance.
Power factor (displacement): Ratio of the fundamental wave of active power (watts)
to that of the apparent power (volt-amperes) of the fundamental wave is called power
factor. For a pure sinusoidal waveform there exists only the fundamental component.
Therefore the power factor is the cosine angle between the current and the voltage
waveforms;
Transient: In the AC waveform, Sub cycle disturbance shown by brief, sharp
discontinuity of the waveform. This might be additive or subtractive and this may be of
either polarity from the nominal waveform. If there is any sudden change in the current
or voltage in a power system, transients are occurred. Transients are short duration
events. Their characteristics are predominantly determined by the inductance,
resistance, and capacitance of the power network at the point. The major characteristics
that define a transient are the rise time, peak amplitude, the fall time, and the oscillation
frequency.

12
Swell: In AC voltage the increase in RMS at power frequency from half of a cycle to a
few seconds duration. Figure 2.3 shows a swell of 2.5 cycles.

Figure 2.2 Notch & noise

Power factor (total): Ratio between the total active power (in watts) to the total
apparent power (volt-amperes) of the composite wave, which includes all harmonic
frequency components. Because of harmonic frequency components, the total power
factor will be less than that of the displacement power factor, so as the presence of
harmonics tends to increase the displacement between the composite current and
voltage waveforms.
Recovery time: Interval needed for output current or voltage to return to a value within
specifications after step line or load changes.

Figure 2.3 Voltage swell

Ride through: When subjected to total or partial loss of power of a specified duration,
in sustain operation, to measure of the ability of control devices.
Sag: In the AC voltage the RMS reduction at power frequency from half of one cycle
to a few seconds duration.
Surge: A sharp increase in voltage or current of Electrical transient.

13
2.5 POWER QUALITY ISSUES
Power quality is an easy term, nevertheless it describes a different issue which
are found in any electrical power system network and it is a subjective term. The
concept of bad and good power depends on the end user. The consumer feels that the
power is good if a piece of equipment functions satisfactorily. If the equipment fails
prematurely or does not function as intended there is a feeling that the power will be
bad.
Depending on the perspective of the power user In between these limits, many
grades or layers of power quality might exist. A better starting point for solving all
power quality problems is, understanding the power quality issues.

Figure 2.4 Voltage sag

Power frequency disturbances are low-frequency phenomena which results in
voltage swells or sags. They may be load or source generated due to switching
operations or faults in a power system. The susceptibility of electrical equipment is
concerned the end results are the same. Power system transients are short-duration, fast
events that produce distortions such as ringing, notching and impulse. Transient energy
is propagated in power lines, eventually dissipated and transferred to other electrical
circuits are different from the factors which effect power frequency disturbances.
Harmonics in Power system are low frequency phenomena characterized by waveform
distortion. It introduces harmonic frequency components.
Current and Voltage harmonics have undesirable effects on power system
components and power system operation In some instances, interaction between the
power system parameters (R–L–C) and the harmonics can cause severe consequences.
The concept of bonding and grounding is the more complex issues in power quality
studies. For three reasons grounding is done. In the U.S., the fundamental objective of
grounding is safety by the National Electrical Code (NEC) safety grounding is
mandated.

14
The below Fig.2.5 shows the Power quality issue
In case of a ground faults the second reason for bonding and grounding is to
give a low impedance path for the flow of fault current, so that the protective device
from the power source, could isolate the faulted circuit. The third reason for the
grounding is for sensitive electrical equipment is to create a ground reference plane.
This is known as the Signal Reference Ground (SRG).The SRG The configuration may
vary from facility to facility and from user to user. The SRG cannot be an isolated
entity. To create a total ground system it should be bonded to the safety ground of the
facility

Figure 2.5 Power quality issue

Electro Magnetic interference (EMI) refers to the interaction between magnetic
fields and electric fields and sensitive electronic devices and circuits. EMI is a high
frequency phenomenon. The process of connecting EMI to sensitive devices is different
from that of power frequency electrical transients and disturbances. The reduction in
the effects of EMI requires special techniques, as will be seen later.
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is the interacting between conducted or
radiated radio frequency fields and communication equipment and sensitive data.
Including of RFI in the category of EMI is convenient, but the two phenomena are
different.

15
 Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a unpleasant and very common occurrence. In
our day to day lives, ESD is an uncomfortable nuisance we are subjected to when we
open the refrigerated case in the supermarket and door of a car. But, ESD is harmful to
electronic equipment at high levels, which causes damage and malfunction.
Power factor is included for the cause of completing the power quality
discussion. Due to component overload for equipment damage low power factor is
responsible in some cases. In the operation of a power system, Power factor is an
economic issue for the most part. For low power factor the penalty is expected to
increase as utilities are faced increasingly with power demands which exceed
generation capability. How to remedy low power factor an understanding of the power
factor was not any less important than understanding other factors that determine the
health of a power system.

2.5.1 NON LINEAR LOAD

Here we are considering nonlinear loads where current not proportional to
voltage. Voltage supplied to a non linear system, either by generator set or utility, is
sinusoidal. For most inductive loads and resistive, current is also sinusoidal, but
rectifiers charging a battery draw an almost square wave current pulse. AC line current
will flow only when the rectified instantaneous voltage exceeds battery voltage.
Original sine wave voltage from the source now becomes distorted due to voltage drop
across the source impedance during the cycle portion when current is flowing.

2.5.2 NOTCHING PHENOMENON

Current is switched on by SCRs consecutively in a three-phase rectifier circuit.
An SCR conducts only during the time when its particular phase voltage is more
positive than the other two-phase voltages once switched on. In practice, SCR turn on
is delayed to regulate output and does not occur until the oncoming phase voltage is
significantly higher than preceding conducting phase voltage. Current cannot build up
instantly in the oncoming phase nor can it decay instantly in preceding conducting
phase Due to inductance in the SCR source circuit. There is momentary line-to-line
shorting action with Phase 1, which has SCR-1 in the decaying conducting mode, when
the more positive oncoming Phase 2 with SCR-2 is gated on. The resulting short is of
very short duration, but produces a notch in input voltage waves 1 and 2. Notch depth

16
and width during this commutation period are dependent upon SCR firing angle, supply
system impedances and load current.

2.5.3 RINGING EFFECTS

A secondary phenomenon caused by the rapid switching of SCRs is ringing
effect. Ringing is a high frequency oscillation following sudden "turn on" of an SCR
.Due to inherent inductance and capacitance in the circuit elements it is the result of
high frequency resonance occurring in the rectifier source circuit. Ringing and notching
effects can result in severe voltage waveform distortion. The continuous switching
affects the power system severely. This ringing effect causes power distortions in the
system. The inductive effect causes this ringing effect which causes when turning on
the SCR.

2.5.4 HARMONIC CURRENT

The rectifier, because it draws non sinusoidal current from its source, along with
ringing and notching and effects, introduces distortion to the voltage wave from the
source. This is called harmonic distortion. Cyclical waveform is made up of
components consisting of fundamental sine wave plus other sine waves according to
theories of waveform analysis, called harmonics, which are multiples of the
fundamental frequency. The nonlinear source, therefore, does not see distorted current
waveform as a single waveform, but as multiple, fundamental plus harmonic waves.
Harmonics may have severe effects upon the power source connected to the same
source or other loads. It is important to note loads drawing harmonic currents causes
voltage distortion at the source the source does not produce the harmonic distortion.
Effective bus reactance reduces damping with other loads. Motors, in particular,
act as absorbers of momentary voltage irregularities and reduce harmonic content on
the line. Typically, computer room support functions such as HVAC systems, fire
protection systems, chilled water systems and room lighting must also be connected to
the standby generator set. These support systems are often as large as or larger than the
nonlinear load. It is frequently very desirable for system operation and UPS room
sharing a common feeder or power transformer with the UPS and distribution reasons
to have small, three phase, continuously running air handler motors in the computer.
Waveform distortions caused by ringing effect minimized by Resistive loads
very effectively. Resistance acts as an oscillation damper in a resonant circuit. To
17
minimize waveform distortion caused by system oscillation, adding a resistance load is
one technique. This, however, is only effective if high frequency oscillations are the
cause of a problem. If a resistance element will be added for treatment purposes, adding
a capacitor in series with the resistor will reduce fundamental current with minimum
effect on high frequency damping. For attenuation of prevailing harmonics it is
theoretically possible to add a low pass filter to the generator output. However, it should
be a last resort consideration. Practical tuned circuit filters generally represent
compromise and may introduce more problems than they solve. A better approach is to
add or specify filtering or other harmonic attenuating options such as isolation
transformers at the distortion source. Consultation with the device suppler usually
reveals such options are available. It is frequently very desirable for system operation
and UPS room sharing a common feeder or power transformer with the UPS and
distribution reasons to have small, three phase, continuously running air handler motors
in the computer.

2.5.5 POWER FACTOR

Generators are rated for 0.8 power factor. Connected loads may have a lower
power factor. Displacement of current with respect to voltage occurs with rectifier
phase control. Line power factor can vary depending upon SCR conduction angle.
Compounding this are the high frequency harmonic currents which primarily result in
added KVAR. Consult with the device supplier for specific input KVA and power
factor.

2.6 OVERVIEW OF POWER QUALITY

The economical impact in industrial environment as a consequence of an
electrical failure, introduces the study of power quality, and power quality monitoring.
The main preoccupation of producers and consumers is the avoidance of any electrical
energy failure and the maintenance of the RMS mains voltage inside the range of ±10%
of the nominal voltage, according to the limits defined by standard EN50160. The
commercial power quality monitors consider these aspects. The events detected are
typically: counting the duration and the number of occurrences of electrical failures and
the deviations of the RMS mains voltage. Typically the events detected have a duration
superior to one period of mains voltage that is 20ms.

18
 In the past loads like lamps, 50Hz transformers, induction motors and heating
resistances were the loads connected to the mains network. The concepts of power
quality and monitoring are related with their susceptibility. The new electronic loads
are much more sensitive than the ones referred. Voltage transients, with short duration
(less than 10ms), in the mains voltage can damage those equipments. It is true that an
electrical failure may represent a severe economical impact. However the damage on
sensitive equipment, present in the production process, can have the same or worse
impact, as consequence of voltage transients, particularly if this equipment remains
damaged. Considering the relative economic impact of power quality failures, a
different approach to power monitoring is introduced in this project.
Power quality is a increasing concern for a large range of customers. During
momentary voltage sags industrial customers can experience interruptions to important
processes connected with remote faults on the utility system. From adjustable speed
drives (ASDs) and other electronic loads.
By harmonics in the plants Power factor correction procedures are complicated.
High efficiency electronic office equipment and lighting are installed by the
commercial customers, resulting in higher harmonic levels in the buildings. This
harmonic source cause transformer overheating and causes excessive neutral currents.
The residential customers are concerned about the impact of momentary
interruptions on their electronic equipment and surge protection for sensitive
electronics in the home. In a variety of ways, Electric utilities are dealing with these
problems.
Members who are attended to this seminar will develop a basic understanding
of important power quality concerns. The different categories of power quality
problems being experienced by customers, will learned and possible solutions and also
the methods for analyzing these problems will be learned. an overview of important
standards relating to power quality an overview of important standards relating to
power quality will be provided by the seminar.

2.6.1 DISTRIBUTION POWER QUALITY

Electric distribution system power quality is a increasing concern. Customers
require higher quality service due to more sensitive electronic and computer-controlled
loads. Voltage sags and Capacitor switching events combined with old faults which
never caused problems in the past, now cause the distorted SCR circuit input current
19
waveform and equipment tripping. Customer loads are increasing generating amounts
of harmonic currents which can be magnified on the distribution system because of
resonance conditions.
By establishing programs electric utilities have addressed these concerns which
can help customers for evaluating problems and develop solutions. The solutions are
often not simple because the problems involve interactions between the power system
and the customer equipment and electrical system. The utility personnel dealing with
power quality and distribution system design need to develop an understanding of how
events on the distribution system can impact customer operations.

2.6.2 POWER QUALITY IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT

Power quality is important to commercial and industrial customers as facilities
and process operation depends upon sensitive electronic equipment. The voltage sags
caused by remote faults on the utility system which results in equipment dropouts which
affect entire processes. The applications of ASD are resulting in an increased potential
and higher harmonic distortion levels exists for resonances with power factor correction
capacitors. Capacitor switching and switching operation causes transient over voltages
within the plant can cause component failures and disoperation in sensitive equipment.

20
 CHAPTER-3
POWER FILTERS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Normally, a harmonic compensation technique can be provided to a system by
using various filters, these compensation techniques done in supply network by
controlling the current harmonics at low to medium voltage distribution level or voltage
control at high voltage distribution level or for reactive power controlled at low to
medium voltage at distribution system. The above mentioned objectives may be
combined in a single circuit to get different functions as discussed or if we provide in
separate active filters which can attack each aspect independently.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE FILTERS

The block diagram shown in figure 3.1 represents the key components of a
typical active power filter along with their interconnectivity. The reference signal
estimator observes the harmonic current from the nonlinear load along with information
about further system variables.

Figure 3.1 Generalized Block diagram For Active Power Filter

The overall system controller drives by the reference signal from the current
estimator, and also other signals. This in turn provides the control for the PWM
switching pattern generator. The output of the PWM pattern generator controls the
power circuit through a suitable interface. The power circuit in the comprehensive block
diagram can be connected in series, parallel or parallel/series configurations, based on

21
the transformer used. Active power filters according to can be classified depends on the
following criteria:
1. Power ratings of equipment and speed response required in compensated systems;
2. Power-circuit design and connections are required.
3. System parameters need to be compensated;
4. Control techniques are need to employed; and
5. Topology used for measuring the reference current/voltage.
3.2.1 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO POWER RATING AND SPEED OF
RESPONSE IN COMPENSATED SYSTEM
The block diagram shown in figure 3.2 shows the classification based on this
criterion. The size of nonlinear loads plays a major role in deciding the way different
control methods are contrapted. The active filter required for compensation must be
convenient for the load and this assessment affects the speed response. In general a
reciprocal relationship exists between the costs of a particular system to the required
speed of response.

Figure 3.2 Subdivisions of active filters according to speed response and power rating

3.3 LOW POWER APPLICATION

Low power applications, govern appliances with a power rating under 100kVA.
Applications of these sizes are commonly related with suburban (residential) areas,
commercial buildings, hospitals and for a wide range of standard sized factory loads
and machine drive systems. Filters chosen for this power range employ complicated

22
techniques catering with high pulse number PWM voltage or current source inverters.
The reaction time for smaller appliances is reasonably much faster than other sizes
ranging from 10 microseconds (us) to 10 milliseconds (ms). This type comprises the
following two types.

3.3.1 SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEM

Commonly single phase active filters required for small power rating loads.
They are normally most engaged in commercial buildings with a more number of
personal computers. This purpose means that current harmonics can be treated at the
point of common coupling (PCC) of loads. It is often inexpensive and realistic to install
single phase filters on distribution based sites of reduced size capacity than a high rated
filter installed. This is owing to the more number of the single-phase loads within the
building and the dangerous consequences linked with the presence of large amounts of
harmonic in the neutral line.
As the operating conditions vary, this allows for new selective compensation.
Owing to the load capacity drawn from residential loads, it is unusual for a high
concentration of harmonics, and thus the impacts on the neutral lines are not important.
Residential customers tend not invest in purchasing active filters because there are no
necessary harmonic regulations. Yet, the main benefit of such type of an installation are
that operating frequencies can be improved moving to enhanced performance since only
less ratings are employed.

3.3.2 THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

For three-phase applications the three-phase filters need to be installed.
Depending upon whether the loads are balanced or unbalanced the dissimilar filter
configurations can be tested and installed. At levels below hundred (100) kVA, to
compensate for three individual single phases in one unit or for a single three-phase
supply a three phase active filter can be reconfigured. When non-linear loads are
balanced, all three phase impedances are equal. A single three-phase inverter
configuration is employed. This choice of inverter is used when the objective is to
remove current harmonics as possible, assuming that in each phase, magnitudes and
respective phase angles are same. While when nonlinear loads are unbalanced, or
supply voltages are unsymmetrical, three single phase inverter circuits are used.

23
3.4 HIGH POWER APPLICATIONS
At high power ratings, the use of active filters becomes very uneconomical. This
is because of the short of high switching frequency power devices that can control the
current flow. Thus, this is a major drawback for such systems. In addition, even the
latest advances in semiconductor technology still fall short as additional high voltages
of a few hundred kilovolts cannot be tolerated. The series-parallel mixture is possible
however; execution is difficult and also cost-ineffective. Harmonic pollution upstream
affecting high power ranges above 10MVA is not such a problem compared beside low
power systems. The execution of single and three phase filters downstream at the low
voltage system provides appropriate compensation such that important harmonic
pollution upstream is negligible. The static-VAR compensation is then the major
apprehension and is typically compensated for by using customary static power
conditioners/filters as well as several sets of synchronous condensers connected in
parallel and cascaded multilevel-inverter VAR compensators. The necessary response
time for such cases is in the range of tens of seconds, which is enough for contactors
and circuit breakers to operate after taking the optimal-switching decision. Power
fluctuations in the range of a few seconds are, on the other hand, treated by the
generating stations' subsidiary devices.

3.5 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO POWER CIRCUIT,

CONFIGURATIONS AND CONNECTIONS

Figure 3.3 Subdivision of power system filters according to power circuit configurations and
connections
The choice of power circuit chose for the active filter very much influence its
competence and accuracy in providing true compensation. It is therefore significant that
the correct circuit design is chosen. Figure 3.3 classes’ three major types of filter
structures along with the relevant power circuit.

24
3.6 SHUNT ACTIVE FILTERS
Shunt active filters are by far the most extensively accept and leading filter of
choice in most industrial processes. Figures 3.4 and 3.5 show the system design of the
shunt design. The active filter is connected in parallel at the PCC and is feed from the
main power circuit.

Figure 3.4 Shunt active filter used alone

Figure 3.5 Shunt active filter network configuration

The purpose of the shunt active filter is to supply contrasting harmonic current
to the nonlinear load effectively ensuing in a net harmonic current. This means that the
supply signals remain purely primary. Shunt filters also have the extra advantage of
causal to reactive power reward and balancing of three-phase currents. Since the active
filter is connected in parallel to the PCC, only the compensation current plus a small
amount of active basic current is carried in the unit. For an amplified range of power
ratings, several shunt active filters can be combined together to resist higher currents.
This design consists of four different categories of circuit, namely inverter

25
configurations, switched-capacitor circuits, lattice-structured filters and voltage-
regulator-type.

3.7 SERIES ACTIVE FILTERS

The purpose of the series active filter is to preserve a pure sinusoidal voltage
waveform across the load. This is achieved by producing a PWM voltage waveform
which is added or subtracted beside the supply voltage waveform. The choice of power
circuit used in most cases is the voltage-fed PWM inverter devoid of a current minor
loop.

Figure 3.6 Series active filter configuration

Figure 3.7 Series active filter used alone

The active filter acts as a voltage source and thus it is frequently a ideal solution
of harmonic producing loads such as great capacity diode rectifiers with capacitive
loads. In wide-ranging, series active filters are less usually used against the shunt
design. contrasting the shunt filter which carries largely compensation current, the
series circuit has to grip high load currents. This causes an increased rating of the filter
appropriate to carry the increased current

26
 CHAPTER-4
ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING TECHNOLOGIES

Figure 4.1 represents the factors affecting the evolution of charging

technologies. It is important to understand that the charging location also decides the
technology being adopted.

Figure 4.1 Factors that decides charging technologies

This section has been divided into four main categories that will be considered
in the following sections:
1. Types of EV charging technologies
2. Types of EV charging systems and processes
3. Grid infrastructure required for EV charging stations
4. Software environment at charging station, DISCOM control centre and consumer

4.1 Types of EV Charging Technologies

The evolution in battery system technologies is crucial for the development of
EVs from different aspects: efficiency, EV range, costs, etc. Charging/discharging
techniques and capabilities also play an important role. They should be adopted for
different situations (at home, at work, along highways, etc.) and meet drivers’ needs in
order to ensure EV usability and therefore improve their acceptability.
EV charging can be classified as on-board and off-board charging. These two
methods have both unidirectional and bidirectional power flow capability, which means
this design allows charging the EV battery from the grid as well as power injection back

27
to the grid. Figure 4.2 shows the typical layout of on-board and off-board charging
topology of an EV.

Figure 4.2 On-board and Off-board charging topology of EV

In on-board charging, the charger assembly is placed in body of the vehicle and
this restricts the size and weight because of the limited space that is available on the
vehicle. These are mostly used in level-1 and level-2 AC chargers. In off-board
charging, the charger assembly is shifted off board and the rectified output of the ACDC
converter will be given directly to the EV charging inlet. This is mostly used on fast
charging. Most of the first generation EVs have the capability for AC charging and this
is widely seen as the dominant form of vehicle charging. Present generation EVs are
built with the capability to be charged at both AC and DC charging stations (DC
charging is used for higher rate, faster charging applications). For instance, Nissan and
Mitsubishi EV models have such feature and provide connectors for both Level 1 and
Level 2 charging connectors while purchasing the vehicle. Level 1 and Level 2 EV
charging are the most common and are found in most domestic charging station

28
installations, while DC ‘fast’ charging is most often associated with operations in
commercial charging station or fleet charging environments.

4.1.1 Level 1 AC Charging

Level 1 AC charging uses a standard 120-volt, single-phase, three-prong
grounded electrical outlet (NEMA 5-15R standard plug) to charge an EV with around
15-20A of current. Level 1 charging outlets should have ground fault interrupts (GFI)
installed and 15A minimum branch circuit protection. Charging times for all EVs vary
widely depending on the size of the on-board energy storage system and the driving
habits of the operator. Level 1 charging is most effective when the vehicle can be
recharged in less than 8 to 10 hours (about 30-40 miles of electric driving). For example,
using Level 1 to fully recharge a Chevrolet Volt will take about 8-10 hours while fully
recharging a Nissan Leaf takes up to 20-24 hours. The Level 1 EVSE (EV Supply
Equipment) is typically provided with the new vehicle, so Level 1 charging has zero
additional cost to the EV owner as long as an outlet is available near the vehicle parking
location. In India, AC001 is the equivalent charger for Level-1 AC charger. AC001
refers charging point at 230V standard single phase AC supply with a maximum output
of 15A and at a maximum output power of 3.3kW. EVs with on-board charger will be
connected to AC001 charger.

4.1.2 Level 2 AC Charging

Level-2 charging is used for both public and private applications. Level 2
EVSEs require 208-240-volt single phase supply with up to 80A maximum continuous
current. EVs with 60-80 miles range requires around 3-7 hours for full charging. Level
2 charging service also requires additional grounding, personal protection system
features, a no-load make/break interlock connection, and a safety breakaway for the
cable & connector. In India, Type 2 AC charger with minimum 22 kW is adopted at
public charging stations. However, as India is unlikely to have on-board chargers with
higher rating in near future, the definition and building of AC fast charger beyond 3.3
kW will be adopted accordingly by Standards committee.

4.1.3 DC Fast Charging

Fast charging is used for rapid recharges of EV batteries and will most likely be
found in commercial stations and EV corporate fleet depots.
29
 Charging Voltage Charging Protection type Typical Location
level mode power

Level 1 120 V None or break 1.2-1.8 Primarily

AC kW AC residential in
- in cable North America

Mode 1 None 3.6-11 Wall socket in

kW AC europe; Primarily
for 2&3Wheelers
200-240
Mode 2 Pilot function 3.6-22 Home and
V AC
Level 2 and breaker in workplace with
cable kW AC cable or basic
station

Mode 3 Pilot function 3.6-22 Home,workplace

and breaker in and public with
hard wired kW AC hardwired station
charging
satation

Fast 400- Mode 4 Monitoring and 50 kW Public,frequently

charging 1000 communication or more intercity
between vehicle
V DC and EVSE

Table 4.1: Characteristics of charging levels as defined by the SAE and charging modes as
defined by the IEC

4.1.4 Wireless Charging

Wireless charging is a breakthrough technology that allows an EV owner to
charge the vehicle using either inductive or capacitive power transfer techniques while
in motion. The power generated by wind or solar resources nearby are connected to the
road systems that are delivered wirelessly. Such vehicles can have smaller batteries that
results in cost reduction of the vehicle and accelerate its adoption. The technology to
30
enable effective dynamic Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) is still in nascent stage. It is
of two types as the following:

1. Inductive Wireless Power Transfer

Inductive WPT uses coils which are enabled in roadway and in EV, are coupled
through magnetic fields to charge the battery in EV. However, for magnetic flux
guidance and shielding requires ferrite cores, making them expensive and bulky. Also,
to limit the losses in the ferrites, the operating frequency is limited to 100 kHz which
results in larger size of coils and low power transfer densities. The disadvantage of this
technique is that, very high-power capability coils are needed to deliver the required
energy to the vehicle in very less time frames during which the vehicle passes over a
charging coil. Because of the above-mentioned reasons, inductive WPT is yet to
become commercially viable. Schematic model of Inductive WPT is shown in Figure
4.3.

Figure 4.3 Inductive wireless power transfer schematic model

2. Capacitive Wireless Power Transfer

Capacitive WPT uses coils which are enabled in roadway and in EVs which are
coupled through electric fields to charge the battery in EVs. These are potentially
advantageous than inductive charging because of the relatively directed nature of
electric field which minimizes the requirement of electromagnetic field shielding. This
type of charging does not use ferrites and because of this feature, the charging systems

31
can operate with high frequencies that enable them to be compact and less expensive.
But, because of the small amount of capacitance between the road and the EV plates,
the power transfer will be effective only at higher frequencies making the design highly
challenging. Schematic model of captive WPT is shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Capacitive wireless power transfer schematic model

The major challenges associated with capacitive charging for EV are the following:
• To maintain effective power transfer depending on couplers’ relative position changes
Proposed standards for charging technologies for India taking inputs from are presented
in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Proposed charging capacities for India
Charging level Voltage Charging Typical power Location
mode

Level 1 AC, 230V AC, - 3.3kW,AC Residential and

workplace
AC001 1-phase

Mode 1 Up to 10 kW Residential and

workplace
Level 2 AC, 415V AC, AC

AC002 3-Phase Mode 2 Up to 44 kW Workplace,

public and private
AC charging station

Level 1 DC, 48/72 V - 10/15 kW Workplace,

public and private
DC001 charging station

Level 2 DC Up to 1000 - Up to 250 kW Public, private

charging station,
DC002 V DC intercity

32
4.2 Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE)
Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) is a component in EV infrastructure
that supplies electrical energy from an electricity source to recharge the EV batteries.
What is EVSE?
The National Electric Code (NEC) defines EVSE as: “The conductors, including the
ungrounded, grounded, and equipment grounding conductors and the electric vehicle
connectors, attachment plugs, and all other fittings, devices, power outlets, or apparatus
installed specifically for the purpose of delivering energy from the premises wiring to
the electric vehicle”.

Figure 4.5 EVSE installed at BESCOM

For wet and/or outdoor locations, the current NEC requires the use of Ground
Fault Current Interruption (GFCI) devices. The GFCI is a protection device that
operates on the principle of monitoring the imbalance of current between the circuits,
ungrounded and grounded conductor. It de-energises a circuit or a portion of it within
an established period of time when current to ground exceeds a predetermined value
that is less than that required to operate the overcurrent protective device of the supply
circuit. The NEC requires GFCI outlets to be installed near sinks, garages and in
outdoor locations. Since there is no way to ensure that an EV is plugged into a GFCI
protected outlet in every instance, the NEC mandates that the vehicle charge cord
carries an integral ground fault protection device. To distinguish these devices from

33
typical GFCIs, they are referred to as Charge Current Interruption Devices (CCID). To
support the above statement, the provisions mentioned by NEC in Article 625 states
that, an electric vehicle should be connected to a supply of electricity by conductive-
cable connected charging equipment or inductive-wireless charging equipment. The
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Recommended Practice J 1772 covers the
general physical, electrical, functional and performance requirements that facilitates
conductive charging of EVs. SAE J 1772 , also known as a “J plug”, is a North
American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by the SAE
International. The J 1772-2009 connector is designed for single phase electrical systems
with 120 V or 240 V such as those used in North America and Japan.

4.2.1 EV Charging Point Connectors

The EVSE charging point connectors can be broadly classified into two types
namely, AC charging and DC charging. The International Electrochemical Commission
(IEC) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) define plug types and power
levels of EVSE. The categorizations of charging types are presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Charger types and their technical specifications

34
 The current charging rate limit in power and time for vehicles in the market are
represented in Figure 4.6. For example, with 500 kW of maximum acceptance power
rate, Tesla model with charge from 20% SoC to full capacity in 9.6 minutes and 48
minutes at maximum acceptance power rate of 100 kW.

Figure 4.6 Relationship between maximum power acceptance rate of a vehicle versus battery
capacity and pack technology with current vehicle examples

Currently, there are major deployments of fast-chargers worldwide owing to an

organic rise in the number and location of fast-chargers and also as a result of national
plans of respective countries. From the world statistics, it is clear that the charging

35
infrastructure plays an important role to improve the EV penetration. Also, CHAdeMo
and GB/T are the most preferred charging port technologies in Japan and China
respectively, while CCS dominates in Europe and USA. A number of major new fast-
charging networks and pilot installations have been announced around the world,
providing indications about the future of the E-mobility. Table 4.5 summarizes
the plans in major markets around the world, including the number of charging stations,
technical specifications, major funders or partners, and timeline.

Figure 4.7 Number of fast-charge points in major electric vehicle markets by plug type as of January
1, 2018
Table 4.4 Characteristics of in-progress fast-charging deployments in leading markets
Networ Region Number Station types Major Timeline
k name of fast partners and
chargers funders
Cycle 1 to be
completed in june
2019, with activites
continuing until
Electrif United About CHAdcMO,C Volkswagen
2027
y States CS up to 350
Americ 1,800 kW
a

BMW, Under construction

Daimler, ford through 2020
and
volkswagen
IonityEurope(19 About CCS up to
with its
350 kW
Countries) 400 subsidisries
Audi and
porsche

36
 Trans- Canada 102 CHAdcMO, Natural In operation by early
Canada css Resources 2019
(Ontario Canada,
eCamion,
And
Leclanche,
Manitoba) SGEM
State China 10,000 GB/T State Grid Completed in 2020,
Grid locations 29,000 stations in
, 120,000 2018
units

4.3 EV Battery Chargers: Principle of Operation

This section will further elaborate the operation of EV Battery Chargers
(EVBC) for both on-board and off-board systems. Internally, system of EVBC will
consist of power electronic converters and control systems which control the EV battery
charging. Figure 4.8 shows the general structure of an EVBC. It consists of two power
electronic converters: one at grid side and other at battery side and digital control
system which is common to both converters. The digital control system is responsible
to generate gate pulses to turn the power electronics devices ON/OFF. The gate pulses
are generated generally by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) by using closed loop
control algorithm. As discussed in the previous section, an EVBC is called on-board
charger when the converters are installed inside the EV and it is called as off-board
charger when the converters are installed outside the EV.

Figure 4.8 Structure of EV Battery Charger (EVBC) with digital control system

37
 The interface of EV with the grid system through an on-board EVBC and an
off-board EVBC is shown in Figure 4.9. The power converters in on-board EVBC will
ensure the bidirectional power flow between the electrical grid and the EV battery.

Figure 4.9 Interface of an EV with the power grid through an on-board EVBC and an off-board
EVBC

Both on-board and off-board EVBCs use both grid side converter and battery
side converter which can be controlled by either current or voltage as per the selected
operating mode of the charging system as shown in Figure 4.8. Let’s say, constant
current mode till SoC (State of Charge) of the battery reaches to 75% and then constant
voltage mode till full charge. The operating mode is defined by specific control
algorithms in continuous interaction with Battery Management System (BMS), i.e., the
BMS establishes the limits of voltage and current during the charging or discharging
processes. Also, due to weight and volume restrictions from the EV perspective,
normally on-board EVBCs are designed for lower power ratings than offboard EVBCs.
However, in both on-board and off-board EVBCs, the converters isolate the grid and
battery. This will indirectly ensure safe operation and reduce operating voltage levels
(i.e., the levels between the grid voltage and the EV battery).

4.3.1 Interaction with Grid

The interactions of EVBC with the grid under various operation modes with
respect to the type of chargers whether on-board or off-board are presented in Table
4.6.

38
 Table 4.5 EVBC interaction with grid

Figure 4.10 On-board EVBC: G2V and V2G operation mode

On-board EVBC in G2V operation mode is the simple and common mode of
operation when onboard EVBC is connected with the grid through a smart meter with
two way communication as shown in Figure 4.10. Under controlled G2V operation
mode, EV battery charging is controlled as per the other connected loads. For example,
if total load at home is at the maximum, the EV charging is controlled as minimum and
vice versa. In V2G operation mode as shown in Figure 4.10, the stored energy in EV
battery will be injected back to grid as per the requirements of the grid management
system. Two-way communication with grid operator or grid aggregator is essential to
operate the EV in this mode. In both G2V and V2G operation modes, EVBC will absorb
or inject the current, where grid-side converter operates with a current feedback control,
i.e., the voltage is imposed by the grid and the EVBC defines the current waveform.

Figure 4.11 On-board EVBC: V2L operation mode

39
 On-Board EVBC in V2L operation mode as shown in Figure 4.11, acts as
voltage source. The EVBC operates independently from the grid to provide the power
to loads. In this mode, the grid side converter operates with a voltage feedback control.

Figure 4.12 On-board EVBC: V2H operation mode

On-board EVBC in V2H operation mode as shown in Figure 4.12, act as

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). In this mode, two-way communications between
smart home and EVBC is essential in order to identify a power outage and even to some
selected priority loads.

Figure 4.13 Off-board EVBC: G2V and V2G operation mode

Off-board EVBC in G2V and V2G operation modes are similar to on-board
EVBC except the power rating of EVBC as shown in Figure 4.13. Bi-directional
communication is essential to work off-board EVBC in V2G operation mode. Off-
board EVBC used for fleet charging and charging swapping batteries plays an important
role in supporting the demand management of the grid by controlling drawal/injection
of active power from/to grid respectively.

40
 Figure 4.14 Off-board EVBC as Power Quality Compensator
It is also noted that off-board EVBC used in DC fast charging stations may not
be in operation when there is nil charging activity. This creates a new opportunity to
compensate power quality problems like current harmonics, current imbalances and
power factor caused by the non-linear loads in the distribution grid. Off-board EVBC
can support the power quality of the grid even it is charging the EV in charging station
based on the its rated capacity both in G2V and V2G operation modes. Figure 4.14
shows the connectivity of Off-board EVBC near to industrial loads to compensate the
power quality issues.

Figure 4.15 Off-board EVBC as power quality compensator with renewables

Off-board EVBC along with solar roof-top generation shares the same grid side
converter, in which the EVBC is enabled as power quality compensator that makes the
system more robust and reliable in its operation with respect to grid as shown in Figure
4.15. Similarly, an additional battery storage implemented on top of this system is
presented in Figure 4.16.

41
 Figure 4.16 Off-board EVBC as power quality compensator with renewables and storage

4.3.2 Power Electronics in Electric Vehicles

In the past decades, power device technology has made a tremendous progress.
Among the existing power devices, including the thyristor, Gate Turn-Off thyristor
(GTO), power Bipolar-Junction Transistor (BJT), Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) etc, the IGBT is almost exclusively used for modern EVs. Both DC and Ac
motors are used in EVs at initial phase. However, the industry focuses more on AC
motors in recent times considering the advantages such as, high power rating and long
range, less overheating comparing to Dc motor during long drives in spite of its higher
cost. AC motor can serve as a generator and bring power back to its batteries. AC motor
will handles rougher terrain more effectively and also allows more acceleration. Figure
4.17 presents the power electronics of internal battery charger with AC motor as a
traction motor. It is formed in two stages: AC/DC converter and buck chopper. With
the help of relays, the topology is switched from the traction operation to the charging
operation. In the traction operation, the three phase relay connects the converter
(connected with battery) with traction motor. In this operation, the converter acts as an
inverter and converts the dc power from battery to ac power and supplies to the traction
motor to run the EV. In the charging operation, the converter acts as a rectifier and
connects with AC charging point and battery, bypassing the traction motor through
relay. In both rectifier and inverter, the converter operation will be controlled by IGBT
switch ON/OFF gate signal generated by PWM technique. AC filter plays the two-fold
role of decoupling the grid from the switched voltage at the input of the PWM rectifier
and of reducing the high-frequency current harmonics absorbed by the AC battery

42
charger. The AC filter is aimed at forcing the absorbed current harmonics to meet the
IEC 61000- 3-12 and IEC 61000-3-2 standards.

Figure 4.17 Power electronics of an internal battery charger

4.4 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION

Now a days, Electric vehicle charging stations are not sufficient. There are two
types of charging stations existing. public and private charging stations. Government
has established few charging stations in different cities but maximum charging stations
are private. These private charging stations have taken a higher charging rate. Fig. 4.18
shows a block diagram of an EVCS which comprises transformer, rectifier and
converter. Basically, rectifier and converter make a charger which used for EV
charging.

Figure 4.18 Block diagram of an Electric Vehicle Charging Station

As the EV loads are increasing day by day in a rapid manner, thus the impacts
of EVs should be analyzed. The impact of mass EV penetration on power system is
expressed in Fig. 4.19 below. Although EV penetration has cheapest transportation
system, lower GHG emission facility, smart grid facilities. But negative impacts on
power system network are very much significant.

43
 Figure 4.19 Impacts of Electric Vehicle
The low voltage profile becomes a threatening issue induced by EV charging.
Voltage stability refers to the ability that the power network being stable after the
sudden increase or decrease in the loads. EV loads take large amount of power at a very
short duration. Thus, voltage profile will be degraded and grid will be unstable.
Mass deployment of EVs creates an additional stress on distribution transformers and
their life cycles. Another problem is that, the EV charging rate should be limited per
day and charging stations should keep far away from transformer for reducing power
loss. Harmonic current is responsible for occurring load losses in transformer whereas
harmonic voltage incurs no load loss. Due to these harmonic losses, heating is increased
relative to the pure sinusoidal wave. This harmonic withstand capability can be
measured by a factor called k- factor.

44
 CHAPTER-5
SIMULATION RESULTS

The impacts of EVCS on utility grid are analyzed using MATLAB SIMULINK
model shown in below figure.

Figure 5.1 Simulink model of Electric Vehicle Charging Station without filter

Figure 5.2 Input Voltage, after connecting Charger.

45
 Figure 5.3 Input Voltage, before connecting Charger.

Voltage at the distribution end also reduces when multiple EV chargers are
connected. The overloading due to large number of EVs causes this problem. The
voltage profile variation before connecting EV charger and after connecting EV charger
is shown in Fig. 5.2 & 5.3. Fig. 5.2 shows that, the voltage is affected by harmonics
disturbance compared to the voltage without connection of EV chargers in Fig. 5.3.

Figure 5.4 Simulink model of Electric Vehicle Charging Station with filter

46
 Figure 5.5 Input Voltage, after connecting Charger.

Figure 5.6 (a) Harmonics, when 1 EV chargers are connected at a charging station

Figure 5.6 (b) Harmonics, when 3 EV chargers are connected at a charging station

47
 Figure 5.6 (c) Harmonics, when 5 EV chargers are connected at a charging station

Harmonics are the disturbances of a power system. EV charger is non-linear

load and when it connected in the power system then it generates harmonics. As the EV
charger normally connected at the power distribution network for charging, the
aggregated effects of harmonics can be threat for the whole power system. In the
MATLAB/Simulink modeling, the harmonics generated at the different ratio of EV
charging is shown in below Fig. 5.6 (a), (b) & (c).

48
 CHAPTER-6
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC
VEHICLES

6.1 ADVANTAGES
 Electric vehicles do not require gas to run : In the manufacturing of electric vehicles,
companies use the electric engine for its working. Unlike other vehicles, which require
a process of transforming fuel into energy, EVs worked on its electrical charging and
did not require gas. Due to no gas requirement, it saves your time to go to the gas station
in cold weather or snow to fill out the gas cylinder. You can charge your electric vehicle
by just providing them the electricity at your home or workplace.
 Electric vehicle combat the noise pollution : Electric cars care about human health
so prevent the environment from noise pollution. Electrical engines used in the making
of electric cars are much quieter than other fuel-orientated cars. Moreover, the wheels
of EVs work smoothly without creating loud sound.
 Electric vehicles give smooth drive : Electric vehicles give smooth running as the
other expensive cars do. You will feel no bumps and jumps while running your electric
vehicle on the road. It will go smoothly on a long journey as well. The electric engine
produces high-level torque that gives the smooth acceleration to the car wheels.
 Electric vehicles enable home charging : There is no need to reach the petrol station
for fuel refilling because you can charge your car by plugin the switch into the charging
slot. It will charge atomically with electricity. Anyone having an EV can install electric
vehicle charger at his or her home. You can control the charging process just by
downloading the mobile application on your phone.

6.2 DISADVANTAGES
 High intial cost : Electric vehicles are still very expensive and many consumers
consider them not as affordable as conventional vehicles.

 Charging station limitations: People who need to drive long distances are worried
about getting suitable charging stations midway which is not available everywhere.
 Recharging takes time: Unlike conventional cars that require a few minutes for
refilling fuel, recharging of the electric vehicle takes much more time which is generally
a few hours.

49
 Limited choices: Presently there aren’t too many electric models of cars available to
choose from when it comes to the looks, designs, or customized versions.
 Less driving range: The driving range of the electric vehicles is found to be less as
compared to conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles can be suitable for day-to-day
travel but can be problematic for a long-distance journey.

50
 CONCLUSION
Prominent features of less environmental pollution & cheapest mode of
transportation makes EV market more attractive to the consumers. As maximum EVs
are charged at residential connection due to the lack of charging stations, the power
sector has been failed to earn the profit from this sector. However, due to some reasons
EVs penetration makes power system more vulnerable and effect of power quality. In
this project, the power quality issues like harmonics, voltage fluctuation, transformer
power losses are analyzed using MATLAB/Simulink. In addition to this, the mitigation
technique using available renewable resources is also discussed in this project.
Although the EVs have several benefits as like stabilizing the grid at under loaded
condition, lower GHG emission but the power quality issues should regulate properly
for sustainable development in the power sector.

51
 REFERENCES

1. Wang, Z.; Yang, L. Delinking indicators on regional industry development and

carbon emissions: Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei economic band case. Ecol. Indic. 2015, 48,
41–48.
2. Wang, Q.; Rongrong, L.; Rui, J. Decoupling and Decomposition Analysis of Carbon
Emissions from Industry: A Case Study from China. Sustainability 2016, 10, 1059–
1076.
3. Blesl, M.; Das, A.; Fahl, U.; Remme, U. Role of energy efficiency standards in
reducing CO2 emissions in Germany: An assessment with TIMES. Energy Policy 2007,
35, 772–785.
4. Alam, M.M.; Mekhilef, S.; Seyedmahmoudian, M.; Horan, B. Dynamic Charging of
Electric Vehicle with Negligible Power Transfer Fluctuation. Energies 2017, 10, 701.
5. Foley, A.M.; Winning, I.J.; Gallachóir, B.P. State-of-the-art in electric vehicle
charging infrastructure. In Proceedings of the Vehicle Power and Propulsion (VPPC),
Lille, France, 1–3 September 2010; pp. 1– 6.

52