Properties of Air and Other Gases

Chapter 1
Properties of Air and Other Gases

The thermodynamic and transport properties of gases and vapors are important in fan engineering. This chapter deals with the thermodynamic properties, especially pressure, temperature, humidity, density, and enthalpy Transport properties, such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity, are dealt with in subsequent chapters. The gaseous materials most frequently encountered in fan engineering are air and water vapor; accordingly, most of the data are for these substances. Some formulae have been written specifically for these materials, but most are generalized to accommodate any gas. Atmospheric Air Atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air, water vapor, and impurities. Dry air is a mechanical mixture of gases, whose principal constituents are listed in Table 1.1. (The table values may be considered representative of the composition of normal outdoor air throughout the troposphere.) The amount of water vapor in atmospheric air will depend on weather conditions. The nature and amount of impurities in the atmosphere depend on the forces at work in producing and dispersing contaminants. Industrial, urban, rural, seaside, and other areas have characteristic atmospheres due to differences in impurities.
Table 1.1 Normal Composition of Dry Outdoor Air Component Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Carbon Dioxide Volume Fraction 0.7809 0.2095 0.0093 0.0003 Mass Fraction 0.7553 0.2315 0.0128 0.0004
Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff: "Standardization of Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 55, 1949, pp. 462-464,
The reference for Table 1.1 lists neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, xenon, ozone, and radon, totaling less than 0.0025 percent by volume, as the residual part of atmospheric air. ASHRAE1 also lists methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur .
1
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry ASHRAE, New York, 1977, p. 3.
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dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and iodine, totaling 0.0003 percent by volume, as constituents of normal, clean, dry atmospheric air. ASHRAE considers all these gases in the calculation of the apparent molecular weight of clean, dry atmospheric air and obtains a value of 28.9645. Rounding off and lumping the residuals with the nitrogen, as has been done in Table 1.1, yields an apparent molecular weight of 28.964. (See the section on molecular weight.) Standard Atmosphere In 1952, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics adopted the International Civil Aviation Organization's Standard Atmosphere. Portions of this Standard are given in Table 1.2. (The reference contains much more extensive data in both U.S. and metric units.) Temperatures t are based on 15C at sea level and a lapse rate of 0.0065C/m throughout the troposphere, and they are assumed to be constant throughout the stratosphere. The tropopause is considered to be at the level where the temperature becomes 56.50C. Pressures p are based on 101.325 kPa at sea level, a gas constant of 287.04 J/kg-K, and the perfect gas laws. Densities are based on the temperature and pressure at the altitude Z and the perfect gas laws. Absolute viscosities , kinematic viscosities , and speeds of sound c are based on relationships that will be explained in later sections dealing with these subjects. Table 1.2 Standard Atmospheric Data vs. Altitude Z ft -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 t F 62.6 60.8 59.0 57.2 55.4 53.7 51.9 50.1 48.3 46.5 44.7 43.0 41.2 39.4 37.6 35.8 34.0 32.3 30.5 p in. Hg 31.02 30.47 29.92 29.38 28.86 28.33 27.82 27.32 26.82 26.33 25.84 25.37 24.90 24.43 23.98 23.53 23.09 22.65 22.22
lbm/ft3 .0787 .0776 .0765 .0754 .0743 .0732 .0721 .0710 .0700 .0689 .0679 .0669 .0659 .0649 .0639 .0630 .0620 .0610 .0601
105 lbm/ft-s 1.212 1.208 1.205 1.202 1.198 1.195 1.192 1.189 1.185 1.182 1.179 1.175 1.172 1.169 1.165 1.162 1.158 1.155 1.152
10 4 ft2/s 1.539 1.557 1.576 1.595 1.614 1.633 1.653 1.673 1.694 1.714 1.735 1.757 1.778 1.800 1.823 1.846 1.869 1.892 1.916
c ft/s 1120.7 1118.8 1116.9 1115.0 1113.1 1111.1 1109.2 1107.3 1105.3 1103.4 1101.4 1099.5 1097.5 1095.6 1093.6 1091.7 1089.7 1087.7 1085.7
CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES
1-3
Table 1.2 Standard Atmospheric Data vs. Altitude (Concluded) Z ft 8500 9000 9500 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000 50000 55000 60000 65000 t F 28.7 26.9 25.1 23.3 19.8 16.2 12.6 9.1 5.5 -12.3 -30.2 -48.0 -65.8 -69.7 -69.7 -69.7 -69.7 -69.7 -69.7 p in. Hg 21.80 21.39 20.98 20.58 19.79 19.03 18.29 17.58 16.89 13.75 11.10 8.89 7.04 5.54 4.35 3.42 2.69 2.12 1.67
lbm/ft3 .0592 .0583 .0574 .0565 .0547 .0530 .0513 .0497 .0481 .0407 .0343 .0286 .0237 .0188 .0148 .0116 .0092 .0072 .0057
105 lbm/ft-s 1.148 1.145 1.142 1.138 1.131 1.125 1.118 1.111 1.104 1.069 1.034 0.997 0.961 0.952 0.952 0.952 0.952 0.952 0.952
10 4 ft2/s 1.940 1.965 1.990 2.015 2.067 2.121 2.177 2.234 2.294 2.624 3.016 3.486 4.053 5.059 6.434 8.181 10.404 13.230 16.824
c ft/s 1083.8 1081.8 1079.8 1177.8 1073.8 1069.8 1065.8 1061.8 1057.7 1037.3 1016.4 995.1 973.3 968.5 968.5 968.5 968.5 968.5 968.5
Adapted from the data of NACA: "Standard Atmosphere - Tables and Data for Altitudes to 65,800 Feet," Report 1235, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1955, pp. 66-81.
Standard Air In fan engineering, standard air is considered to be air with a density of 1.2 kg /m3 when SI units are employed, or 0.075 lbm/ft3 when U.S. customary units are used. These two values are not exact equivalents, but they are close enough for most fan engineering purposes. Neither do these values exactly correspond to the sea level value given for the Aeronautical Standard in Table 1.2. Atmospheric air of the composition shown in Table 1.1 will have standard density at various combinations of pressure, temperature, and humidity. Two convenient combinations are shown in Table 1.3, one for dry air and another for moist air. Note that all the combinations listed in Table 1.3 utilize the standard barometric pressure at sea level. The concept of standard air is useful in rating fans, ducts, and other air handling equipment. Often both duct losses and fan capabilities can be determined from standard air data and used without correction. Even when the actual density is considerably different from standard air density, it is frequently more convenient to apply corrections to standard air data than it would be to publish separate data for each condition. A slightly different concept, that of standard, or normal, temperature and pressure (STP or NTP), is sometimes employed in specifications. The values .
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for standard temperature and pressure may differ from those in Table 1.3. One should always verify the exact values of standard conditions before selecting a fan based on STP or NTP. See the discussion of conversion from standard, or normal, conditions to actual conditions in Chapter 19.
Table 1.3 Standard Air Property Pressure Temperature Humidity Density Pressure Temperature Humidity Density U.S. Dry Air 29.921 in. Hg 70F (529.7R) 0% 0.075 lbm/ft3 Moist Air 29.921 in. Hg 68F (527.7R) 50% 0.075 lbm/ft3 SI 101.325 kPa 21C (294.2K) 0% 1.2 kg/m3 101.325 kPa 20C (293.2K) 50% 1.2 kg/m3
Molecular Weight The molecular weight of a pure substance is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in a molecule of that substance. Water, for instance, has a molecular weight of 18.015 based on two atoms of hydrogen at 1.008 each and one atom of oxygen at 15.999, all on the carbon-12 scale. Because air is a mechanical mixture of gases, it does not have a true molecular weight. Dry air of the composition shown in Table 1.1 has an apparent molecular weight of 28.964. The apparent molecular weight M of any mixture of gases can be calculated either from a volumetric analysis using n Mx fx M = x =1 n fx x =1 or from a mass analysis using n fx x =1 n fx Mx x =1
9
(1.1)
M=
(1.2)
where f x is the volume or mass fraction of constituent x ; M x . is the molecular weight of constituent x ; and n is the total number of constituents.
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Examples 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate the use of these equations in calculating the apparent molecular weight of dry outdoor air of the composition shown in Table 1.1. Example 1.1 Apparent Molecular Weight of Dry Air from Volumetric Analysis Component Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Carbon Dioxide fx = fx 0.7809 0.2095 0.0093 0.0003 1.0000 Mx 28.013 31.999 39.948 44.010 Mx fx Mx fx 21.875 6.704 0.372 0.013 28.964
= = = = =
Apparent Molecular Weight =
28.964 = 28.964 10000 .
Example 1.2 Apparent Molecular Weight of Dry Air from Mass Analysis Component Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Carbon Dioxide fx = fx 0.7553 0.2315 0.0128 0.0004 1.0000 Mx 28.013 31.999 39.948 44.010 fx / Mx fx / Mx 0.026962 0.007235 0.000320 0.000009 0.034526
= = = = =
Apparent Molecular Weight =
10000 . = 28.964 0.034526
Differences in molecular weights for the same substance usually can be traced to either rounding off or to differences between the carbon-12 and the oxygen-16 scales. ASHRAE1 lists molecular- weights on the carbon-12 scale as 28.9645 for dry air and 18.015 34 for water. The previously used value of 28.966 for dry air was based on the oxygen-16 scale. Throughout the remainder of this handbook, a value of 28.965 will be used as the apparent molecular weight of dry air. A mole, abbreviated mol, is the base unit of substance in SI. As such, it is further defined as the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12. In fan engineering, the elementary entities of interest are molecules, and the usual units of mass are the kg or the lbm. One kg-mol of air will have a mass of 28.965 kg. One lbm-mol of air will have a mass of 28.965 lbm.
1
ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE, New York, 1977, p. 4.
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The unit of molecular weight is the kg/kg-mol in metric units, and the lbm/lbm-mol in U.S. units. The number of molecules in a kg-mol of any gas is 6.02252 10 26 . There are 2.73177 10 26 molecules in a lbm-mol of gas. The volume occupied by a mole of gas will depend on the unit of the mole and on the temperature and pressure. For a gas constituent, the mole fraction, volume fraction, and pressure fraction are equal. Perfect Gas Equation of State Boyles' and Charles' laws1 can be combined to give an equation of state. For perfect gases,2 RT pv = (1.3) Cp where absolute pressure p , specific volume v , gas constant R , absolute temperature T and conversion factor C p can be expressed in any consistent units. Several such sets of units are listed in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Units and Values for Equation 1.3 p Pa kPa lb/ft2 in. Hg in. wg mm Hg mm wg v m /kg m3/kg ft3/lbm ft3/lbm ft3/lbm m3/kg m3/kg
3
R J/kg-K J/kg-K ft-lb/lbm-R ft-lb/lbm-R ft-lb/lbm-R J/kg-K J/kg-K
T K K R R R K K
Cp 1.0 1000 Pa/kPa 1.0 70.73 lb/ft2-in. Hg 5.193 lb/ft2-in. wg 133.32 Pa/mm Hg 9.790 Pa/mm wg
Absolute pressure p is the barometric pressure pb in free air or the sum of the barometric pressure and the gage pressure p g for a confined quantity of air or gas. When all pressures are measured in the same units, p = pb + pg .
1
(1.4)
Boyles' and Charles' laws state that the volume of a perfect gas varies inversely with absolute pressure and directly with absolute temperature. 2 The equation of state for real gases can be expressed as:
where the empirical coefficients 3 B , C , D ,...8 are temperature-dependent and are called
pv = RT 1 + B p + C p 2 + D p 3 +... p p p
p p p
the second, third, fourth.... virial coefficients. Another expression of the equation of state for real gases is:
pv = ZRT
where the compressibility factor Z is dependent upon both pressure and temperature.
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When mixed units are used, p = Cb pb + C g p g (1.5)
where conversion factors Cb and C g are those given in Table 1.5 for the combinations listed. Table 1.5 Units and Values for Equation 1.5 p kPa kPa in. Hg in. wg pb mm Hg in. Hg in. Hg in. Hg Cb 0.133 32 3.3864 1.0 13.619 pg mm wg in. wg in. wg in. wg Cg 0.009 790 0.248 66 0.073 43 1.0
Absolute temperature T is the sum of the conventional temperature measurement t and the appropriate zero adjustment A according to Table 1.6. T=t+A Table 1.6 Units and Values for Equation 1.6 T K (kelvins) R (degrees Rankine) For perfect gases, R= Ru M (1.7) t C (degrees Celsius) F (degrees Fahrenheit) A 273.2 459.7 (1.6)
where the gas constant R for a particular gas and the universal gas constant Ru can be expressed in any consistent units. If the molecular weight M is based on the carbon-12 scale, the value of the universal gas constant Ru is 8314.3 J/kg-mol-K in SI units or 1545.32 ft-lb/lbm- mol-R in U.S. customary units. Based on Equation 1.7, the gas constant for dry air is 287.05 J/kg-K or 53.35 ft-lb/lbm-R. There are no perfect gases; but air, other real gases, and even water vapor can be considered to behave according to the perfect gas laws in most fan engineering applications. Deviations from perfect gas law behavior increase as a gas or vapor approaches the liquid state. The water vapor in atmospheric air has such a low partial pressure that it can safely be assumed to be a perfect gas even when near saturation. However, deviations should be calculated for higher pressures.
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FAN ENGINEERING
The equation of state can be used to compute any one of the variables p , v , R , or T when the other three are known. Numerous formulae based on this equation are given in the sections on humidity and density. A typical fan engineering application is given below. Example 1.3 Volume Flow Rate from Mass Flow Rate Given 45359 kg/hr, 27.41 kg/kg-mol, 176.7C, 98.78 kPa barometric pressure, and -4.97 kPa gage pressure, find the volume flow rate in m3/s. Using Equations 1.4, 1.6, 1.7, and 1.3 with SI units: p = pb + p g = 98.78 - 4.97 = 93.81 kPa, T = t + 273.2 = 176.7 + 273.2 = 449.9 K, 8314.3 8314.3 R= = = 303.33 J/kg-K, M 27.41 RT 303.33 449.9 v= = = 1.455 m3/kg. pC p 9381 1000 . m= 45359 = 12.60 kg/s, and 3600 Q = mv = 12.60 1455 = 18.33 m3/s .
Given 100000 lbm/hr, 27.41 lbm/lbm-mol, 350F, 29.17 in. Hg barometric pressure, and -20 in. wg gage pressure, find the volume flow rate in cfm. Using Equations 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, and 1.3 with U.S. units: p = pb + 0.07343 p g = 29.17 + 0.07343(-20) = 27.70 in. Hg, T = t + 459.7 = 350 + 459.7 = 809.7R, 1545.32 1545.32 R= = = 56.38 ft-lb/lbm-R, M 27.41 RT 56.38 809.7 v= = = 23.30 ft3/lbm, pC p 27.70 70.73 100000 = 1666.7 lbm/min, and 60 Q = mv = 1666.7 23.30 = 38 834 cfm. m= Specific Gravity Since air is the gas most frequently involved in fan engineering, it is convenient to base equations and data on the properties of air. One of the properties of air that is used as a common reference is its density. The ratio of the density of any dry gas to the density of dry air at the same temperature and pressure is called the specific gravity G of the gas. For perfect gases, spe..
1-9
Figure 1.1 Relative Densities of Water Vapor Referred to Air cific gravity can be obtained by dividing the molecular weight M of the dry gas by 28.965, the molecular weight of dry air, as follows: G= M . 28.965 (1.8)
For a sample calculation illustrating the use of Equation 1.8, refer to Example 1.5. The ratio w of the density of water vapor to the density of dry air is not constant for any temperature but a function of relative humidity , as illustrated in Figure 1.1. The ratio of the molecular weights (18.015/28.965) would indicate that w , is equal to 0.622, a value that is suitable for most fan engineering purposes. For high pressures and temperatures, Figure 1.1 should be used. The following formula, which is accurate to 0.1 % in the range of temperatures from 32F to 400F, can also be used:
pws w = 0.6214 + 1130
1 6
1 1.42
(1.9)
The vapor pressure of pure water pws can be determined from Table 1.7 opposite the dry-bulb temperature t of the gas. For sample calculations illustrating the use of the ratio w refer to Examples 1.5 and 1.6.
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Dry-Bulb, Wet-Bulb, and Dew-Point Temperatures Unless otherwise specified, the temperature of any gas is that temperature which is indicated by any ordinary dry-bulb thermometer. This dry-bulb temperature t is the temperature of each constituent, including the dry gases and any water vapor. A wet-bulb temperature t is measured by submerging a water-covered bulb in a moving stream of gas until equilibrium is obtained. The wet-bulb temperature will be lower than the dry-bulb temperature as long as evaporation continues. Wet-bulb depression t t is the difference between dry-bulb and wetbulb temperatures for a particular state point. The maximum depression for a given dry-bulb temperature will occur when the gas is dry. Zero depression will be observed at saturation. The temperature of adiabatic saturation t of an air-water vapor mixture is the temperature that a gas-vapor mixture would attain in a perfect "saturator," with no loss or gain of heat to the surroundings. A wet-bulb thermometer, unshielded from radiation, will register a temperature approximating that of adiabatic saturation of air and water vapor, if the velocity of air past the bulb is between 500 and 1000 fpm or 2.5 and 5.0 m/s. Appreciable deviations between t and t occur with gas-vapor mixtures other than air-water vapor. The defining relationship for the temperature of adiabatic saturation is
h + hl Ws W = hs .
(1.10)
Enthalpy h and humidity ratio W are defined in subsequent sections. For moist air having a dry-bulb temperature t , a humidity ratio W , and an enthalpy h that corresponds to t and W , the temperature of adiabatic saturation t is the temperature corresponding to the saturation properties hs , hl , and Ws . Refer to Example 1.8 for sample calculations using this relationship. (Thermodynamic wet-bulb is another name for the temperature of adiabatic saturation.) The dew-point temperature t of a gas-water vapor mixture is the saturation temperature corresponding to the humidity ratio of that mixture. (Refer to Equation 1.25 for details.) It is also the temperature at which condensation begins when the mixture is gradually cooled. The presence of certain acidforming gases will considerably raise the dew-point temperature for moist air. See the chapter on mechanical draft for a discussion of this phenomenon. Partial Pressure, Saturation, and Vapor Pressure The Gibbs-Dalton rule1 for perfect gases can be applied to most of the gas mixtures encountered in fan engineering, including those with water vapor
1
The Gibbs-Dalton rule states that each component of a gas mixture exerts a pressure that is determined by the volume and temperature of the mixture regardless of the other components involved.
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Table 1.7 Saturation Vapor Pressures p ws of Ice1 and Water2

In in. Hg F -20 -10 -0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
1
0 .0126 .0222 .0376 .0376 .0631 .1025 .1647 .2478 .3626 .5218 .7392 1.032 1.422 1.932 2.596 3.446 4.525 5.881 7.569 9.652 12.20 15.29 19.01 23.47 28.75 35.00 42.31 50.84 60.72 72.13 85.22 100.2 117.2 136.4 158.2 182.6 209.8 240.3 274.1 311.6 353.0 398.6 448.6 503.6
1 .0119 .0209 .0359 .0398 .0660 .1080 .1716 .2576 .3764 .5407 .7648 1.066 1.467 1.992 2.672 3.543 4.647 6.034 7.759 9.885 12.48 15.63 19.42 23.96 29.33 35.68 43.11 51.76 61.79 74.36 86.63 101.8 119.0 138.5 160.5 185.2 212.7 243.5 277.7 315.5 357.4 403.4 453.9 509.3
2 .0112 .0199 .0339 .0417 .0696 .1127 .1803 .2677 .3906 .5601 .7912 1.102 1.513 2.052 2.749 3.642 4.772 6.190 7.952 10.12 12.77 15.98 19.84 24.46 29.92 36.37 43.92 52.70 62.88 74.61 88.06 103.4 120.8 140.6 162.8 187.8 215.6 246.8 281.3 319.5 361.8 408.2 459.2 515.1
3 .0106 .0187 .0324 .0441 .0728 .1186 .1878 .2782 .4052 .5802 .8183 1.138 1.561 2.114 2.829 3.744 4.900 6.350 8.150 10.36 13.07 16.34 20.27 24.97 30.52 37.07 44.74 53.65 63.98 75.88 89.51 105.0 122.7 142.7 165.2 190.4 218.6 250.1 284.9 323.5 366.2 413.1 464.6 521.0
4 .0100 .0176 .0306 .0463 .0768 .1248 .1955 .2891 .4203 .6009 .8462 1.175 1.610 2.178 2.911 3.848 5.031 6.513 8.351 10.61 13.37 16.70 20.70 25.48 31.13 37.78 45.57 54.62 65.10 77.16 90.97 106.7 124.6 144.8 167.6 193.1 221.6 253.4 288.6 327.6 370.7 418.1 470.0 526.9
5 .0095 .0168 .0289 .0489 .0810 .1302 .2035 .3004 .4359 .6222 .8750 1.213 1.660 2.243 2.995 3.954 5.165 6.680 8.557 10.86 13.67 17.07 21.14 26.00 31.75 38.50 46.41 55.60 66.23 78.46 92.45 108.4 126.5 147.0 170.0 195.8 224.6 256.7 292.3 331.7 375.2 423.1 475.5 532.9
6 .0089 .0158 .0275 .0517 .0846 .1370 .2118 .3120 .4520 .6442 .9046 1.253 1.712 2.310 3.081 4.063 5.302 6.850 8.767 11.12 13.98 17.44 21.59 26.53 32.38 39.24 47.27 56.60 67.38 79.78 93.96 110.1 128.4 149.2 172.5 198.5 227.7 260.1 296.1 335.9 379.8 428.1 481.0 538.9
7 8 .0084 .0080 .0150 .0142 .0259 .0247 .0541 .0571 .0892 .0932 .1429 .1502 .2203 .2292 .3240 .3364 .4686 .4858 .6669 .6903 .9352 .9666 1.293 1.335 1.765 1.819 2.379 2.449 3.169 3.259 4.174 4.289 5.442 5.585 7.024 7.202 8.981 9.200 11.38 11.65 14.30 14.62 17.82 18.21 22.05 22.52 27.07 27.62 33.02 33.67 39.99 40.75 48.14 49.03 57.61 58.63 68.54 69.72 81.11 182.46 95.49 97.03 111.8 113.6 130.4 132.4 151.4 153.6 175.0 177.5 201.3 204.1 230.8 233.9 263.6 267.1 299.9 303.8 340.1 344.4 384.4 389.1 433.1 438.2 486.6 492.2 545.0 551.1
9 .0075 .0134 .0233 .0598 .0982 .1567 .2383 .3493 .5035 .7144 .9989 1.378 1.875 2.521 3.351 4.406 5.732 7.384 9.424 11.92 14.96 18.61 22.99 28.18 34.33 41.52 49.93 59.67 70.92 83.83 98.61 115.4 134.4 155.9 180.0 206.9 237.1 270.6 307.7 348.7 393.8 443.4 497.9 557.3
Adapted from data of the National Research Council: International Critical Tables, vol. 3, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1928, P. 210. 2 Adapted from data of J. H. Keenan and E. G. Keyes: Thermodynamic Properties of Steam, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1936. These data differ only slightly from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 125-164 and from corrections thereto by J. A. Goff. "Saturation Pressure of Water on the New Kelvin Temperature Scale," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 63, 1957, pp. 347-354.
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FAN ENGINEERING
range of wet-bulb temperatures t , can also be approximated from p ws = C1t 2 + C2 t + C3
as one constituent. Each constituent will exert a certain pressure called its partial pressure, and the sum of these partial pressures must equal the absolute pressure of the mixture. The pressure fraction will equal the mole fraction for each constituent; i.e. the partial pressure of a constituent divided by the absolute pressure of the mixture will equal the number of moles of the constituent divided by the number of moles of the mixture. Saturation is a condition of equilibrium between a liquid or solid and its vapor. The pressure exerted by a vapor at saturation is called its saturation vapor pressure or, in short, its saturation pressure. (When the actual pressure exerted by a vapor is less than its saturation pressure, the vapor is said to be superheated. The temperature of a superheated vapor is higher than the temperature that would exist if that vapor was at saturation at the actual pressure.) The saturation pressures of water vapor over water and ice are of particular concern in fan engineering. Table 1.7 lists values of saturation pressure versus temperature. Below the freezing point, the saturation pressures over sub-cooled water are generally higher than the saturation pressures over ice. The table lists the latter. Saturation pressures p ws , over a limited
(1.11)
using Table 1.8. (The values in Table 1.8 are based on AMCA 210-85.1 Equations yielding greater accuracy over larger ranges can be found in the ASHRAE Handbook,2 the Brochure,3 or the references for Table 1.7.
Table 1.8 Units and Values for Equation 1.11 pws Pa kPa in. Hg t C C F Range 4-32C 4-32C 40-90F C2 C1 3.25 18.6 3.25 10-3 1.86 10-2 2.96 10-4 -1.59 10-2 C3 692 0.692 0.41
The partial pressure of superheated water vapor in air pw can be determined approximately for atmospheric temperatures from pw = pws p t t C4
1 6
(1.12)
"Laboratory Methods of Testing Fans for Rating:" AMCA Standard 210-85, ASHRAE Standard 51-85, 1985, pp. 12 & 42. '2ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals. ASHRAE, New York, 1977, p. 5.2. 3 ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE New York, 1977, pp. 44-46.
CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES or from a similar equation proposed by Carrier1
1-13
p w = p ws
p p 1t t 6
ws
C5 C6 t
(1.13)
using the saturation pressure p ws the wet-bulb temperature t the absolute pressure p , the wet-bulb depression t t , and Table 1.9. See Examples 1.6 and 1.8.
Table 1.9 Units and Values for Equations 1.12 and 1.13 pw Pa in. Hg p ws Pa in. Hg p Pa in. Hg t t C F t C F C4 1500 2700 C5 1557 2803 C6 0.74 1.33
Humidity Humidity, in its general sense, is the presence of water vapor in the air. The amount of water vapor that can be mixed with dry air (or any gas) may vary from zero to a maximum that is dependent on temperature and pressure. The water vapor displaces an equal number of molecules of dry air, according to Avogadro's hypothesis.2 Thus, moist air is not the result of adding water vapor to dry air but the result of substituting water vapor for some of the dry air. The amount of water vapor in moist air or gas can be described in various ways. ASHRAE, in its Handbook,3 has adopted certain terminology, which with few exceptions, is used here for the sake of uniformity. Previous editions of Fan Engineering used older terms and definitions. The relative humidity of moist air or gas is the ratio of the partial pressure of the water vapor p w to the saturation vapor pressure pws for the same dry-bulb temperature:
pw . pws
(1.14)
This is also equal to the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor f w to the mole fraction of water vapor that would exist at saturation f ws for the same dry-bulb temperature:
1
W. H. Carrier, "Rational Psychrometric Formulae," Trans. ASME, vol. 33, 1911, pp. 13091350. 2 Avogadros hypothesis is that the number of gas molecules in any given volume at any given pressure and temperature is constant regardless of the gas or gases involved. 3 ASHRAE Handbook and, Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New York, 1977. p. 5.2.
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FAN ENGINEERING
= f w f ws .
(1.15)
The humidity ratio W of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water vapor mw to the mass of dry gas mg : W = mw mg . (1.16)
The specific humidity H of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water vapor mw to the total mass of the mixture mw + mg : H = mw mw + mg .
(1.17)
The absolute humidity w of a moist gas is the ratio of the mass of water vapor mw to the total volume of the mixture Q :
w = mw Q .
(1.18)
This is also the partial density of the water vapor component. The degree of saturation of a moist gas is the ratio of the actual humidity ratio W to the saturation humidity ratio Ws at the same temperature and pressure:
= W Ws .
(1.19)
Any consistent units can be employed in the above equations. Relative humidity , humidity ratio W , specific humidity H , and degree of saturation are dimensionless parameters. A number of important relationships can be derived from these equations together with a consideration of the perfect gas laws. The partial pressure of the vapor p w can be expressed in terms of the relative humidity and the saturation vapor pressure pws at the same dry-bulb. From Equation 1.12, pw = pws . (1.20)
The humidity ratio W can be expressed in terms of the absolute pressure of the mixture p , the partial pressure of the vapor p w , the saturation vapor pressure pws , the relative humidity , the density of water vapor relative to dry air w , and the specific gravity of the dry gas G : W=
pw w pws w . = p pw G p pws G
6 1
(1.21)
1-15
The specific humidity H can be determined from: H=
pw w pws w . = p pw G + p w w p pws G + pws w
(1.22)
The degree of saturation can be expressed in terms of the actual mass of water vapor mw and the mass of water vapor at saturation mws (at the same temperature t and absolute pressure p ):
= mw mws .
(1.23)
This is not quite the same as relative humidity . The relationship between and is expressed in
1 1 p ws p
1 6
(1.24)
where p ws is the saturation vapor pressure at the dry-bulb temperature of the mixture, and p is the absolute pressure. Substituting Equation 1.20 in Equation 1.21 yields pw = pGW . w + GW (1.25)
This equation is the defining relationship for dew-point temperature t . There will be only one value for the partial pressure p w for each combination of pressure p , humidity ratio W , specific gravity G , and density ratio w , regardless of the dry-bulb temperature. The saturation temperature corresponding to p w is the dew-point temperature. Density and Specific Volume Density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume. Specific volume v is the reciprocal of density. Various general relationships based on the perfect gas laws can be used to determine density. The method or equation used will depend on what is known about the gas. If the gas is dry and if its molecular weight M , absolute temperature T , and absolute pressure p are known,
M T0 p C0 T p0
(1.26)
should be used together with Table 1.10 to determine density . By using the .
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FAN ENGINEERING
apparent molecular weight, the densities of mixtures, including that of moist air, can be computed using Equation 1.26. However, the presence of water vapor is specifically taken into account in Equations 1.28 through 1.39. The numerical values in Table 1.10 are generally considered standard values for the units chosen. Any consistent units can be used with appropriate values. The numerical values can be combined for convenience of calculation; i.e., C0 p0 T0 is 8.311 m3-kPa/kg-mol-K or 21.84 ft3-in. Hg/lbm-mol-R. Table 1.10 Units and Values for Equation 1.26 M T C0 T0 p p0 3 kg/m kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 Pa 101300 kg/m3 kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 kPa 101.3 lbm/ft3 lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 R 529.7 lb/in.2 14.70 3 lbm/ft lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 R 529.7 in. Hg 29.92 lbm/ft3 lbm/lbm-mol 386.7 R 529.7 in. wg 407.5 3 kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 mm Hg 1760.0 kg/m kg/m3 kg/kg-mol 22.414 K 273.2 mm wg 10350 C0 p0 T0 8311 8.311 10.73 21.84 297.5 62.35 849.1
If the gas is dry and if its specific gravity G , absolute temperature T , and absolute pressure p are known,
Gp R0T
(1.27)
should be used together with Tables 1.10 and 1.11 to calculate density . The adjusted gas constant R0 is for air and includes the conversion factor C p from Equation 1.3. Table 1.11 Units and Values for Equations 1.27 to 1.37
, g , & w kg/m3 kg/m3 lbm/ft3 lbm/ft3 lbm/ft3 kg/m3 kg/m3
p& p ws Pa kPa lb/ft2 in. Hg in. wg mm Hg mm wg
G , w, , W ,& H dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless
t C C F F F C C
A 273.2 273.2 459.7 459.7 459.7 273.2 273.2
R0 287.0 0.2870 53.35 0.7543 10.27 2.153 29.32
Example 1.4 Density of Dry Gas Given dry gas, 30.6 kg/kg-mol, 176.7C, and 98.78 kPa, find the gas density. Using Equation 1.26 with SI values:
1-17
Mp 30.6 98.78 = = 0.808 kg/m3. 8.311T 8.311 449.9
Given dry gas, 30.6 lbm/lbm-mol (or 1.0564 specific gravity), 350F, and 29.17 in. Hg, find the density of the gas. Using Equation 1.26 and 1.27 with U.S. values:
= =
Mp 30.6 29.17 = = 0.0505 lbm/ft3. 2184T 2184 809.7 . . Gp 10564 29.17 . = = 0.0505 lbm/ft3. 0.7543T 0.7543 809.7
If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , drybulb temperature t , and relative humidity are known,
1 p p 6G + p R 1t + A6
ws 0
ws
(1.28)
should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density . The partial densities of the dry gas g and the water vapor w can be determined using
g =
1 p p 6G and R 1t + A6
ws 0
(1.29)
w =
pws w . R0 t + A
1 6
(1.30)
If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , drybulb temperature t and humidity ratio W are known, p 1+ W R t+A , = 0 1 W + G w
1 6 1 6
(1.31)
g = w =
1 , and 1+ W W 1+W
(1.32)
(1.33)
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FAN ENGINEERING
should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density or partial densities g and w . If the specific humidity H is known rather than the humidity ratio W , p R0 t + A , = 1 H H + G w
g = 1 H , and w = H
(1.34)
(1.35) (1.36)
should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density and partial densities g and w . Example 1.5 Density of Moist Gas Given moist gas, 1.0564 specific gravity, 176.7C, 98.78 kPa, and 0.2 kg water vapor per kg dry gas, find the density of the gas and its components. Using Equations 1.8 and 1.31-1.33 with SI values: p 1+ W . 98.78 12 0.2870 t + 273.2 = = 0.2870 449.9 = 0.724 kg/m3, 1 W 1 0.2 + + . G w 10564 0.622 1 1 g = = 0.724 = 0.603 kg dry air/m3, and 1+W 12 . W 0.2 w = = 0.724 = 0.121 kg water vapor/m3 1+W 12 .
Given moist gas, 1.0564 specific gravity, 350F, 29.17 in. Hg, and 0.2 lbm water vapor per lbm dry gas, find the density of the gas and its components. Using Equations 1.31-1.33 with U.S. values:
1 6 . 29.17 12 0.75431t + 459.76 0.7543 809.7 = = = 0.0452 lbm/ft ,

p 1+W
3
1 W 1 0.2 + + . G w 10564 0.622 1 1 g = = 0.0452 = 0.0377 lbm dry air/ft3, and 1+W 12 .
1-19
w =
W 0.2 = 0.0452 = 0.0075 lbm water vapor/ft3. 1+ W 12 .
If the gas is moist and if its specific gravity G , absolute pressure p , drybulb temperature t , and wet-bulb temperature t are known,
1p p 6+ p w R 1 t + A6
w w 0
(1.37)
should be used together with Table 1.11 to calculate density . The partial pressure of the vapor w can be determined from Equation 1.12 or 1.13. Alternatively, if the gas is air, its density can be found in the psychrometric density chart, Figure 1.2. If the gas is moist air and if its humidity ratio W and the volume of the mixture per unit mass of dry air v m are known,
1+W . vm
(1.38)
The values of W and vm can be determined from measurements of t and t by using a psychrometric chart such as Figure 1.6. Most charts are drawn for standard barometric pressure p0 , so use of Equation 1.38 will yield a corresponding density 0 . To determine a close approximation to the actual density at the actual pressure p ,
= 0
Example 1.6 Density of Moist Air
p . p0
(1.39)
Given moist air, 28.50 in. Hg, 90F dry-bulb, and 75F wet-bulb, find the density of the air. Using Equations 1.11, 1.12, and 1.37 with U.S. units: p ws = 2.96 10 4 t 2 159 10 2 t + 0.41 = 0.88 in. Hg for t = 75, . p t t 28.50 90 75 pw = p ws = 0.88 = 0.72 in. Hg, and 2700 2700 p pw + pw w 28.50 0.72 + 0.72 0.622 = = = 0.0681 lbm/ft3. 0.7543 t + 459.7 0.7543 549.7
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FAN ENGINEERING
Using Figure 1.2: t t = 90 75 = 15F and = 0.0681 lbm/ft3 from chart.
Figure 1.2 Psychrometric Density Chart
1-21
Using Figure 1.6 and Equations 1.38 and 1.39: W0 = 0.0153 lbm water vapor/lbm dry air from chart for 29.92 in. Hg, vm = 14.18 ft3/lbm dry air from Figure 1.6 for 29.92 in. Hg, 1 + W 10153 . 0 = = = 0.0716 lbm/ft3 for 29.92 in. Hg, and vm 14.18
= 0
p = 0.0716 28.5 = 0.0682 lbm/ft for 28.5 in. Hg. 29.92 p

3
0
According to Avogadro's hypothesis,1 moist air is less dense than dry air at any particular dry-bulb temperature and pressure, because air molecules are displaced by lighter water vapor molecules. However, moist air is more dense than dry air at any particular wet-bulb temperature and pressure. This is because the dry-bulb temperature is lower, and there are more molecules in a unit volume of mixture at the moist condition. Heat, Specific Heat, and Heat of Vaporization Heat is thermal energy. The SI unit for all forms of energy is the joule. The U.S. customary unit for heat is the British thermal unit, or Btu. A similar metric unit is the calorie. Originally, the mean value of the Btu was defined as 1/180 of the heat required to raise the temperature of a pound mass of water from the freezing point to the boiling point. Similarly, the mean value of the calorie was defined as 1/100 of the heat required to raise the temperature of a gram of water from freezing to boiling. Other definitions were based on a one-degree rise centered on a specified temperature level, such as 15C, 20C, 59F, and 60F. Recent standards, however, are independent of the properties of water. The ASME standards are based on the International Steam Table values: i.e. one Btu equals 1055.056 J, and one calorie equals 4.186800 J. The effects of differences between International Steam Table values and other values are negligible in most fan engineering. Specific heat is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance one degree. Specific heat varies with temperature. For many processes encountered in fan engineering, a single value of specific heat, such as that at the average temperature, can be used with satisfactory results. For more precise calculations, the process must be broken down into a series of smaller steps, and the specific heat evaluated for each step. Typical values for air, ice, water, and water vapor are given in Table 1.12. The specific heat at constant volume cv is the heat required, during a constant volume process, to raise the temperature of a unit mass of gas one .
1
Avogadros hypothesis is that the number of gas molecules in any given volume at any given pressure and temperature is a constant regardless of the gas or gases involved.
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FAN ENGINEERING
Table 1.12 Typical Specific Heat Values Substance Symbol SI Air c pa 1.00 kJ/kg-K Water Vapor Water Ice c pw c pi c pl 1.88 kJ/kg-K 4.19 kJ/kg-K 1.97 kJ/kg-K U.S. 0.24 Btu/lbm-F 0.45 Btu/lbm-F 1.00 Btu/lbm-F 0.47 Btu/lbm-F cgs 0.24 cal/g-C 0.45 cal/g-C 1.00 cal/g-C 0.47 cal/g-C
degree. A constant volume process does not involve any external work; therefore, according to the first law of thermodynamics, the heat required is equal to the change in the internal energy u . Hence, u = cv t (1.40)
for a given change in temperature t assuming that cv is constant. The specific heat at constant pressure c p is the heat required, during a constant pressure process, to raise the temperature of a unit mass of gas one degree. A constant pressure process involves a change in both internal energy u and external work pv . Hence, according to the first law,
1 6
u+
pv = cp t J
1 6
(1.41)
for a given change in temperature t assuming that c p is constant. The difference in specific heats is related to the gas constant R : c p cv = R . J (1.42)
The mechanical equivalent of heat J can be obtained from Table 1.13. Table 1.13 Units and Values for Equations 1.42, 1.55, and 1.56 c p ,cv ,& s J/kg-K Btu/lbm-R cal/g-K R J/kg-K ft-lb/lbm-R J/g-K J 1.00 J/J 778.17 ft-lb/Btu 4.1868 J/cal
The ratio of specific heats is an important quantity, as will become apparent in subsequent chapters.
cp cv
(1.43)
1-23
This ratio has values of about 1.66 for monatomic gases, 1.40 for diatomic gases, and 1.30 for polyatomic gases. Values for specific gases are given in the appendix on properties of materials. The specific heats of various gases, at constant pressure and various temperatures, are listed in Table 1.15. Values for dry air are plotted against temperature in Figure 1.3. (The references for Table 1.15 and Figure 1.3 contain many more values at different temperatures.) Figure 1.4 plots specific heat for water vapor against temperature, for various vapor pressures and relative humidities. The average specific heat for a mixture of dry air and water vapor expressed per unit mass of dry air c pm can be calculated from the humidity ratio W and the specific heats of dry air c pa and water vapor c pw using c pm = c pa + Wc pw . (1.44)
This expression is meaningful only if there is no condensation or evaporation over the range of temperatures considered. The heat of vaporization hlw , sometimes called latent heat, is the heat necessary to evaporate a unit mass of substance at constant pressure and saturation temperature. Similarly, the heat of sublimation hiw is the heat necessary to sublimate a unit mass of substance at constant pressure and saturation temperature. Values for water and ice can be determined from Figure 1.5. Values for temperatures t within the air conditioning range can be determined approximately by using these formulae: hlw = C7 C8t and hiw = C9 C10 t . (1.45) (1.46)
Refer to Table 1.14 for units of measurement and values of the various coefficients. Table 1.14 Units and Values for Equations 1.45 and 1.46 hlw & hiw kJ/kg Btu/lbm cal/g
t
C F C
C7 2501 1093 597
C8 2.30 0.55 0.55
C9 2836 1220 677
C10 0.08 0.02 0.02
Specific Enthalpy Specific enthalpy h is a measure of the total heat content of a unit mass of substance. Specific enthalpy values are not absolute; rather, the zero value is assigned to some arbitrarily selected state point. For most gases, including air, the zero value is for zero degrees (either Fahrenheit or Celsius, depending on the system of units employed) and standard atmospheric pressure.
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FAN ENGINEERING
Table 1.15 Specific Heats of VariousGases In Btu/lbm-F

Temperature R F -359.7 100 -259.7 200 -159.7 300 -59.7 400 40.3 500 140.3 600 240.3 700 340.3 800 440.3 900 540.3 1000 640.3 1100 740.3 1200 840.3 1300 940.3 1400 1040.3 1500 1140.3 1600 1240.3 1700 1340.3 1800 1440.3 1900 1540.3 2000 Air N2 O2 CO2 CO H2 H2O Monatomic 28.965 28.013 31.999 44.010 28.010 2.016 18.015 Gases .2392 -------.2392 .2480 .2173 .1589 .2481 2.7599 .4411 5.454/M .2392 .2480 .2173 .1674 .2481 3.0957 .4415 5.162/M .2393 .2481 .2174 .1815 .2482 3.2961 .4421 5.072/M .2396 .2481 .2184 .1964 .2483 3.3948 .4439 5.032/M .2403 .2485 .2206 .2100 .2487 3.4355 .4473 5.013/M .2416 .2491 .2239 .2221 .2498 3.4509 .4527 4.998/M .2434 .2503 .2278 .2326 .2517 3.4598 .4592 4.989/M .2458 .2521 .2321 .2421 .2541 3.4648 .4667 4.984/M .2486 .2546 .2363 .2507 .2570 3.4692 .4748 4.981/M .2516 .2573 .2404 .2584 .2603 3.4742 .4833 4.979/M .2547 .2603 .2442 .2654 .2638 3.4811 .4919 4.978/M .2579 .2635 .2476 .2716 .2673 3.4906 .5008 4.977/M .2611 .2668 .2507 .2773 .2707 3.5025 .5099 4.975/M .2642 .2700 .2534 .2824 .2741 3.5169 .5191 4.974/M .2671 .2731 .2560 .2870 .2773 3.5352 .5285 4.973/M .2698 .2760 .2583 .2913 .2803 3.5560 .5380 4.972/M .2725 .2789 .2604 .2951 .2830 3.5789 .5476 4.972/M .2750 .2816 .2622 .2986 .2856 3.6032 .5570 4.971/M .2773 .2842 2638 3017 .2881 3.6290 .5663 4.971/M
Adapted from the data of J. H. Keenan and J. Kaye, Gas Tables, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1948, pp. 34, 102, 107, 112, 117, 122, 127, and 128.
Figure 1.3 Specific Heats of Dry Air
1-25
Figure 1.4 Specific Heats of Water Vapor
Figure 1.5 Latent Heats of Water and Ice
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FAN ENGINEERING
For many refrigerants, specific enthalpy is zero for saturated liquid at minus 40. For water, the datum selected is usually the freezing point and saturation pressure. Other state points can be used for other substances. Specific enthalpy is the sum of the specific internal energy u and the work necessary to pump the specific volume v of a substance against its pressure p , or h = u+ pv . J (1.47)
While Equation 1.47 is the defining relationship, the following approximate relationships, based on the perfect gas laws, are generally more useful in fan engineering. The specific enthalpy of air ha can be determined from the appropriate specific heat c pa and the temperature t using ha = c pa t . (1.48)
The specific enthalpy of water hl can be determined from the appropriate specific heat c pl , the temperature t , and Table 1.16 using hl = c pl t C11 .
(1.49)
The specific enthalpy of ice hi can be determined from the appropriate specific heat c pi , the temperature t , and Table 1.16 using hi = c pi t C12 .
(1.50)
Table 1.16 Units and Values for Equations 1.48-1.50 hx kJ/kg Btu/lbm c px kJ/kg-K Btu/lbm-F t C F C11 0 32 C12 171 340
The specific enthalpy of water vapor hw can be determined from the specific enthalpy of water and the latent heat of vaporization hlw using hw = hl + hlw , or from the enthalpy of ice and the latent heat of sublimation hiw using hw = hi + hiw . (1.52) (1.51)
1-27
The enthalpy of moist air per unit mass of mixture hm can be determined from the specific humidity H and the specific enthalpies of the air and vapor using hm = 1 H ha + Hhw .
(1.53)
The enthalpy of moist air per unit mass of dry air hm can be determined from the humidity ratio W and the specific enthalpies of the air and vapor using hm = ha + Whw . Example 1.7 Enthalpy and Entropy of Air Given dry air at 68F and 29.92 in. Hg, find the specific enthalpy and the specific entropy. Using U.S. units and Equations 1.48 and 1.56: ha = c pa t = 0.24 68 = 16.3 Btu/ lbm, and sa = 0.24 ln (1.54)
68 + 459.7 53.35 ln 29.92 = = 0.033 11 Btu/lbm-R. 459.7 778.2 29.92
Given moist air at 68F, 29.92 in. Hg, and 100% relative humidity, find both the enthalpy and entropy per unit mass of dry air. Using U.S. units and Equations 1.11, 1.45, 1.49, 1.51, and 1.54: pws = 0.6903 in. Hg from Table 1.7 and w = 0.622 from Figure 1.1, p w 0.6903 10 0.622 . W = ws = = 0.01469, p pws 29.92 0.6903 10 . hlw = C7 C8 t = 1093 0.55 68 = 1055.6 Btu/lbm, hl = c pl t C11 = 10 68 32 = 36 Btu/lbm, . hw = hl = hlw = 36 + 1055.6 = 1091.6 Btu/ lbm, and . hm = ha + Whw = 16.3 + 0.01469 10916 = 32.3 Btu/lbm d.a. Using U.S. units and Equations 1.57, 1.56, 1.58, and 1.59: hlw 1055.6 = = 2.00 Btu/lbm-R, T 68 + 459.7 68 + 459.7 85.78 29.92 sl = 100 ln . ln = 0.07 Btu/lbm-R, 32 + 459.7 778.2 29.92 sw = sl + slw = 0.07 + 2.00 = 2.07 Btu/lbm-R, and sm = sa + Wsw = 0.03311 + 0.01469 2.07 = 0.06352 Btu/lbm-R. slw =
6 1
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FAN ENGINEERING
Specific Entropy Entropy is a property that is related to the second law of thermodynamics. Changes in entropy are useful in comparing actual and ideal processes. In fan engineering, efficiency considerations may involve the use of entropy. Specific entropy s is entropy per unit mass of substance. Specific entropy values are not absolute; rather, the zero value is assigned to some arbitrarily selected state point. For most gases, including air, the zero value is for zero degrees (either Fahrenheit or Celsius, depending on the system of units employed) and standard atmospheric pressure. For many refrigerants, specific entropy is zero for saturated liquid at -40. For water, the reference state selected is usually the freezing point and saturation pressure. Other state points can be used for other substances. Tables 1.17 and 1.18 list values for dry and moist air, respectively. Specific entropy differences can be calculated for any process from specific heat c absolute temperature T gas constant R , and absolute pressure p using s1 s2 = c p
1
I
2
dT R ln p . t J p
2 1
(1.55)
Assuming that specific heat is constant yields s1 s2 = c p ln
T R ln p T J p
2 2 1 1
(1.56)
Refer to Table 1.13 for appropriate units and values. By setting T1 and p1 at the appropriate values corresponding to the reference conditions, the value of s1 becomes zero, and the value of s2 will approximate the tabulated value for a pure substance, provided that there is no change of state when compared to the reference state. The entropy of dry air sa and that of liquid water sl can both be calculated in this manner. When there is a change of state point compared to the reference state, as is the case for water vapor, the entropy of vaporization slw must also be calculated. This can be approximated from the latent heat of vaporization hlw and the absolute temperature T using slw = hlw . T (1.57)
The entropy of water vapor sw can then be obtained from sw = sl + slw , where the entropy of the liquid sl is approximated using Equation 1.56.
(1.58)
1-35
The entropy of the mixture of dry air and water vapor referred to a unit mass of dry air sm can then be calculated using sm = sa + Wsw . (1.59)
Psychrometric Tables Thermodynamic properties of dry and moist air have been tabulated by Goff and Gratch and reproduced in various works. The ASHVE Transactions,l the ASHRAE Handbook,2 and the ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry3 all contain these tables, which cover a range of temperatures from -160F to 200F at 29.921 in. Hg barometric pressure. These data are computed from equations containing virial coefficients, which in turn are based on experimental data. Table values, therefore, will differ from those predicted by the perfect gas laws, but only slightly in the normal air conditioning range. The ASHRAE Brochure gives complete details of the derivations, sources of data, and methods of correcting for differences in pressure. Portions of these data are reproduced in Tables 1.17 and 1.18. Table 1.17 lists dry air values of specific volume, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy, which were extracted directly, and density, which was calculated. All the data for moist air in Table 1.18 was taken directly from the original listings. Observe that all the moist air data are referred to a unit mass of dry air. This is the usual practice in air conditioning. The original tabulations also list the differences between properties at saturation and properties for dry air to facilitate interpolation for various degrees of saturation. Thermodynamic properties have been tabulated in SI units by Raznjevic.4 Psychrometric Charts Psychrometric charts have been published in many formats. Among the most common are those that utilize the rectangular coordinates of humidity ratio versus dry-bulb temperature and those that use the non-rectangular coordinates of humidity ratio versus enthalpy per unit mass of dry air. Prior to the Eighth Edition, the charts in Fan Engineering were always drawn using rectangular coordinates, as Figure 1.9 still is. Figures 1.6-1.8, however, are based on the current ASHRAE practice of using a uniform but slanted enthalpy scale. The use of the rectangular coordinates, humidity ratio versus dry-bulb temperature, leads to curved wet-bulb temperature lines and a nonuniform enthalpy scale. The use of the non-rectangular coordinates of humidity ratio versus enthalpy leads to non-parallel dry-bulb temperature lines. Neither method of presentation is inherently more accurate for single point determinations; however, the ASHRAE charts are more accurate for mixture .
1
J. A. Goff and S. Gratch, "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, New York, 1945, pp. 144-154. 2 ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory - 1977 Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New York, 1977, pp. 6.3-6.6. 3 ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE, New York, 1977, pp. 23-26. 4 K. Raznjevic, Handbook of Thermodynamic Tables and Charts, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, 1976.
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FAN ENGINEERING
processes, which are depicted by a straight line. The error in the other chart usually is negligible in air conditioning work. Most charts are drawn for one barometric pressure. Lines of constant volume per unit mass of dry air usually are superimposed on the chart, as are lines of constant relative humidity. Any system of units can be used. (Figures 1.10 and 1.11 use SI units.) The use of the psychrometric chart for air conditioning and other mass transfer purposes will be discussed in the chapter on mass transfer. The mechanics of reading a chart are as follows. For any point on the chart, there is one value each of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, relative humidity, humidity ratio, enthalpy, and volume. These values can be determined by interpolating between the appropriate adjacent lines. The dew-point temperature can also be determined by reading the saturation temperature for the same humidity ratio. Specific humidity, absolute humidity, and degree of saturation can be calculated using data taken from the chart together with Equations 1.17-1.19. The density can be calculated using Equation 1.38 and the appropriate data read from the chart. Psychrometric charts can be constructed for any gas-vapor mixture or for any absolute or barometric pressure. Various calculation procedures can be used. Example 1.8 illustrates a simplified method that can be performed rather quickly with a calculator. For more detailed calculations, a computer routine should be considered. Example 1.8 Constructing a Psychrometric Chart Given an altitude of 5000 feet, construct a skeleton psychrometric chart covering a range of dry-bulb temperatures from 50F to 100F. Choose an appropriate set of coordinates. In this example, dry-bulb temperature t will be abscissa and humidity ratio W will be ordinate. Lines of constant wet-bulb temperature t , constant relative humidity , constant enthalpy h , and constant volume per unit mass of dry air vm will also be drawn. The absolute pressure p will be constant at the standard value for the altitude taken from Table 1.2, p = 24.90 in. Hg. The coordinates of various points on the saturation curve and other selected relative humidity curves can be determined using Equation 1.21 together with values of the relative density of water vapor w from Figure 1.1 and saturation vapor pressure pws from Table 1.7. For example: t = 50F, = 1. 0, w = 0.6219, pws = 0. 3626 in. Hg, and p w 0.3626 10 0.6219 . lbm w.v. W = ws . = = 0.00919 p pws 24.90 0.3626 10 . lbm d.a.
1-37
p = 24.90 t pws F in. Hg 50 .3626 60 .5218 70 .7392 80 1.032 90 1.422 100 1.932
. = 10 w .6219 .6221 .6223 .6225 .6228 .6231 W lbm w.v./lbm d.a .009 19 .013 32 .019 05 .026 93 .037 74 .052 44 w .6218 .6219 .6220 .6221 .6222 '6223
= 0.5
W lbm w.v./lbm d.a. .004 56 .006 59 .009 38 .013 17 .018 30 .025 13
Curves for = 10 and = 0.5 can now be faired in through plotted points. . Curves for other values of could also be drawn. Ideally, lines of constant enthalpy should be drawn for integer values, but to simplify the calculations, values corresponding to the above saturation curve coordinates will be determined. Using values of heat of vaporization hlw from Figure 1.5, enthalpy of water hl from Equation 1.49, enthalpy of water vapor hw from Equation 1.51, and enthalpy of air ha from Equation 1.48, the enthalpy per unit mass of dry air hm can be determined from Equation 1.54. For example: t = 50F, = 1.0, hlw = 1065 Btu/lbm w.v., . hl = c pl t 32 = 100 50 32 = 18 Btu/lbm w.v., hw = hlw + hl = 1065 + 18 = 1083 Btu/lbm w.v. ha = c pa t = 0.24 50 = 12.00 Btu/lbm d.a., and hm = ha + hwW = 12.00 + 1083 0.00919 = 21.95 Btu/lbm d.a. t F 50 60 70 80 90 100 hlw 1065 1059 1053 1048 1043 1037 hl Btu/lbm w.v. 18 28 38 48 58 68 hw 1083 1087 1091 1096 1101 1105 ha hm Btu/lbm d.a. 12.00 21.95 14.40 28.88 16.80 37.58 19.20 48.72 21.60 63.15 24.00 81.95 th F 91.5 120.3 156.6 203.0 263.1 341.5
The last column lists values of t h , the temperature of dry air having the same enthalpy hm calculated for moist air at saturation shown in the previous column, based on Equation 1.48. For example: th = hm 2195 . = = 91.5F. c pa 0.24
Straight lines connecting t on the saturation curve and t h on the dry air line can be drawn.
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FAN ENGINEERING
Ideally, lines of constant volume should be drawn for integer values, but to simplify the calculations, values corresponding to the above saturation curve coordinates will be determined. Since the reciprocal of g is vm Equation 1.29 can be used. For example: vm = 0.7543 459.7 + 50 R t+A 1 = 0 = = 15.67 ft3/lbm d.a. . p pws 24.90 0.3626 10 g t F 50 60 70 80 90 100 vm ft /lbm d.a. 15.67 16.09 16.54 17.06 17.67 18.39
3
1 6
tv F 57.6 71.4 86.3 103.5 123.6 147.4
h0 Btu/lbm d.a. 21.78 28.51 36.86 47.43 60.96 78.38
tt F 90.75 118.79 153.58 197.63 254.00 326.58
The third column lists values of t v , based on Equation 1.27. This temperature is that temperature of dry air which has the same volume vm previously calculated for moist air at saturation and shown in the preceding column. For example: tv = 24.90 15.67 pvm A= 459.7 = 57.6F. 0.7543 R0
Straight lines connecting t on the saturation curve and t v on the dry air line can be drawn. At saturation, the wet-bulb temperature is equal to the dry-bulb temperature; therefore, the coordinates calculated previously for the saturation curve can be used. The last column of the table above lists values of t t , the temperature of dry air having the same temperature of adiabatic saturation, based on Equations 1.10 and 1.48. For example: h0 = hs Ws 0 = 2195 18 0.00919 = 21.78 Btu/lbm d.a., and . tt = h0 2178 . = = 90.8F. c pa 0.24
Observe that straight lines connecting these points do not deviate very much from the lines of constant enthalpy previously drawn. Actually, on rectangular coordinates, the wet-bulb lines are slightly concave in the upward direction. The coordinates for wet-bulb temperature points between saturation and dry air can be calculated using Equations 1.13 and 1.21.
1-39
For example:t = 70F, t = 50F, pw = pws
C5 C6t 2803 01833 . p w 01833 0.6221 . W= w = = 0.00461 lbm w.v./lbm d.a. p pw 24.90 01833 . A plot of this point falls on the straight line previously drawn. However, for large temperature ranges, intermediate points should be calculated.
p p 124.90 0.36266170 506 = 01833 in. Hg . = 0.3626

ws
1-40
FAN ENGINEERING
Table 1.17 Properties of Dry Air t

F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
lbm/ft3 .08637 .08618 .08599 .08581 .08562 .08543 .08525 .08506 .08488 .08470 .08452 .08434 .08416 .08398 .08380 .08363 .08345 .08327 .08310 .08293 .08275 .08258 .08241 .08224 .08206 .08189 .08173 .08155 .08139 .08122 .08105 .08089 .08072 .08056 .08040 .08023 .08007 .07991 .07974 .07959 .07943 .07926 .07911 .07895 .07880
Barometric Pressure 29.92 in. Hg
v
ft3/lbm 11.578 11.604 11.629 11.654 11.679 11.705 11.730 11.756 11.781 11.806 11.831 11.857 11.882 11.907 11.933 11.958 11.983 12.009 12.034 12.059 12.084 12.110 12.135 12.160 12.186 12.211 12.236 12.262 12.287 12.312 12.338 12.363 12.388 12.413 12.438 12.464 12.489 12.514 12.540 12.565 12.590 12.616 12.641 12.666 12.691
h
0.000 0.240 0.480 0.721 0.961 1.201 1.441 1.681 1.922 2.162 2.402 2.642 2.882 3.123 3.363 3.603 3.843 4.083 4.324 4.564 4.804 5.044 5.284 5.525 5.765 6.005 6.245 6.485 6.726 6.966 7.206 7.446 7.686 7.927 8.167 8.407 8.647 8.887 9.128 9.368 9.608 9.848 10.088 10.329 10.569
s
.00000 .00052 .00104 .00156 .00208 .00260 .00312 .00364 .00415 .00467 .00518 .00569 .00620 .00671 .00721 .00772 .00822 .00873 .00923 .00973 .01023 .01073 .01123 .01173 .01223 .01273 .01322 .01372 .01421 .01470 .01519 .01568 .01617 .01666 .01715 .01764 .01812 .01861 .01909 .01957 .02005 .02053 .02101 .02149 .02197
t
F 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
v
ft3/lbm 12.717 12.742 12.767 12.792 12.818 12.843 12.868 12.894 12.919 12.944 12.970 12.995 13.020 13.045 13.071 13.096 13.121 13.147 13.172 13.197 13.222 13.247 13.273 13.298 13.323 13.348 13.373 13.398 13.424 13.449 13.474 13.499 13.525 13.550 13.575 13.601 13.626 13.651 13.676 13.702 13.727 13.752 13.777 13.803 13.828
h
10.809 11.049 11.289 11.530 11.770 12.010 12.250 12.491 12.731 12.971 13.211 13.452 13.692 13.932 14.172 14.413 14.653 14.893 15.134 15.374 15.614 15.855 16.095 16.335 16.576 16.816 17.056 17.297 17.537 17.778 18.018 18.259 18.499 18.740 18.980 19.221 19.461 19.702 19.942 20.183 20.423 20.663 20.904 21.144 21.385
s
.02245 .02293 .02340 .02387 .02434 .02481 .02528 .02575 .02622 .02669 .02716 .02762 .02809 .02855 .02902 .02948 .02994 .03040 .03086 .03132 .03177 .03223 .03269 .03314 .03360 .03405 .03450 .03495 .03540 .03585 .03630 .03675 .03720 .03765 .03810 .03854 .03899 .03943 .03987 .04031 .04075 .04119 .04163 .04207 .04251
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-F
lbm/ft3 .07863 .07848 .07833 .07817 .07802 .07786 .07771 .07756 .07741 .07726 .0771 0 .07695 .07680 .07666 .07651 .07636 .07621 .07606 .07592 .07577 .07563 .07549 .07534 .07520 .07506 .07492 .07478 .07464 .07449 .07435 .07422 .07408 .07394 .07380 .07366 .07352 .07339 .07325 .07312 .07298 .07285 .07272 .07258 .07245 .07232
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-F
Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-150.
1-41
Table 1.17 Properties of Dry Air (Concluded)

t
F 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134
lbm/ft3 .07219 .07205 .07192 .07179 .07166 .07153 .07140 .07128 .07114 .07102 .07089 .07077 .07064 .07051 .07039 .07026 .07014 .07001 .06989 .06977 .06964 .06952 .06940 .06928 .06916 .06904 .06892 .06879 .06868 .06856 .06844 .06832 .06820 .06809 .06797 .06785 .06774 .06762 .06751 .06739 .06728 .06716 .06705 .06693 .06682
v
ft3/lbm 13.853 13.879 13.904 13.929 13.954 13.980 14.005 14.030 14.056 14.081 14.106 14.131 14.157 14.182 14.207 14.232 14.258 14.283 14.308 14.333 14.359 14.384 14.409 14.435 14.460 14.485 14.510 14.536 14.561 14.586 14.611 14.637 14.662 14.687 14.712 14.738 14.763 14.788 14.813 14.839 14.864 14.889 14.915 14.940 14.965
h
21.625 21.865 22.106 22.346 22.587 22.827 23.068 23.308 23.548 23.789 24.029 24.270 24.510 24.751 24.991 25.232 25.472 25.713 25.953 26.194 26.434 26.675 26.915 27.156 27.397 27.637 27.878 28.119 28.359 28.600 28.841 29.082 29.322 29.563 29.804 30.044 30.285 30.526 30.766 31.007 31.248 31.489 31.729 31.970 32.211
s
.04295 .04339 .04382 .04426 .04469 .04513 .04556 .04600 .04643 .04686 .04729 .04772 .04815 .04858 .04900 .04943 .04985 .05028 .05070 .05113 .05155 .05197 .05239 .05281 .05323 .05365 .05407 .05449 .05490 .05532 .05573 .0561 5 .05656 .05698 .05738 .05780 .05821 .05862 .05903 .05944 .05985 .06026 .06067 .06108 .06148
t
F 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179
lbm/ft3 .06671 .06660 .06648 .06637 .06626 .06615 .06604 .06593 .06582 .06571 .06560 .06550 .06539 .06528 .06517 .06507 .06496 .06485 .06475 .06464 .06453 .06443 .06433 .06422 .06411 .06401 .06391 .06381 .06370 .06360 .06350 .06340 .06330 .06320 .06310 .06300 .06289 .06279 .06270 .06260 .06250 .06240 .06230 .06220 .06210
v
ft3/lbm 14.990 15.016 15.041 15.066 15.091 15.117 15.142 15.167 15.192 15.218 15.243 15.268 15.293 15.319 15.344 15.369 15.394 15.420 15.445 15.470 15.496 15.521 15.546 15.571 15.597 15.622 15.647 15.672 15.698 15.723 15.748 15.773 15.799 15.824 15.849 15.874 15.900 15.925 15.950 15.975 16.001 16.026 16.051 16.076 16.102
h
32.452 32.692 32.933 33.174 33.414 33.655 33.896 34.136 34.377 34.618 34.859 35.099 35.340 35.581 35.822 36.063 36.304 36.545 36.785 37.026 37.267 37.508 37.749 37.990 38.231 38.472 38.713 38.954 39.195 39.436 39.677 39.918 40.159 40.400 40.641 40.882 41.123 41.364 41,605 41.846 42.087 42.328 42.569 42.810 43.051
s
.06189 .06229 .06270 .06310 .06350 .06390 .06430 .06470 .06510 .06549 .06589 .06629 .06669 .06708 .06748 .06787 .06827 .06866 .06906 .06945 .06984 .07023 .07062 .07101 .07140 .07179 .07218 .07257 .07296 .07334 .07373 .07411 .07450 .07488 .07527 .07565 .07603 .07641 .07680 .07718 .07756 .07794 .07832 .07870 .07908
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-F
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-F
Adapted from the data of J. A. Goff and S. Gratch: "Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air," Trans. ASHVE, vol. 51, 1945, pp. 149-150. #1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.
1-42
FAN ENGINEERING
Table 1.18 Properties of Moist Air at Saturation

t
F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
W
.000787 .000830 .000874 .000920 .000969 .001020 .001074 .001130 .001189 .001251 .001315 .001383 .001454 .001528 .001606 .001687 .001772 .001861 .001953 .002051 .002152 .002258 .002369 .002485 .002606 .002733 .002865 .003003 .003147 .003297 .003454 .003617 .003788 .003944 .004107 .004275 .004450 .004631 .004818 .005012 .005213 .005421 .005638 .005860 .006091
ft3/lbm 11.593 11.619 11.645 11.671 11.697 11.724 11.750 11.777 11.803 11.830 11.856 11.883 11.910 11.936 11.963 11.990 12.017 12.044 12.072 12.099 12.126 12.154 12.181 12.209 12.237 12.265 12.293 12.321 12.349 12.377 12.406 12.434 12.463 12.492 12.520 12.549 12.578 12.607 12.637 12.666 12.695 12.725 12.755 12.785 12.815
vm
hm
0.835 1.120 1.408 1.698 1.991 2.286 2.583 2.883 3.188 3.494 3.803 4.116 4.432 4.753 5.076 5.403 5.735 6.071 6.412 6.756 7.106 7.460 7.820 8.186 8.557 8.934 9.317 9.706 10.103 10.506 10.915 11.333 11.758 12.169 12.585 13.008 13.438 13.874 14.319 14.771 15.230 15.697 16.172 16.657 17.149
sm
.00192 .00254 .00316 .00379 .00442 .00506 .00570 .00635 .00700 .00766 .00832 .00899 .00966 .01034 .01101 .01171 .01240 .01311 .01382 .01454 .01527 .01601 .01676 .01752 .01830 .01908 .01987 .02068 .02149 .02231 .02315 .02400 .02487 .02570 .02655 .02741 .02828 .02917 .03006 .03096 .03188 .03281 .03376 .03472 .03570
t
F 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
W
.006331 .006578 .006835 .007100 .007374 .007658 .007952 .008256 .008569 .008894 .009229 .009575 .009934 .01030 .01069 .01108 .01149 .01191 .01 326 .01280 .01326 .01374 .01424 .01475 .01528 .01582 .01639 .01697 .01757 .01819 .01882 .01948 .02016 .02086 .02158 .02233 .02310 .02389 .02471 .02555 .02642 .02731 .02824 .02919 .03017
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-F
ft3/lbm 12.846 12.876 12.907 12.938 12.969 13.001 13.032 13.064 13.097 13.129 13.162 13.195 13.228 13.261 13.295 13.329 13.363 13.398 13.504 13.468 13.504 13.539 13.576 13.613 13.650 13.687 13.724 13.762 13.801 13.841 13.881 13.921 13.962 14.003 14.045 14.087 14.130 14.174 14.218 14.262 14.308 14.354 14.401 14.448 14.496
vm
hm
17.650 18.161 18.680 19.211 19.751 20.301 20.862 21.436 22.020 22.615 23.22 23.84 24.48 25.12 25.78 26.46 27.15 27.85 30.06 29.31 30.06 30.83 31.62 32.42 33.25 34.09 34.95 35.83 36.74 37.66 38.61 39.57 40.57 41.58 42.62 43.69 44.78 45.90 47.04 48.22 49.43 50.66 51.93 53.23 54.56
sm
.03670 .03771 .03874 .03978 .04084 .04192 .04302 .04414 .04528 .04645 .04763 .04883 .05006 .05131 .05259 .05389 .05521 .05656 .06078 .05935 .06078 .06225 .06375 .06527 .06683 .06842 .07004 .07170 .07340 .07513 .07690 .07872 .08057 .08247 .08441 .08638 .08841 .09048 .09260 .09477 .09699 .09926 .10158 .10396 .10640
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-F
1-43
Table 1.18 Properties of Moist Air at Saturation (Concluded)

Barometric Pressure 29.92 in. H
t
F 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134
W
.03118 .03223 .03330 .03441 .03556 .03673 .03795 .03920 .04049 .04182 .04319 .04460 .04606 .04756 .04911 .05070 .05234 .05404 .05578 .05758 .05944 .06135 .06333 .06536 .06746 .06962 .07185 .07415 .07652 .07897 .08149 .08410 .08678 .08955 .09242 .09537 .09841 .1016 .1048 .1082 .1116 .1152 .1189 .1227 .1267
vm
ft3/lbm 14.545 14.595 14.645 14.697 14.749 14.802 14.856 14.911 14,967 15.023 15.081 15.140 15.200 15.261 15.324 15.387 15.452 15.518 15.586 15.654 15.724 15.796 15.869 15.944 16.020 16.098 16.178 16.259 16.343 16.428 16.516 16.605 16.696 16.790 16.886 16.985 17.086 17.189 17.295 17.404 17.516 17.631 17.749 17.870 17.994
hm
55.93 57.33 58.78 60.25 61.77 63.32 64.92 66.55 68.23 69.96 71.73 73.55 75.42 77.34 79.31 81.34 83.42 85.56 87.76 90.03 92.34 94.72 97.18 99.71 102.31 104.98 107.73 110.55 113.46 116.46 119.54 122.72 125.98 129.35 132.8 136.4 140.1 143.9 147.8 151.8 155.9 160.3 164.7 169.3 174.0
sm
.10890 .11146 .11407 .11675 .11949 .12231 .12519 .12815 .13117 .13427 .13745 .14071 .14406 .14749 .1510 .1546 .1584 .1621 .1660 .1700 .1742 .1784 .1826 .1870 .1916 .1963 .2011 .2060 .2111 .2163 .2216 .2272 .2329 .2387 .2446 .2508 .2571 .2636 .2703 .2772 .2844 .2917 .2993 .3070 .31 51
t
F 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179
W
.1308 .1350 .1393 .1439 .1485 .1534 .1584 .1636 .1689 .1745 .1803 .1862 .1924 .1989 .2055 .2125 .2197 .2271 .2349 .2430 .2514 .2602 .2693 .2788 .2887 .2990 .3098 .3211 .3329 .3452 .3581 .3716 .3858 .4007 .4163 .4327 .4500 .4682 .4875 .5078 .5292 .5519 .5760 .6016 .6288
vm
ft3/lbm 18.122 18.253 18.389 18.528 18.671 18.819 18.971 19.128 19.290 19.457 19.629 19.807 19.991 20.181 20.377 20.580 20.790 21.007 21.233 21.466 21.709 21.960 22.221 22.493 22.775 23.068 23.374 23.692 24.024 24.371 24.733 25.112 25.507 25.922 26.357 26.812 27.291 27.795 28.326 28.886 29.476 30.100 30.761 31.462 32.206
hm
178.9 183.9 189.0 194.4 199.9 205.7 211.6 217.7 224.1 230.6 237.4 244.4 251.7 259.3 267.1 275.3 283.6 292.4 301.5 310.9 320.8 331.0 341.7 352.7 364.2 376.3 388.8 402.0 415.7 429.9 445.0 460.7 477.2 494.4 512.4 531.5 551.5 572.7 594.9 618.3 643.2 669.4 697.3 726.9 758.3
sm
.3233 .3318 .3405 .3496 .3589 .3686 .3785 .3888 .3994 .4104 .4218 .4335 .4457 .4583 .4713 .4848 .4987 .5132 .5282 .5438 .5599 .5768 .5943 .6125 .6314 .6511 .6716 .6930 .7153 .7385 .7629 .7883 .8150 .8429 .8722 .9030 .9352 .9691 1.0049 1.0426 1.083 1.125 1.169 1.216 1.266
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-F
Btu/lbm Btu/lbm-F
1-44
FAN ENGINEERING
Fog Fog is a mixture of air, water vapor, and very fine water droplets, all at the same temperature. The mixture is a mechanical one; the water vapor is at saturation; and the water droplets are suspended. The fog region on a psychrometric chart is the area above the saturation curve. On Figures 1.61.8, the humidity ratio and enthalpy lines extend partly into the fog region. They can be extended even further if necessary. To determine the properties for any point in the fog region, read the humidity ratio W and enthalpy h directly by interpolating between lines. To determine the temperature, extend wet-bulb lines and interpolate. The dry-bulb temperature t will equal the wet-bulb temperature t . Since the humidity ratio W is the total mass of droplets and vapor per unit mass of dry air, the mass of droplets per unit mass of dry air Wd can be obtained by subtracting the humidity ratio at saturation Ws at the same temperature. The density of the mixture can be determined from the chart values of the volume per unit mass of dry air at saturation vm and the humidity ratio W using Equation 1.38. Barometric Corrections Psychrometric data taken from published charts or tables may not be sufficiently accurate if the actual pressure is different from the pressure for which the data were prepared. If greater accuracy is required, corrections can be applied as discussed in this section. Alternatively, a special chart can be drawn, as illustrated in Example 1.8. ASHRAE has prepared charts for elevations of 5000 feet and 7500 feet. If only the density is required, Figure 1.2, the Psychrometric Density Chart, is convenient to use. Density can also be computed using the equations and examples in the section on density, or even Tables 1.19 and 1.20. The effect of a change in pressure on the general appearance of a psychrometric chart is to displace the saturation curve and all the relative humidity lines. The displacement will be upward for a reduction in pressure. Similarly, the wet-bulb lines will be moved upward resulting in higher values for humidity ratio and enthalpy. The change in saturation humidity ratio, or the difference between the saturation humidity ratio W at elevation Z and
zs
W0 s , that at the chart elevation, can be determined using the actual pressure pz , the chart pressure p0 , the partial pressure of the vapor pws , and Wzs W0 s = W0 s p0 p z pz pws . (1.60)
Note that the prime signifies that properties are at the wet-bulb temperature. This equation is for points on the saturation curve, but it can be used in the partially saturated region with only slight errors. Figure 1.12 is a graphical representation of Equation 1.60
1-45
The change in enthalpy, or the difference between the enthalpy hzs at elevation Z and h0s , that at chart elevation, can be determined using the change in saturation humidity ratio from Equation 1.60, latent heat hlw , and hzs h0 s = hlw Wzs W0 s .
(1.61)
Figure 1.13 is a graphical representation of this equation. It is for points on the saturation curve, but usually only slight inaccuracies will result if used in the superheated region. Example 1.9 Barometric Corrections Given a barometric pressure of 24.90 in. Hg, a dry-bulb temperature of 70F, and a wet-bulb temperature of 50F, find the density, the humidity ratio, and the enthalpy. Using Figure 1.6: W0 = 0.0031 lbm w.v./lbm d.a., W0s = 0.00765 lbm w.v./lbm d.a., h0 = 20.2 Btu/lbm d.a., and h0s = 20.3 Btu/lbm-d.a Using U.S. units, Table 1.7, and Equations 1.60, 1.45, 1.61, and 1.31: p = 0.3626,
ws
Wzs W0 s = W0 s
p0 pz pz pws
= 0.00765
Ws = W0 + Wzs W0 s = 0.0031 + 0.0016 = 0.0047 lbm w.v./lbm d.a., hlw = 1093 0.55t = 1093 0.55 50 = 1065 Btu/lbm w.v. hzs h0 s = hlw Wzs W0 s = 1065 0.0016 = 1.704 Btu/lbm d.a., hz = h0 + hzs h0 s = 20.2 + 1.7 = 21.9 Btu/lbm d.a., and 24.90 1 + 0.0047 p 1+W 0.7543 70 + 459.7 R t+A = 0 = = 0.0621 lbm/ft3. 1 W 1 0.0047 + + 1 0.622 G w Using Figures 1.12 and 1.13 leads to the same results: W W0 = 0.0016 lbm w.v./lbm d.a. and
zs s
29.92 24.90 = .0016 lbm w.v./lbm d.a., 24.90 0.3626
1 6 1 6
1 1
6 6
hzs h0 s = 1.7 Btu/lbm d.a.

1-46
FAN ENGINEERING
Figure 1.12 Barometric Humidity Ratio Corrections
Figure 1.13 Barometric Enthalpy Corrections

1-47
Table 1.19 Density Factors for Air at Various Elevations

Standard Air at Sea. Level and 29.92 in. Hg-= 1.00
Z
ft
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
fx
1.000 0.996 0.993 0.989 0.986 0.982 0.979 0.975 0.971 0.968 0.964 0.961 0.957 0.954 0.950
b
in. Hg
29.92 29.81 29.70 29.60 29.49 29.38 29.28 29.17 29.07 28.96 28.86 28.75 28.65 28.54 28.44
Z
ft
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900
fx
0.947 0.944 0.940 0.937 0.933 0.930 0.926 0.923 0.920 0.916 0.913 0.909 0.906 0.903 0.899
b
in. Hg
28.33 28.23 28.13 28.02 27.92 27.82 27.72 27.62 27.52 27.42 27.32 27.21 27.11 27.01 26.91
Z
ft
3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000 5200 5400 5600 5800
fx
0.896 0.890 0.883 0.877 0.870 0.864 0.857 0.851 0.845 0.838 0.832 0.826 0.820 0.814 0.807
b
in. Hg
26.82 26.62 26.42 26.23 26.03 25.84 25.65 25.46 25.27 25.08 24.90 24.71 24.52 24.34 24.16
Z
ft
6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
fx
0.801 0.786 0.772 0.757 0.743 0.729 0.715 0.701 0.688 0.564 0.460 0.371 0.297 0.235 0.185
b
in. Hg
23.98 23.53 23.09 22.65 22.22 21.80 21.39 20.98 20.58 1 6.89 13.75 11.10 8.89 7.04 5.54
Calculated from the data of NACA: "Standard Atmosphere - Tables and Data for Altitudes to 65,800 Feet," Report 1235, Washington, D.C., 1955, pp. 66-81.
Table l.20 Density Factors for Dry Air a Various Temperatures

Standard Air at 70F =1.00
t
F -5 -10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
ft
1.165 1.178 1.152 1.140 1.128 1.116 1.104 1.093 1.082 1.071 1.060 1.056 1.052 1.047 1.043 1.039 1.035 1.031 1.027 1.023
t
F 62 60 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
ft
1.015 1.019 1.011 1.008 1.004 1.000 .996 .992 .989 .985 .982 .978 .974 .971 .967 .964 .960 .957 .953 .950
t
F 105 100 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195
ft
.938 .946 .930 .922 .914 .906 .898 .891 .883 .876 .869 .862 .855 .848 .841 .835 .828 .822 .815 .809
t
F 210 200 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
ft
.791 .803 .779 .768 .757 .747 .736 .726 .716 .707 .697 .688 .680 .671 .662 .654 .646 .638 .631 .624
t
F 425 400 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700 725 750 775 800 825 850 875
ft
.599 .616 .582 .567 .5 52 .538 .525 .512 .500 .488 .477 .467 .457 .447 .438 .429 .421 .412 .404 .397
1-48
FAN ENGINEERING
Barometric Measurements Barometric pressures can be measured with either a Fortin or an aneroid barometer. A Fortin, or mercurial barometer, consists of a vertical glass tube with the top sealed and the bottom immersed in a cistern of mercury. The tube is evacuated, and the mercury rises to a height corresponding to the atmospheric pressure. However, because of thermal expansion, the reading at any given pressure will vary slightly with temperature. Corrections to the standard temperature of reference can be made using Table 1.21. Theoretically, an additional correction for the difference in gravitational acceleration from the standard value should also be made using the data of Table 1.22. However, such corrections are negligible in most fan engineering work. Even properly designed, built, and maintained mercurial barometers should be checked periodically against the National Bureau of Standards' (now NIST) reference barometer. One way to do this is to compare readings with those on the local weather station barometer, which is checked periodically against the national standard. Simultaneous readings can be compared via the telephone, but to eliminate the possibility of local variations in atmospheric pressure, a transfer instrument should be used. An aneroid barometer can be transported to both locations for comparison with both instruments. An aneroid barometer consists of an evacuated capsule whose movement under changes in pressure is transmitted to an indicator that is calibrated in units of pressure. Gravity corrections are not necessary since aneroid instruments are force gages. If the instrument is temperature compensated, no corrections for temperature deviations are needed either. Aneroid barometers should be calibrated frequently The U.S. Weather Bureau reports barometric pressure converted to sea level conditions at 45 latitude using the data of Tables 1.22 and 1.23. In order to compare true values with Weather Bureau reports, the true values should also be converted. Example 1.10 illustrates how these conversions are made. Example 1.10 Barometric Measurements Given a mercurial barometer reading of 29.10 in. Hg, at 75F, 600 ft elevation, and 40 latitude, find the true atmospheric pressure and the pressure converted to Weather Bureau Standards. Using Table 1.21, the temperature correction is -0.13 in. Hg, and from Table 1.22, the gravity correction is -0.02 in. Hg, so that the true atmospheric pressure is 29.10 - 0.13 - 0.02 = 28.95 in. Hg. Using Table 1.23, the elevation correction is 0.10 in. Hg/100 ft of elevation, or 010 6 = 0.60 in. Hg, making the converted reading 28.95+0.60=29.55 in. . Hg.
1-49
Table l.21 Temperature Corrections for Barometers

(Use in all engineering calculations assuming brass scale is true at 62F) Column Temp. F -20 -10 0 10 20 30 F 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Observed reading of column in in. Hg 20 22 24 26 28 add in. Hg 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.02 0.00
16 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.00
18 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.00
30 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.00
32 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.00
0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13
subtract in. Hg 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.18
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19
0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.19 0.20
Adapted from.. the data of ASME: ASME Power Test Codes, Instruments and Apparatus, Part 2, Pressure Measurement, ASME PTC 19.2-1964, pp. 25-26.
Table l.22 Gravity Corrections for Barometers

(Negligible in engineering calculations) North Latitude Degrees 25 30 35 40 45 50 Elevation, ft 2000 4000 6000 8000 Add or subtract in. Hg as indicated -0.05 -0.05 -0.06 -0.06 -0.04 -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.03 -0.03 -0.04 -0.04 -0.02 -0.01 +0.01 -0.02 -0.01 -0.00 -0.03 -0.01 -0.00 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01
0 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.00 +0.01
10000 -0.05 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01
Adapted from the data of ASME: ASME Performance Test Codes, Instruments, and Apparatus Part 2, Pressure Measurement. ASME PTC 19.2, 1, 6-1941, pp. 15-16.
1-50
FAN ENGINEERING
Table l.23 Elevation Corrections for Barometers

(Use only for comparing personal data with Weather Bureau data.)
Mean Altitude ft 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
-20
Mean Atmospheric Temperature, F 0 20 40 60 80 in. Hg/100 ft 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
100
0.13 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10
0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
Adapted from the data of ASME: ASME Power Test Codes - Instruments and Apparatus, Part 2, Pressure Measurement, ASME PTC 19.2; 1, 6-1941, pp. 15-16.
Temperature Measurements Temperatures can be measured with a variety of instruments. The most common, liquid-in-glass thermometers, use various liquids depending on the working range: Material Mercury Alcohol Toluol Pentane Working Range in F -30 to 925 -100 to 250 -150 to 200 -300 to 70
Calibrated instruments can be read directly with sufficient accuracy for most engineering work. When only partially immersed, precautions must be taken to ensure that heat conduction due to the emergent stem is either negligible or accounted for. Figure 1.14 can be used to determine the necessary correction. In making average temperature determinations, be sure that the sample or samples are representative. Such determinations in a moving gas stream should be weighted according to mass flow. If a gas stream and its retaining walls are at different temperatures, the thermometer should be shielded to eliminate radiation effects. Resistance thermometers, which determine temperature by measuring the change in resistance of a calibrated wire, can be extremely accurate and are suitable for temperatures from -400 to 1800F.
1-51
Figure l.14 Emergent Stem Corrections for Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
When two dissimilar metal wires are joined together, as in a thermocouple, the difference in temperature between the junction and the opposite ends produces an emf, the magnitude of which is a function of temperature difference. Combinations of metals that give nearly straight-line relationships between emf and temperature are iron-constantan, copper-constantan, chromel-alumel, and platinum-(87% platinum/13% rhodium). Very good accuracy is obtained by measuring the emf with a potentiometer and reading the corresponding temperature from calibration tables. For measuring very high temperatures, pyrometers of either the radiation or optical type give reasonably accurate readings.
1-52
FAN ENGINEERING
Wet-bulb temperatures can be obtained in the same manner as dry-bulb temperatures except that the bulb must be kept wet. As indicated in the discussion on the temperature of adiabatic saturation, both gas velocity and radiation from surroundings affect wet-bulb readings. The reading from an unshielded wet-bulb thermometer in an air stream at 800 or 900 feet per minute is accurate to within about 0.5% according to Carrier and Mackey.1 A sling psychrometer can easily be whirled at speeds sufficient to produce this velocity past the bulb. Aspiration psychrometers that use tiny fans to produce a uniform circulation of air over the thermometer bulbs are available. Whenever the wet bulb is shielded, it will yield a temperature slightly lower than the temperature of adiabatic saturation. Usually this can be disregarded, but for accuracy a correction should be made, the value of which depends upon the velocity of air over the bulbs. There may be a 5% error in the wet- bulb depression if the velocity is 800 or 900 fpm. That is, up to 5% of the wet-bulb depression may have to be added to the observed wet-bulb reading to obtain the true temperature of adiabatic saturation. If a thermometer is dipped into water and used to record wet-bulb temperatures below 32F, it will first indicate the wet-bulb temperature over sub-cooled water. When freezing begins the temperature will return to and remain at 32F until freezing is completed. The thermometer will then ultimately register the wet-bulb temperature over ice after equilibrium is obtained and until the ice is all evaporated. Humidity Measurements Humidity is not measured directly; rather, some property related to humidity is measured and the humidity determined therefrom. Psychrometers, hygrometers, and dew-point detectors are used. The sling psychrometer and its motorized equivalent were described in the previous section. The relative humidity, humidity ratio, or any of the other humidity terms previously defined can be determined using a psychrometric chart or the formulae in this chapter. Hygrometers are calibrated to read directly in terms of relative humidity. They utilize the effects of humidity on various properties, such as the length of an organic fiber, the electrical resistance of a hygroscopic material, the weight of an absorbing material, the thermal conductivity of the moist air itself, and others. Dew-point detectors are calibrated to read in terms of dew-point temperature. They operate by cooling a surface to produce condensation, by expanding a gas sample to produce fog, or by passing an electrical current through a salt film to produce a vapor pressure equal to that of the atmosphere.
1
W. H. Carrier and C. O. Mackey, "A Review of Existing Psychrometric Data in Relation to Practical Engineering Problems," Trans. ASME, vol. 59, paper PRO-59-1, 1937, pp. 33-47.

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Chapter 1

Properties of Air and Other Gases

ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry ASHRAE, New York, 1977, p. 3.

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

Apparent Molecular Weight =

28.964 = 28.964 10000 .

Apparent Molecular Weight =

10000 . = 28.964 0.034526

ASHRAE Brochure on Psychrometry, ASHRAE, New York, 1977, p. 4.

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

R J/kg-K J/kg-K ft-lb/lbm-R ft-lb/lbm-R ft-lb/lbm-R J/kg-K J/kg-K

1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

When mixed units are used, p = Cb pb + C g p g (1.5)

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

pws w = 0.6214 + 1130

1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

Table 1.7 Saturation Vapor Pressures p ws of Ice1 and Water2

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

range of wet-bulb temperatures t , can also be approximated from p ws = C1t 2 + C2 t + C3

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

The specific humidity H can be determined from: H=

pw w pws w . = p pw G + p w w p pws G + pws w

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

, g , & w kg/m3 kg/m3 lbm/ft3 lbm/ft3 lbm/ft3 kg/m3 kg/m3

p& p ws Pa kPa lb/ft2 in. Hg in. wg mm Hg mm wg

G , w, , W ,& H dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless

A 273.2 273.2 459.7 459.7 459.7 273.2 273.2

R0 287.0 0.2870 53.35 0.7543 10.27 2.153 29.32

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

Mp 30.6 98.78 = = 0.808 kg/m3. 8.311T 8.311 449.9

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

1 6 . 29.17 12 0.75431t + 459.76 0.7543 809.7 = = = 0.0452 lbm/ft ,

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

W 0.2 = 0.0452 = 0.0075 lbm water vapor/ft3. 1+ W 12 .

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Using Figure 1.2: t t = 90 75 = 15F and = 0.0681 lbm/ft3 from chart.

Figure 1.2 Psychrometric Density Chart

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

p = 0.0716 28.5 = 0.0682 lbm/ft for 28.5 in. Hg. 29.92 p

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

CHAPTER 1 PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OTHER GASES

C7 2501 1093 597

C8 2.30 0.55 0.55

C9 2836 1220 677

C10 0.08 0.02 0.02