CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY V.

SPECIALIZATION AND SUBDIVISIONS OF

ZOOLOGY

I. ZOOLOGY A. SUBDIVISIONS
-is the scientific study of animal life 1. Animal Morphology – the study of animal form as a
- seeks to understand the sum total of all the properties whole
of animals and animal population 2. Animal Histology – the study of microstructure of
tissues
II. HISTORY OF ZOOLOGY 3. Gross Anatomy – the study of general visible
structures of animals revealed by dissection
Life - sum total of all body activities of an organism – 4. Animal physiology – the study of living processes
There are a series of seven characteristics shared by and functions of parts of the animal body
living things which we call unifying characteristics of 5. Zoogeography – the study of distribution of animals
life. according to space and region
6. Animal Embryology – the study of the development
III. UNIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE and growth of the new individual within the egg or the
mother
1. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION – all organisms 7. Genetics – the study of laws of heredity and
consist of one or more cells variations
2. ORDERED COMPLEXITY – contains many 8. Ecology – the study of relationships of the animals to
complex molecular structure their environment
3. SENSITIVITY – all organisms respond to stimuli 9. Taxonomy – the study of the animal classification
4. GROWTH DEVELOPMENT AND 10. Paleontology – the study of fossil animals and their
REPRODUCTION – capable of growing and distribution in time
reproducing 11. Ethology – the study of animal behavior
- possess hereditary materials that are passed to their 12. Evolution – study of origin and differentiation of
offspring ensuring that it is the same species animal life
5. ENERGY UTILIZATION – organisms take in
energy and use it to perform many kinds of work B, SPECIALIZATIONS
6. HOMEOSTASIS – maintain relatively constant 1. Protozoology – the study of protozoans
internal conditions 2. Ichthyology – the study of fishes
- state of balance within the physical systems needed for 3. Ornithology – the study of birds
a body to function properly and survive 4. Malacology – the study of mollusks
(ex: body temperature, blood sugar) 5. Anthropology – the study of man
7. EVOLUTION ADAPTATION – all organisms 6. Mammalogy – the study of mammals
interact with other organisms of non-living environment 7. Parasitology – the study of parasites
in ways that influence their survival, and as a 8. Conchology – the study of shells
consequence, organisms evolve to their environment 9. Herpetology – the study of reptiles and amphibians
10. Entomology – the study of insects
IV. HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION
VI. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Cellular Level Organismal Level
1. OBSERVATION – the process in science which
• Organ System
• Atoms begins with making careful observations of the
• Organism
• Molecules surroundings.
• Macromolecules Populational Level 2. HYPOTHESIS – an assumption made in order to
• Organelles
• Cell 1. Population 2. Species draw out and test logical consequences and to interpret
• Tissue 3.Community 4. Ecosystem practical situation or condition taken as the ground for
• Organ 5. Biosphere action
3. PREDICTION – is foretelling on the basis of
observation, experience or scientific reason. A prediction
states the result expected from an experimental test. A
hypothesis serves as a prediction about the outcome of
an experiment
4. METHOD OF EXPERIMENT – this refers to the
tests conducted in order to prove or disprove the
VII. Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes Compared
hypothesis and predictions
5. RESULTS – are the outcomes of the experiments
CHAPTER 2: CELL: The Basic Unit of Life
6. CONCLUSION – is the result or a reasoned
judgment on the basis of evidence
7. THEORY – a hypothesis supported through many
experiments done over a period of time

DEDUCTION INDUCTION
• General to specific • Specific to general

Theory Theory
Hypothesis Hypothesis
Observation Pattern
Confirmation Observation
Aristotle Sherlock

VIII. TAXONOMY • All living creatures are composed of cells, the basic
unit of life
TAXONOMY – the branch biology that studies naming, • The cell performs various activities
arranging, classifying, and describing organisms into • It grows, produces, and matures
groups and levels
I. STRUCTURES OF THE CELL
Carolus Linnaeus – Father of taxonomy (binomial
nomenclature)
Domain – highest level constitutes three domains
(Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya)
Kingdom - the second most level constitutes five
kingdoms (Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protista, Monera)
Phylum – a group of related class
Class - a group of related orders
Order – a group of related families
Family – a group of related genera
Genus – a group of related species
Species – a group of similar organisms

Taxonomy of Living Things

Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata A. CELL MEMBRANE (door)
Class: Mammalia • The outer covering of the cell
• It functions as a selective barrier that regulates the
Order: Primates
entrance and exit of substances into the cell
Family: Hominidae • (Allows materials to pass through or not)
Genus: homo
Species: sapiens Homo sapiens (human) B. CYTOPLASM (sahig)
• The ground substance and the biggest part of the cell
where the organelles are found
• Free-floating organelle
Cytoplasmic Organelles
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (butil)
• Is a continuous intercommunicating channel
composed of membrane-enclosed sacs and tubules
• Has a variety of functions among different cell types
(helps in biosynthesis of steroid hormones in endocrine
cells)
• Production of different macromolecules
1.1 Rough ER – has ribosomes
• More common type of ER
1.2 Smooth ER – without ribosomes
• More tubular and non-granular
2. Golgi Apparatus (shopee)
• Composed of sets of cisternae (helps carry
enzymes) and numerous vesicles
• For sorting and packaging macromolecules for use
within the cell or for exocytosis (cell secretion)
3. Mitochondrion
• Powerhouse of the cell
• Varies in size, shape, and number, depending on the
degree of cellular activity
• Site of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) synthesis
and fatty acid oxidation
• ATP – energy in cell
4. Lysosome
• Small membrane-bound bodies that contain several
hydrolytic enzymes such as acid hydrolase for
intracellular digestion
• Derived from lyso lytic or digestive and soma body
5. Centriole
• Usually adjacent to nucleus
• For cell division where it participates in the
formation of the mitotic spindle
C. NUCLEUS
• Found in almost all cells
• Functions as site where hereditary factors are stored
• Source of ribosomal (rRNA), messenger (mRNA) and
transfer RNA (tRNA)
1. Nuclear Envelope (NE)
• Nucleus two layered outer limit separating it from
the cytoplasm (parang cell membrane pero nasa nucleus)
• Nuclear Pores (NP) – selective channels between
the cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus
2. Nucleoplasm
• Also called as karyoplasm
• It is a fluid contained in the nucleus
• Suspended to it is the spherical non-membrane-
bound nucleolus
• Parang cytoplasm pero nasa nucleus
3. Chromatin
• Found inside the nucleus
• Made up of DNA and proteins and forms
chromosomes during cell division
• Two general types euchromatin and
heterochromatin
4. Chromosome
• Contains genes inherited by the offspring from the
parent
• 46 diploid chromosomes, 23 pairs
• 22 pairs - autosomes/body cells (mitosis)
• 23rd pair - gametes/sex cells (meiosis)
II. CELL DIVISION
CELL CYCLE - in eukaryotic cells, it is a regular
pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division. It
is composed of four stages.
Interphase - the cell is not undergoing cell division
• Cell performs its regular functions, taking nutrients
and growing, preparing itself for cell division
Stages of Interphase
• Gap 1 (G1) - first phase, comes before the synthesis
of DNA. The cell increases in mass/size in preparation
for cell division
• Synthesis (S phase) - crucial part since this is when
DNA is synthesized
• Gap 2 (G2) - comes after synthesis but occurs before
mitosis. Cell synthesizes protein and continues to
increase in size. The chromosomes start to condense;
proteins necessary for mitotic spindle are synthesized
MITOSIS
• A type of cell division that takes place in somatic or
body cells
• The main purpose of cell division is the production of
cells for growth, repair and development
• Produces two identical diploid daughter cells
Stages of Mitosis
a. Prophase - the chromatin condenses into more
discrete chromosomes. Nuclear envelope starts to
disintegrate and spindles form at the opposite poles of
the cell
b. Metaphase - the spindle fibers fully develop. The
chromosomes align in the equatorial plate
c. Anaphase - The paired chromosomes separate and
begin to move toward the opposite poles of the cell. At
the end of anaphase, each pole contains a complete set of
chromosomes
d. Telophase - The chromosomes are confined into
distinct new nuclei of the daughter cells.
Cytokinesis - the cytoplasm splits in two and the cell
divides.
MEIOSIS
• Cell division that takes place in sex cells or gametes
• Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2
• Produces four genetically diverse haploid daughter
cells from one diploid parent cell
CHAPTER 3: BASIC HISTOLOGY
HISTOLOGY - is the study that involves the
microscopic examination of tissue appearance,
organization and function
WHAT ARE TISSUES?
• The term tissue is used to describe a group of cells that
are similar in structure and perform a specific function
• Cells group and cluster together to form specialized
tissues, which can be classified into four types:
Epithelia, connective, muscular and nervous tissues.
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• Tissues that cover the exterior surfaces of the body,
line internal cavities and passageways and form certain
glands
Functions:
Protection from potential infectious agents (e.g. skin)
Absorption of nutrients (intestines)
Sensation (neuroepithelium)
Structure: Compactly arranged, avascular, form
membranes and glands
ET can be classified according to:
• Number of cell layers: simple (single layer), stratified
(multi layered)
• Shape of cells: squamous (scale-like), cuboidal (cube
or box), columnar (column or vertical)
• Surface specialization: cilia, keratin, goblet cell, or
brush border
Types of Epithelium
1. Simple Epithelium
a. Simple squamous epithelium - found in the
endothelium of blood vessels, alveoli, and mesothelium
that covers the body cavities
b. Simple cuboidal - the cells are box-shaped that are
found in the linings of kidney where reabsorption of
minerals occur
c. Simple columnar epithelium - the cells are
cylindrical with an appreciable height that functions as a
protection
2. Stratified Epithelium
a. Stratified squamous epithelium
b. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
c. Stratified columnar epithelium - found in the salivary
gland ducts in humans
d. Transitional epithelium - can change form,
depending on the degree of distention of the bladder
e. Pseudostratified epithelium - cells with their nuclei
positioned in different levels, giving the impression that
the membrane is composed of more than a single layer
of cells
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• They consist of the actual connective tissue cells and
protein fibers (collagen and elastin), Functions as
support, protection, transport, tissue repair, and
immunologic reactions
Types of Connective Tissues
a. Collagenous Connective Tissue
• is predominantly made up of type 1 collagen.
• can be found in tendons and periosteum
b. Elastic Connective Tissue
• primarily formed by type II collagen CHAPTER 4: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• not easily visualized under the microscope unless it is
stained INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• often found in the bronchi, trachea, blood vessels and • A physical system composing the outermost layer of an
hollow organs animal body
• It is responsible for much more than simply lending to
c. Reticular Connective tissue your outward appearance
• primarily formed by type III collagen • The skin makes up about 16 percent of body weight
• serves as a supporting framework of lymphoid organs and covers an area of 1.5 to 2m2
3. MUSCULAR TISSUES
• Primary tissue for locomotion
• Characteristically elongated as an adaption for LAYERS OF SKIN
contraction 1. EPIDERMIS - “epi” means above
Types of Muscular Tissue • Composed of keratinized, stratified squamous
epithelium
a. Skeletal Muscles - striated • No blood vessels within
• Made up of very long, cylindrical, multinucleated • Made of four or five layers of epithelial cells
cells capable of quick and forceful contractions that are depending on its location in the body
usually voluntary in control • The cells in all layers except the stratum basale are
called keratinocytes
b. Cardiac Muscles • A keratinocyte is a cell that manufactures and stores
• Composed of elongated branched individual cells that the protein keratin
are configured parallel to each other
• Capable of involuntary, vigorous and rhythmic • Keratin - is an intracellular fibrous protein that
contractions gives hair, nails and skin their hardness strength
and water resistant properties
c. Smooth Muscles - non striated
• Involuntary Types of Epidermis
• Found in the walls of internal organs
• Thin skin (4 layers) most skin can be classified
as thin. From deep to superficial:
4. NERVOUS TISSUES Stratum basale
• Function to receive information from the environment Stratum spinosum
or other nerve cells Stratum granulosum
• process information and send information to other Stratum corneum
neurons or effector tissues  Thick skin (five layers) - found only on the
palms of the hand and soles of the feet
Classification of Neurons Stratum basale
1. According to function Stratum spinosum
a. Sensory neurons - carry information obtained from Stratum granulosum
the interior of the body and the environment to the
Central Nervous System
b. Motor Neurons - carry impulses from the CNS to
effector organs
2. According to neurotransmitters or chemical
messengers that modify neuron sensitivity to synaptic
stimulation or inhibition
a. Dopaminergic
b. Serotonergic
c. Glutamatergic
d. Cholinergic
e. Adrenergic
f. GABA-minergic
 Stratum lucidum *
Stratum corneum
LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS (deep to surface)
a. Stratum Basale - also called stratum germinativum
• Cells in the stratum basale bond to dermis via
intertwining collagen fibers referred to as the basement
membrane
• Stratum basale is a single layer of cells primarily made
of basal cells
 Two other cell types:
1. Merkel Cell - functioning as a receptor and is
responsible for stimulating sensory nerves that
the brain perceives as touch
2. Melanocyte - a cell that produces the pigment
melanin
• Melanin - gives hair and skin its color and
also helps protect the DNA in the nuclei of
living cells of the epidermis from ultraviolet
radiation damage
b. Stratum Spinosum - is spiny in appearance
• Is composed of 8 to 10 layers of keratinocytes formed
as a result of cell division in the stratum basale
 Langerhans cell - a type of dendritic cell which
functions as a macrophage (involved in immune
system) by engulfing bacteria, foreign particles,
and damaged cells that occur in this layer
c. Stratum Granulosum - Has a grainy appearance due
to further changes to the keratinocytes as they are
pushed from the stratum spinosum
• The cells (3 to 5 layers deep) become flatter, their cell
membranes thickens and they generate large amount of
the proteins keratin and keratohyalin
• The nuclei and other cell organelles disintegrate as the
cells die, leaving behind the keratin, keratohyalin and
cell membranes that will form the stratum lucidum and
the stratum corneum
d. Stratum Lucidum - a smooth seemingly translucent
layer of epidermis
• The keratinocytes that compose the stratum lucidum
are dead and flattened
e. Stratum Corneum - most superficial layer of the
epidermis and is the layer exposed to the outside
environment
• The increase keratinization (cornification) of the cells
in this layer gives it its name
• Helps prevent the penetration of microbes and the
dehydration of underlying tissues
• Provides a mechanical protection against abrasion for
the more delicate underlying layers
2. DERMIS - middle
• Might be considered the core of the integumentary
system
• It contains blood and lymph vessels nerves and other
structures such as hair follicles and sweat glands
• Made of two layers of connective tissue that compose
an interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers,
produced by fibroblasts
 Papillary layer – made of loose, areolar
connective tissue
• Superficial layer of the dermis
• Within are fibroblasts, a small number of fat
cells (adipocytes) and an abundance of small
blood vessels
• Contains phagocytes, defensive cells that help
fight bacteria or other infections that have
breached the skin
DID YOU KNOW?
In a growing fetus, fingerprints form when the cells
of the stratum basale of the epidermis meets the papillae
of the underlying dermal layer (papillary layer), resulting
in the formation of the ridges on your fingers that you
recognize as fingerprints. Dermal papillae push up on
the epidermis creating unique epidermal ridge patterns.
Fingerprints are unique to each individual and are used
for forensic analyses because the patterns do not change
with the growth and aging processes.
 B. Reticular layer
• composed of dense irregular connective tissue
which resists forces in many directions
attributing to the flexibility of the skin
• This layer makes up around 80% of the
dermis and is well vascularized and has a rich
sensory and sympathetic nerve supply.
• The reticular layer appears reticulated (net-
like) due to a tight meshwork of fibers. Elastin
fibers provide some elasticity to the skin,
enabling movement.
3. HYPODERMIS- lower
• Also called subcutaneous layer or superficial fascia
• A layer directly below the dermis and serves to
connect skin to the underlying fascia (fibrous tissue)
surrounding the muscles
• It is not strictly a part of the skin, although the border
between the hypodermis and dermis can be difficult to
distinguish.
• Consists of well-vascularized, loose, areolar
connective tissue and abundant adipose tissue, which
functions as a mode of fat storage and provides
insulation and cushioning for the integument.
Accessory Structures of the Skin (Skin Appendages)
1. Hair
• Filamentous strand (thread-like) of dead keratinized
cells produced by hair follicles
• Contains hard keratin which is tougher and more
durable than soft keratin of the skin
• Pigmented by melanocytes at the base of the hair
• Eumelanin- brown and back hair
• Pheomelanin- red
2. Nails
• Composed of densely packed dead keratinocytes
• The nail body is formed on the nail bed and protects
the tips of our fingers and toes
• The nail body forms at the nail root
• The nail bed is rich in blood vessels, making it
appear pink except the base where a thick layer of
epithelium over the nail matrix forms a crescent shaped
region called the lunula (the little moon)
3. Sweat Glands / sudoriferous glands
When the body becomes warm, sweat glands produce
sweat to cool the body (homeostasis) Two types:
 a. Eccrine Sweat Glands
• Are most common and are found all over the
body
• End at skin pores
• Release mostly water, salt, and traces of
metabolic wastes; no oil produced
 b. Apocrine Sweat Glands
• Usually found in the armpits, around nipples
and anal genital area
• usually end at the hair follicle
• release organic compounds (fats and
proteins) that make the sweat thicker and subject
to bacterial decomposition and subsequent smell
• active during the puberty stage
4. Sebaceous Gland
• A type of gland that is found all over the body and
helps lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair
• Most sebaceous glands are associated with hair
follicles
• They generate and excrete sebum (oil) a mixture of
lipids onto the skin surface thereby naturally lubricating
the dry and dead layer of keratinized cells of the stratum
corneum keeping it pliable
FUNCTIONS OF INTEGUMENTARY
1. Protection
• The skin protects the rest of the body from the basic
elements of nature such as wind, water and UV sunlight
• First line of defense against abrasive activity due to
contact microbes, or harmful chemicals.
• Sweat excreted from sweat glands deter microbes
from over colonizing skin surface by generating
dermcidin, which has antibiotic properties
2. Sensory Function
• The skin acts as a sense organ because the epidermis,
dermis and hypodermis contain specialized sensory
nerve structures that detect touch, surface temperature
and pain
3. Thermoregulation
• Helps regulate body temperature through its tight
association with the sympathetic nervous system
4. Vitamin D synthesis
• The epidermal layer synthesizes vitamin D when
exposed to UV radiation
• Vitamin D is essential for normal absorption of
calcium and phosphorous which are required for healthy
bones
• The absence of sun exposure can lead to a lack of
vitamin D in the body, leading to a condition called
rickets; osteomalacia for elderly individuals
Common Diseases, Disorders and Injuries
DISEASES
1. Basal Carcinoma
• A form of cancer that affects the mitotically active
stem cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis
• Although UV rays are the main culprit exposure to
other agents such as radiation and arsenic can also lead
to this type of cancer
2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• is a cancer that affects the keratinocytes of the
stratum spinosum and presents as lesions commonly
found on the scalp, ears
• If not removed, these carcinomas can metastasize
(capacity to propagate and transfer)
3. Melanoma
• cancer characterized by uncontrolled growth of
melanocytes
• Typically develops from a mole
• It is the most fatal of all skin cancers, as it is highly
metastatic and can be difficult to detect before it has
spread to other organs

DISORDERS
1. Eczema
• An allergic reaction that manifests as dry, itchy
patches of skin that resembles rashes
• It is accompanied by swelling of the skin, flaking,
and in severe cases, bleeding
2. Acne
• Is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of
the skin that are rich in sebaceous glands (oil glands)
such as face and back
• Acne results from infection by acne-causing bacteria
(Propionibacterium and Staphyloc occus)

INJURIES
1. Burns
• A burn results when the skin is damaged by intense
heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals.
• The damage results in the death of skin cells, which
can lead to a massive loss of fluid.
 A first-degree burn is a superficial burn that
affects only the epidermis.
 A second-degree burn goes deeper and affects
both the epidermis and a portion of the dermis.
 A third-degree burn fully extends into the
epidermis and dermis, destroying the tissue and
affecting the nerve endings and sensory
function.