THE PHYSICAL SELF

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Analyze the influence of culture on body image and self; and
 develop a positive body image
“Your self-esteem won’t come from body parts. You need to step away from
the mirror every once in a while, and look for another reflection, like the one in
the eyes of the people who love you and admire you.” –Stacy London

The Physical Self

The physical self pertains to how you look like; it is concerned with body type,
height, skin color, weight, and other tangible aspects of your identity. It is
concerned with body image, self-concept, self-esteem, and similar facets of
physical attractiveness.

Body Image is your perception of your physical self; it is your thoughts and
feelings (May they be positive or negative) about your body. It has four aspects:
a. Perceptual body image is how you see your body. It is not always a
correct view as it may be highly influenced by insecurities (or
overconfidence). For example, an individual may see his body as obese
but his body mass index (BMI) indicates that he is still within the range of
healthy body weight.
b. Cognitive body image is your beliefs about your physical self. If left
unchecked this may result to overthinking about a body part. For
example, an individual with physical insecurities may often think that she
will only be liked by others if she would have a lighter complexion.
c. Affective body image is how you feel about your body. For instance, a
college student is generally satisfied about her looks.
d. Behavioral body image is what you do as a result of the aforementioned
aspects. For instance, the young man who erroneously perceived himself
as obese went on a strict diet and the lady with complexion insecurities
bought several skin whitening products. On the other hand, the college
student who was generally satisfied about how she looks like is confident
in socializing and pursuing her goals.
Healthy body image is characterized by having a realistic perception; it is
feeling good about one’s body despite what the media dictates (Legg, 2017).
It is being accepting of God-given traits and having the right attitude to work
on having a healthy lifestyle. Someone with this mindset understands that
beauty is not merely skin deep. Having a healthy body image has been linked
to having a likewise healthy self-esteem or the overall evaluation of self-worth.
People with an optimum level of self-respect have the motivation to tackle
challenges, are able to express their needs, can say “NO” when needed, and
are more optimistic.
Unhealthy body image is characterized by the following (National Eating
Disorder Association, 2018):
 Body dissatisfaction and being significantly preoccupied with
appearance
 Being anxious and shameful about one’s body
 Usually comparing one’s body with others
 Having disordered eating and feelings of isolation, low self-esteem
and/or depression
 Vomiting, taking laxatives, risky dieting, and other unhealthy behaviors

It is likely that those with unhealthy body image may also have unhealthy self-
esteem (Szabo, 2015). Those with low levels of self-worth may often focus on
their failures, have difficulties accepting compliments, are pessimistic, often
have feelings of shame and depression, and cannot freely express their needs.
The Impact of Mass Media on the Physical Self
Unfortunately, a study found out that as early as 6 years old, some girls want to
be thinner and one possible reason is media influence (Granatino & Haytko,
2013). It is a common observation that people from all age groups are exposed
to You Tube, Facebook, and various commercials which shape the society’s
standard of “body beautiful”. From childhood, some females may have been
conditioned that to be “beautiful” is to be like the celebrities they are exposed
to. However, the current focus on social media views beauty to be merely
superficial. This is one of the reasons why some girls are bent on having flawless
skin, bigger eyes, longer lashes, and smaller waists. Also, some boys aim to have
6 pack abs, muscular arms, and other “masculine” traits. It is no surprise that
girls want to be barbies (or fairytale princesses) and boys want to be Superman
(or other superheroes and princes). Thus, they may feel that they can never
look good enough.
In fact, only around 5% of our population realistically looks like the ones shown
in social media (Kirby, 2019). This may mean that a part of the 95% are
desperately trying to achieve unrealistic physical traits. For instance, models
need to undergo hours of makeup and photos are being edited before they
get published. It then becomes a vicious cycle of having a negative body
image and low self-esteem.
Hence, it is important to be more critical when being exposed to mass media.
It is also helpful to guide young minds regarding the reality of what they see on
screen. Experts recommend taking breaks from the use of social media and
wisely choosing the content which we get exposed to. We have to keep in
mind that we would often feel unhappy if we keep on comparing ourselves
with the “perfect” superstars. The aim is to be healthy, not to be like a celebrity.
After all, we can never be “unreal”.

Impact of Culture on the Physical Self

Our culture may have been discriminating individuals who do not measure up
to the “beauty standard”. It is no secret that a number of people have been
bullied because of their weight, height, skin, facial features, and other physical
attributes. Moreover, you may have felt pressured to look like someone else
because you want to be accepted or admired by your peers.
A number of Filipinos are using skin-lightening products as evidenced by store
shelves filled with whitening cosmetics. Aside from the influence of mass media,
this kind of cultural conditioning may also be attributed to the Pinoy’s mestizo/
mestiza hype. Since, we were colonized by the fair-skinned Spaniards for more
than three centuries, we may have been conditioned that having white skin
marks a superior class (La Pena, 2010). After the Spanish regime, this attitude
may have been reinforced by the American commercialism. Until now,
Western (and European) standards have been shaping the Philippine
exocentric culture.
For a healthier physical self, it is imperative to be aware of the impact of your
personal standards of what is being “beautiful”. Some recommendations are
to practice positive self-talk, be careful of comparisons, be grateful for what
you have, and aim for good health.

THE PHYSICAL SELF

Physical Self & Body Image
PHYSICAL SELF
pertains to how you look like.
concerned with body image, self-concept, self-esteem, and similar facets of
physical attractiveness.

BODY IMAGE
your perception of your physical self
it is your thoughts and feelings about your body

4 Aspects of Body Image

1. Perceptual
How you see your body and it is not always a correct view as it may be
highly influenced by insecurities or overconfidence.
Example: an individual may see his body as obese but his body mass index
(BMI) is within the range of healthy body weight.
2. Cognitive
Your beliefs about your physical self.
Example: An individual with physical insecurities may often think that she will
only be liked by others if she would have a lighter complexion.
3. Affective
How you feel about your body.
Example: A college student is generally satisfied about her looks.
4. Behavioral
What you do as a result of the aforementioned aspects.
Example: A young man who erroneously perceived himself as obese went
on a strict diet and the lady with complexion insecurities bought several skin
whitening products. On the other hand, the college student who was generally
satisfied about how she looks like is confident in socializing and pursuing her
goals.
Factors Affecting Perception of the Physical Self
1. Personal Factors
Introspection and Self-reflection
Self – Perception Theory
Self-concept
Personal Identity
2. Social Factors
Attachment process and social appraisal
Social Comparison (upward and downward comparison)
Healthy body image = Healthy self – esteem
Characterized by having a realistic perception and accepting of God-given
traits.
Having the right attitude to work on having a healthy lifestyle.
Healthy body image is associated with higher self-esteem, self-acceptance,
and having a healthy outlook and behavior
Overall evaluation of self-worth.
Body Dissatisfaction
• Occurs when a person has persistent negative thoughts and feelings about
their body.
• An internal emotional and cognitive process but influenced by external
factors.
Is body dissatisfaction a serious problem?
Yes, because people experiencing body dissatisfaction are susceptible to
developing eating disorder than others.

Eating Disorders
ANOREXIA NERVOSA
• characterized by extreme food restriction and an intense fear of gaining
weight.
• limit the number of calories and the types of food they eat.
Eventually, they lose weight or cannot maintain an appropriate body weight
based on their height, age, stature and physical health. They may exercise
compulsively and/or purge the food they eat through intentional vomiting
and/or misuse of laxatives.
BULIMIA NERVOSA
eating large amounts of food with a loss of control over the eating
— and then purge, trying to get rid of the extra calories in an unhealthy way.
To get rid of calories and prevent weight gain, people with bulimia may use
different methods.
For example, you may regularly self-induce vomiting or misuse laxatives,
weight-loss supplements
The Filipino Concept of Beauty
What is Eurocentrism?
• It is defined as a tendency to interpret the world in terms of
European or Anglo-American values and experiences.
• Filipino with eurocentric features are with their fair skin and tall skin that
sweeps what is Filipino beauty is (Dark skin and flat nose)
• The “tisoy” and “tisay” beauty standards is strongly promoted in media, that
perpetuating the idea that the European standard of beauty is the only thing
that can deemed as beautiful.
How can you improve your body image?
 Focus on your positive qualities, skills, and talents, which can help
you accept and appreciate your whole self.
Say positive things to yourself every day.
Avoid negative self-talk.
Focus on appreciating and respecting what your body can do,
which will help you to feel more positively about it.
Set positive health-focused goals rather than weight-related ones,
which are more beneficial for your overall wellbeing.
Avoid comparing yourself to others.
Unfollow or unfriend people on social media who trigger negative
body image thoughts and feelings.

TOPIC 6:
THE SEXUAL SELF
A child asked her mom “What is sex?”. The mother nervously asked, “where
did you hear that word?”. Then the child pointed at “sex” on the form that the
mother was about to fill out. The mother gave a sigh of relief and explained
how
one becomes a “male” or a “female”.
Talking about sex may be unacceptable among certain cultures and some
teens (and even children) may dangerously explore their sexuality. Without
proper guidance, adolescents may engage in unsafe practices or become
victims of abuse. The following discussions delve into the sexual self-concept,

the RH Bill, and guidelines on sexuality.

Sexual Self-concept
“Sexual self-concept (SSC) – defined as an individual’s evaluation of his or
her own sexual feelings and actions” The cognitive and
affective components are believed to be at the core of human sexuality.
The following are some of the main factors in forming the SSC (Potki, et al.,
2017):

a. Biological Factors

 Age
The SSC becomes more stable with increasing age.

 Gender
As compared to men, women have been generally shown to experience
greater sexual anxiety, depression, and fear. Unfortunately, a number of
women reported that their first sexual experience felt forced and it had
an abusive feature. Also, women tend to view sexual experiences more
romantically while men view it from a more explicit perspective.
 Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD)
Individuals with STDs such as Human Papillomavirus (HPV), HIV/
AIDS, chlamydia, and gonorrhea experience more feelings of
depression and anxiety regarding their sexual relations. Alarmingly, most
infected people do not reveal about their diseases to their partners
because of fear of rejection.

b. Psychological Factors

 Body Image
Poor body image has been found to be associated with reduced
confidence in engaging in intimate relationships.

 History of Sexual Abuse

Survivors of sexual abuse tend to be less romantic and sensual. They may
also often feel guilt, shame, frustration, sorrow, and anger.

 Mental Health
Sexual incompetence and other negative emotions tend to be higher
among those with mental health concerns such as schizophrenia and
depression.

c. Social Factors

 Parents and Peers

Parents are generally the first educators on sexual identity and related
values like love, humility, and kindness. Also, students report that most of
their knowledge on sexuality is gained from peers.

 Media
The media encompasses a wide array of sexuality-related topics such as
reproduction, sexual identity, and romantic relationships.

Hormones and Sexuality

Hormones are chemical messengers in your body which affect
various processes such as metabolism, mood, appetite, and how you
experience feelings of intimacy. The following table presents several of such
hormones, the glands which produce them, and their influence on sexuality.

Hormone
Influence
Testosterone Gland
Testicles, adrenal Progesterone sexual activity,
glands Ovaries, placenta,
(small quantities) and
Sexual motivation childbirth, and
adrenal glands
among lactation
Decreases sexual
males linked with empathy,
motivation
Estrogen Ovaries, trust, and
among women;
placenta attachment
produced
(during pregnancy) Vasopressin
during pregnancy
Sexual motivation Hypothalamus
Oxytocin
among (secreted by pituitary
Hypothalamus
females gland)
(secreted
Causes the erectile
by pituitary gland)
response
Released during
among men
Influence
Gender and Sexual Diversity (GSD)
GSD pertains to the varieties of gender identities and sexual orientations.
The following are several of the related terms:
 Sex: It is the biological difference assigned at birth; it’s being either
male or female.

 Sexual Orientation: It is about who an individual feels sexually attracted

to. For instance, a person may be straight (heterosexual), gay or
lesbian (homosexual), or bisexual.

 Gender Identity: The internal sense of one’s own gender; it may differ
from the assigned sex at birth. Thus, some people may experience
their gender differently from what the society expects. Transgender
is an umbrella term for people who have gender identities that do
not match their sex which was assigned at birth.

 Gender Expression: This is how an individual expresses his gender

identity. This is shown through body language, way of dressing,
manner of talking, etc.
 Cisgender: An individual whose sense of gender identity matches their
assigned sex at birth.

 LGBT, LGBTQ*, LGBTQ +, LGBTTQ, and LGBTQ2: These acronyms

allude
to the spectrum of gender and sexual identities which include
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, two-spirit, queer, questioning,
intersex, and asexual. The asterisk (*) or plus (+) means that there are
other kinds of identities which are not in the acronym.

The RH Law
The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 (Republic
Act No. 10354), also known as the RH Bill, RH Law, or Reproductive Health
Law,
gives a comprehensive framework regarding family planning and
reproductive health services. Below is an excerpt regarding the general
information of RA 10354 from the Commission on Population (2019).
What is responsible parenthood (RP)?
Responsible parenthood is the will and ability of parent(s) to respond to
the needs and aspirations of the family and children. It is the shared
responsibility between parents to determine and achieve the desired number
and timing of their children according to their own aspirations. (RA
10354
Section 4v).

What is Reproductive Health (RH)?

Reproductive health can be defined as a state of complete well-being in
matters relating to one’s sexual and reproductive life. It implies that people are

able to have a responsible, safe, consensual and satisfying sex life and that
they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide of, when,
and how often to do so. Further, it implies that men and women attain equal
relationships in matters related to sexual relations and reproduction. (RA
10354
Section 4s).

What are the guiding principles that govern the RP-RH Law?
The RP-RH law is rooted on the human rights of all persons including their
right
to equality and non-discrimination, the right to sustainable human
development, the right to health including RH, the right to education and
information, and the right to choose and make decisions for themselves in
accordance to their religious convictions, ethics, cultural beliefs and the
demand of responsible parenthood.

In particular, the law upholds and guarantee the following principles:

 The right to make free and informed decisions of every person
particularly couples, adult individuals, women and adolescents
including preference and choice for FP methods, determination of ideal
family size;
 The provision of effective and quality RH care services by the state that
will lead to universal access to affordable and quality RH care and
services;
 The provision of truthful information and education on RH; and
 The preferential access to the poor and the marginalized.

Family Planning
As children have the right to be born to parents who are ready to take care
of them, using family planning methods is essential. The following are a
couple of excerpts and discussions on natural methods and contraceptives.

A. Natural Method: This method does not involve any chemical or barrier.

How to Use Natural Family Planning

Dr. Willie T. Ong (The Philippine Star)-October 29, 2013

There are four techniques to determine the time of ovulation:

1. Calendar rhythm method.

The rhythm method can be used by women with relatively regular menses.
For a span of one year, record the woman’s shortest cycle and longest cycle.
For example, a woman may have 26 days as the shortest and 34 days as the
longest cycle. Next, follow this computation strictly: Subtract 18 days from the
shortest cycle, and also subtract 10 days from the longest cycle. In this case,
the answers are 8 and 24, respectively. Therefore, the woman is not safe from
days 8 to 24 of her cycle. Day 1 counts as the first day of the menstruation
period. Other family planning methods can be used for the unsafe 16 days.
(The reason for the constants 18 and 10 has to do with the fact that ovulation
occurs 14 days before the start of the menstruation. The extra plus four days
are for safety purposes because the sperm can live up to three to four days.)
2. Temperature method.
For most women, there is a slight rise in temperature just after ovulation. The
woman has to take and record her temperature every morning, once she
wakes up and before doing anything. For example, from an average of 36.5
degrees Centigrade during non-ovulation period, her temperature can rise 0.3
to 0.5 degrees Centigrade during ovulation. For this method, you need to buy
a special thermometer called a basal thermometer, or an electronic
thermometer. Remember, the woman is unsafe up to four days after the rise
in
temperature, and four days before the rise in temperature. Hence, because
the temperature will rise only after ovulation, this method is not effective when
used alone.

3. Cervical mucus inspection method.

Around four days before ovulation (the
start of the unsafe period), the woman’s vaginal mucus becomes thin, clear,
more profuse, and stretchable. The consistency resembles an egg white,
which
does not break even if you stretch it between your fingers. When this occurs,
this means that the woman is unsafe and may become pregnant. On the other

hand, when the mucus returns to become thicker and drier, this means that
the woman has finished ovulating. To prevent pregnancy, avoid sexual
contact starting from the time the thin, stretchy egg white-like mucus appears
until up to four days after the mucus returns to its usual thicker and
drier
consistency. This technique needs practice, but can be effective. (Important
tip: For normal couples who want to become pregnant, having sex during the
time that the cervical mucus is thinnest and most stretchable can lead to
pregnancy in up to two out of three cases.)

4. Combined mucus and temperature method. The most effective

natural
family planning method is a combination of all these techniques. The woman
checks her early morning (basal) body temperature, then inspects her cervical
mucus. In addition, she may also feel other signs of ovulation like
breast
tenderness, low backache, and pain in the area of the ovaries.

Some couples use the withdrawal method or pull-out method. This is

taking out
the penis before ejaculation. However, this needs a lot of control and 22 % of
those who use withdrawal become pregnant (Sutton, 2019). What some
people do not know is that the precum (pre-ejaculate fluid released during
sexual stimulation) may contain sperm. Hence, you may become pregnant
even if the withdrawal happens before ejaculation.

B. Contraceptives: These are devices or drugs to prevent pregnancy.

Contraceptives in the Philippines: What to Use, Where to Get
(Rappler.com, March 21, 2015)
Once you start becoming sexually active, responsibility should accompany it.
It doesn’t sound too sexy but if having a kid can’t be found anywhere in your
5-year plan, you’ve got to take your bedroom fun a little more seriously.
1. Birth Control Pills
How does it work: Prevents ovulation
How often do you use it: Take one pill a day.
Effectiveness with regular use: >99%
Where to get them: Public health centers, drug stores
What most of us know and use as birth control pills are more formally known
as Combined Oral Contraceptive Pills (COCs). The pill gives you a blend of
two hormones: progestin and estrogen. Each kind of birth control pill contains
a different proportion of progestin and estrogen, and though it prevents
unwanted pregnancies for all women, some pills can cause weight gain, a
change in your menstrual cycle, increased or decreased acne, and so on.
If you’ll be using birth control pills for an extended period of time, it’s best to
seek a prescription. Some up-sides to using COCs are decreased
dysmenorrhea, regularizing your menstrual cycle, and a possible lessening of
nasty PMS.
If you’ve recently given birth and are breastfeeding, don’t use COCs –
especially if it’s been less than 6 weeks since the time you’ve given birth.
Going on the pill can affect your body’s ability to produce breast milk for your
baby.
Extended use of the pill is safe but expect that it can delay, or stop your
menstruation altogether. Once you stop using the pill, fertility returns almost
immediately. If you’re on the pill and you forget to drink one for more than 3
days, you’re liable to get pregnant.

2. Injectables
How does it work: Thickens the mucus in the cervix, preventing the
sperm from reaching the egg, also prevents ovulation
How often do you use it: Get one injection every 3 months
Effectiveness with regular use: >99%
Where to get them: Public health centers, private clinics, women’s
health clinics with trained service providers

Injectables available in the Philippines are limited to progestogen only

injectables, also known as depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA). If
you’re with a regular partner, it’s a reliable way to prevent unwanted
pregnancies that don’t include any daily tasks on your part.
Be prepared for possible side effects such as weight gain and changes in
your menstrual cycle. For many women, the more regularly they use
injectables, the more likely they are to have amenorrhea or an absence of
menstruation. Don’t worry, not having your monthly period doesn’t mean
you’re unhealthy or infertile.
A more serious risk when it comes to DMPAs is the possible loss of bone
mineral density, making it more advisable for women who’ve reached or are
near to reaching their peak bone mass. It’s been observed that women who
use DMPA injectables for up to 5 years experience the kind of bone loss
usually associated with breastfeeding. The good news is a 2008 study says
that the bone loss is reversible, once you stop using DMPAs.
If you have hypertension, or you’ve experienced a cardiovascular disease
like a stroke, and if you’re breastfeeding, stay away from DMPAs.
Once you stop using the injectables, fertility remains almost immediately but it
depends on the length of time you’ve been receiving injectables for birth
control. The longer you were on injectables, the more time it will take for your
body to be fertile again. If you go without your DMPA for more than 4 weeks,
you could get pregnant.
Injectables are free in public health centers as long as they have trained
service providers who can administer the injection. They’re also available in
private clinics and women’s health organizations who have trained health
workers. A specific brand of DMPA, Depo Trust, is also available in drug
stores.
You can buy them by the vial – one vial is good for one dosage. To administer

them, you will still have to go to a trained service provider.

3. Implant
How does it work: Thickens the mucus in the cervix, preventing the
sperm from reaching the egg, also prevents ovulation
How often do you use it: Get one implant every 3 years
Effectiveness with regular use: >99%
Where to get them: Private clinics or women’s health centers
Implants are exactly what they sound like. A small rod the size of a matchstick

containing progestogen is inserted into your non-dominant arm where it’ll

stay for 3 years, after being implanted in just a few minutes. The progestogen,

a female hormone, is released into the body little by little throughout the 3
years, stopping eggs from being released into your ovary – the same way it
works with DMPAs.
Ranging from a time period of either a week or two months from when
you’ve been implanted, you’ll have irregular menstruation until it stops
completely. Once the implant is removed, most women begin ovulating
again within 3 weeks to 3 months.
Whatever you choose as the best method for you, remember that
contraceptives aren’t replacements for condoms as protection from sexually
transmitted diseases.
Sex is not just something you do for fun. If you want to stay healthy and
accident-free, do away with the carelessness and get to know your
contraceptives.

C. Barrier Methods
Barrier methods require participation from both partners.
1. Condoms
This is suggested to protect yourself from sexually transmitted
infections.
Research has shown that around one out of 50 women get pregnant even if
their partners used condoms (Bell, 2018). They should be used with
spermicides
to be more effective.

2. Spermicides
Spermicides come in various forms such as jelly and cream. They are
supposed to be inserted into the vagina before sexual activity so they
can effectively kill sperm. They are only around 74% effective so they
should be partnered with other contraceptives.

3. Diaphragms or Caps
Diaphragms or caps are dome-shaped latex barriers fitted over
the cervix. They are first filled with spermicides before being used.
The cap should be left in place for at least 6 hours after the sexual
intercourse. Around 4 to 8 women out of 100 get pregnant even
after using diaphragms (National Health Service-UK, 2017).

Sterilization
Sterilization is a surgical method which often permanently prevents
pregnancy.
The procedure for women is tubal ligation, the cutting of the fallopian tubes to
prevent the egg from meeting the sperm. The procedure for men is
vasectomy,
the cutting of the vas deferens tubes to prevent the sperm from mixing with
the
semen which is being ejaculated. In reversible procedures the fallopian and
vas deferens tubes are only tied.

THE SEXUAL SELF

SEXUAL SELF CONCEPT
defined as an individual’s evaluation of his or her own sexual feelings
and actions” (Winter, 1988, p.123).

Biological
• Age
• Gender
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Psychological
• Body Image
• History of Sexual Abuse
• Mental Health
Social
• Parents and Peers
• Media
SEXUALITY
• Beyond the physical aspects of our body because its total expression of
who you are as a human being.
• One of the fundamental drive behind a person’s feelings, thoughts, and
behaviors
BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
1. SEX
from Latin word “secare”
which means ‘to divide’.
“assigned sex” upon
individual’s birth
includes sex organs such
as ovaries – defining what
it is to be female and testes
– defining what it is to be a
male.

2. SEX
HORMONES
play an essential role
in sexual development
and reproduction.
DIFFERENCE OF SEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT (DSD)
• Term used when a person is
born with reproductive or sexual
anatomy that doesn’t fit the
typical definitions of male and
female (i.e. hormones,
chromosomes, and
internal/external reproductive
structure
INTERSEX
word use to describe people
with differences of sex.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
1. GENDER IDENTITY
relates to how an individual identifies themselves
as male, female, a blend of both or neither. This
can be the same or different as sex assigned at
birth.
 Agender
 Cisgender
 Transgender
GENDER EXPRESSION
ways in which we express our gender identity in
the world. Gender expression can include our
appearance, the way we dress and our behavior.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
2. SOCIAL
ORIENTATION
about who you’re attracted to and
who you feel drawn to romantically,
emotionally, and sexually.
• Heterosexual
• Bisexual
• Homosexual
• Asexual
SOCIAL FACTORS
1. GENDER ROLES
social roles expected of women and
men in a particular society.
how we are expected to act, speak,
dress, groom, and conduct ourselves
based upon our assigned sex.
• Gender Stereotypes
• Sexism
SOCIAL FACTORS
2. HUMAN
RELATIONSHIPS
Innate need for social connection
REPUBLIC ACT 10354
• It is an act providing
for a national policy on
responsible
parenthood and
reproductive health.
• Also known as the
“The Responsible
Parenthood and
Reproductive Health
Act of 2012”.
RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD
 will and ability of parents to respond to
the needs and aspirations of the family and
children. It is a shared responsibility of the
husband and the wife to determine and
achieve the desired number, spacing, and
timing of their children according to their
own family life aspirations, taking into
account psychological preparedness,
health status, socio-cultural, and economic
concerns.
BIRTH CONTROL METHODS
A. NATURAL METHOD - doesn’t involve any chemical barrier

CALENDAR
RHYTHM
METHOD
• effective for
women with
regular menstrual
cycle.
• track your
menstrual history
to predict the days
you are fertile and
not.
TEMPERATURE
METHOD
• taking your
temperature using
basal
thermometer
before you do
ANYTHING and
record them on
your chart.
CERVICAL
MUCUS
INSPECTION
• Cervical mucus is
the discharge
from your vagina.
You are most
fertile when it is
clear and slippery
like raw egg
whites.
WITHDRAWAL
• pull penis out of
the vagina before
ejaculation
• requires trust and
commitment from
both

BIRTH CONTROL METHODS

B. CONTRACEPTIVES – use of devices or drugs to prevent pregnancy.
1. BIRTH CONTROL PILLS
formally known as Combined Oral
Contraceptive Pills (COCs)
Contains the hormones estrogen and
progestin. It is taken daily to keep the
ovaries from releasing an egg. The pill
also causes changes in the lining of
the uterus and the cervical mucus to
keep the sperm from joining the egg.
2. INJECTIBLES
Shot in arm, hip, or under the skin.
Thickens the mucus in the cervix,
preventing the sperm from reaching the
egg, also prevents ovulation
injectable available in the Philippines
are limited to progestogen only, also
known as depot
medroxyprogesterone acetate
(DMPA).
2. IMPLANTS
are small flexible rods size of a
matchstick containing
progesterone that are placed just
under the skin of the upper arm.
Provide long-term pregnancy
protection – effective up to 5 years
Require specifically trained
provider to insert and remove
BIRTH CONTROL METHODS
C. BARRIER METHODS – block the sperm from entering the cervix (the
opening to your womb) and reaching the egg.
1. CONDOMS
is a thin, fitted tube worn over the
penis during sex or inserted into the
vagina before sex
2. SPERMICIDES
 inserted into the vagina prior to
sex and comes in many forms
like gels, creams, foams, film
and suppositories.
need to be placed in your vagina
up to 30 minutes before sex to
be effective.
It contains a special chemical
that impairs sperm and stops it
from reaching an egg.
2. DIAPHRAGMS AND
CUPS
dome-shaped latex barriers fitted over the cervix. They
are first filled with spermicides before being used.
should be left in place for at least 6 hours after the sexual intercourse.
STERILIZATIONA permanent method of contraception. For people who are
sure they never want to have a child
or they do not want more children
STERILIZATION
IMPLANT (Essure)
The first non-surgical method
of sterilizing women. A thin
tube is used to thread a tiny
spring-like device through the
vagina and uterus into each
fallopian tube. The device
works by causing scar tissue
to form around the coil. This
blocks the fallopian tubes and
stops the egg and sperm from
joining.
SURGICAL STERILIZATION
surgery is a procedure to permanently prevent
reproduction.
Tubal Ligation (female) - a surgical
procedure that permanently closes, cuts, or
removes pieces of your fallopian tubes.
Vasectomy (male) - surgical procedure to
cut or seal the tubes that carry a man's
sperm to permanently prevent pregnancy.

TOPIC 7:

THE MATERIAL/ECONOMIC SELF

“A man’s Self is the sum total of all that he can call his” – William James

Our material possessions significantly influence our sense of self. May it

be conscious or unconscious, some of our important decisions have been
caused by economic pursuits. William James, an American psychologist,
defined the material self as referring to tangible objects which we call as
“mine”. They are viewed as extensions of ourselves as our identities are
associated with them.

Possessions and Behavior

Our relationships with objects have evolved over time. The following are
based on “The Psychology of Stuff and Things” (Jarret, 2013):

a. Understanding Ownership
- By 2 years old: already understand the concept of ownership
- By 2 to 4 years old: children assume that the person who first
possessed something is always the owner, even if the object
was already given away
- By 6 years old: exhibit “endowment effect”, the phenomenon
characterized by preferring objects which are already
possessed over those which are not
b. Envy/Jealousy

- Piaget observed that even babies show signs of aggression

when their toys are taken away from them and given to
someone else. An observation on 22-months-old babies in a
day-care showed that almost 25% of conflicts was caused by
defending a possessed object or wanting to take another’s
object.

c. Attachment Object

- Most children have a “favorite” toy or object with which they

have intense relationships. A child would normally respond in
horror if someone would get his favorite toy or even make a
copy of it. This may be explained by their magical thinking, that
somehow that special object has a unique essence. This kind of
thinking reappears in adulthood in the form of sentimental value,
heirlooms, and mementos.

d. Materialism

- When children aged between 8 and 18 were interviewed

regarding what makes them happy, materialism was seen to
peak during middle adolescence (15-17 years old). Interestingly,
this is also the time when self-esteem tends to be lowest. The
researchers (Chaplin et al., 2007) also pointed out that letting
adolescents have a sense of self-worth and achievement seems
to be effective in lessening their materialistic attitude.
e. Sense of Identity

- When research participants’ brains were scanned, the areas

known to be associated with thinking about the self were
activated when they were shown objects which were labelled
with “mine”. This implies that we create associates between our
identities and things we own.
Moreover, the concept of product-image congruity specifies
that we tend to buy products which are congruent to our sense
of self. Hence, we may sometimes use brands, product designs,
logos, and fashion styles to communicate our self-concept.
f. Conspicuous Consumption

- Conspicuous consumption is the public display of economic

power by spending much money on luxurious goods. This has
been studied to communicate socio-economic status. Also, an
experiment proved that those who were wearing branded shirts
were more successful at convincing strangers to complete
questionnaires, given a job, and solicit money.

g. Membership

- Our possession of certain things can signal association with

specific social groups. Loyalty is one of the reasons why some
fans are motivated to fall in line for many hours to avail of a
product or to spend much money on something with a logo.
Moreover, some individuals would like to be one of the “cool
tribe” that is why they will do whatever it takes to buy the
limited edition.
h. Loss

- The more that our belongingness are linked with our identities,
the more precious they become. This explains why destroyed,
lost, or stolen valuables can cause grief or trauma. Greater
than the loss of finances, people feel the psychological
impact of loss.

i. Disposal

- There are also times when we intentionally let go of

possessions. This may become a symbolism of having a new
start like when you gave away your toys when you were a
child or when you threw some mementos from a past
relationship. Like a carapace, you shed some of your
belongings to have a new identity.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PURCHASING BEHAVIOR

1. Geographical group
- People from certain area tend to prefer buying certain
products.

2. Wealth/Income
- Those who have something to spend tend to spend more

3. Education
- People who have higher education levels are more likely to
evaluate a product’s worth form various angles first before
buying.

4. Occupation
- People prioritize spending on things that are most likely
relevant to their sources of income.

5. Family
- Relatives’ opinions can be vital in purchasing a product.

6. Peers
- Influence of peers or friends is apparent in the different social
aspects especially in purchasing behavior of a teenager.

7. Age
- Needs and priorities change over the lifespan

8. Personality
- People who have high levels of agreeableness (i.e. those who
are friendly, warm, tactful, and optimistic) would most likely
buy products or pay services (Udo-Imeh, 2015)
TOPIC 8:

THE SPIRITUAL SELF

“He who has a way to live can bear with almost anyhow” – Viktor Frankl

Spirituality is a broad term with a room for many perspectives.

Some experts’ definition of spirituality includes:

a. The aspect of humanity that refers to the way individuals seek and
express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their
connectedness at the moment, to self, to others, to nature, and to the
significant or sacred (Christina Puchalski, Director of George
Washington Institute of Spirituality and Health).
b. Any experience that is thought to bring the experiencer into contact
with the divine (Mario Beauregard and Denyse O’Leary, researcher and
authors of The Spiritual Brain, 2007).
c. Set of personal and private beliefs that transcend the material aspects
of life and give a deep sense of wholeness, connectedness, and
openness to the infinite (Myers et al. 2000, p.265).

According to a research by Mansukhani and Resurreccion (2009),

Filipino adolescents describe a spiritual person as someone who has faith in
God, a strong sense of morality, positive personal qualities, a positive sense
of
self, well-being, spiritual connectedness, transcendent and relational sources
of happiness, and an ability to solve problems.

Three Main Themes of Spirituality as Viewed by Filipinos (Yabut, 2016):

a. Connectedness with the sacred – the development and maintenance

of one’s connection to the sacred
b. Sense of meaning or purpose – generally associated with the
development of a focused sense of self, individuality, and values
c. Expressions of spirituality – manifesting values in one’s relationships
and
activities with family, friends, and other people

I. The Soul

The soul or spirit of a person is called: Kaluluwa (Tagalog), Gimokud

(Bagobo), Makatu (Bukidnon), Dungan - alive and Kalag - dead (Ilonggo
and Bisaya), Ikararuwa (Ibanag), Kadkadduwa - in the physical body and
Kararuwa - departs from the body (Ilokano).
Kaluluwa, ikararuwa, and inikaduwa all come from the root word
duwa, which means two. It is because the soul has two existence: (a)
Physical, where it is connected to the human body and its life and (b)
Spiritual, where it exists on its own.
In Western Philosophy, the soul is the life source of man. They believe
that the body cannot stay alive without the soul. Hence, death is the
separation of the soul from the body. For Filipino groups, the soul is not
considered as the source of life. This could be seen through the beliefs of the
different ethnolinguistic groups of the Philippines:

The Souls and Gods According to the Ethnolinguistic Groups of the

Philippines

Excerpts from “The Soul Book” by Demetrio, Fernanddo, and Zialcita

(1991); and High Banks Entertainment, Ltd. (2018). Retrieved from
https://www.aswangproject.com/soul-according-ethnolinguistic-groups-
philippines/.

1. Ibanag (Mekararuanan) - aware of the distinction between body (baggi)

and soul (ikararuwa) but not in the Western way. The Ibanags believe in
mekararuanan, is a state in which, because of shock, the soul leaves the
body. The body is alive but it is without sense. For the Ibanags, the role of the

soul is to give direction and wholeness to a person, while the body can stay
alive independently of the soul.

2. Ilonggo (Dungan) - Dungan is not normally seen by the human eye. But
sometimes, it comes out of the body and takes on a visible form such as that
of an insect or a small animal. No one should also miss their dinner and go to
bed hungry because dungan will roam for food.

3. Bisaya (Dungan) - A soul can be captured by bad spirits (e.g. egkantu).

Souls may be imprisoned in a spirit cave guarded by old Tan Mulong whose
spirit dog has one mammary gland and two genitals. Sickness is the
temporary loss of the soul, permanent loss is death. The soul can be lured
back by a skillful shaman. The dungan is ethereal, something not weighed
down by the world. Before it inhabits a human body it inhabits a region
above the earth with other dungan. The dungan then takes interest in the
unborn being, usually a relative which it had chosen to inhabit.
The dungan is not located in any specific part of the body and it grows
proportionately with the person’s body. Weak at birth it is vulnerable to usug
or the unintentional transfer of disturbing vapors of a strong body to a weak
one by proximity. There are many rituals performed to protect and nurture
the dungan.
Dungan also has a secondary meaning of willpower. A stronger dungan
means that the person has a greater capacity to dominate others to their line
of thought. People living together may lead to a spiritual competition
between the two dungan leading to the weaker becoming sick.
At death the dungan leaves the body via any of the orifices and goes with
the air toward the upper regions. There it waits until it finds another body to
enter.
4. Bukidnon (Makatu) - the makatu already exists before a child’s birth but
that it is separate from its body. In a pregnancy ritual, a miniature cradle is
hung over the place where the pregnant mother sleeps. This is where the soul

of the unborn baby is supposed to sleep before it joins the infant at birth.

5. Tagbanwa (Kiyaraluwa) - the Tagbanwa of Palawan believes that he has

one true soul (kiyaraluwa), which is given to each infant by the god
Magindusa as the nose of the child emerges from the vulva. There are five
secondary souls which are located in the extremities of both hands and feet
and in the head just below the hair whorl.

6. Mangyan (Karaduwa) - besides the karaduwa tawu (the human soul), a

person may have two to five other souls: a karaduwa manok (chicken soul),
karaduwa baboy (pig soul), karaduwa kuti (cat soul), and karaduwa hipon
(shrimp soul). Any of these animal souls can temporarily wander away from
the body.

7. Ilokano (Kararuwa, Karkarma, Aniwaas, and Araria) - the kararuwa (the

soul proper) is the vital element of man. It can leave only after death.
- the Karkarma (second soul) can leave the body when one is
frightened or it can be stolen from the body when the person goes to
isolated places. The owner becomes insane if the soul fails to return.
Karkarma stands for natural vigor and mind or reason. It is the counterpart of
psyche.
- the aniwaas (third soul) can leave the body during sleep and visit
places which the person who owns it frequents when awake. If he wakes up
he may lose his aniwaas and become insane.

- the araria (fourth soul) is the liberated soul of the dead. It is the soul
that comes down to earth to visit its relatives and friends, asking them to pray
or perform a duty it failed to do in life.

8. Cordillera – Kabuniyan, the creator god, is found in all regions of the

Cordillera except Apayao. From Bontoc to the Baguio region, Kabuniyan is
the supreme teacher who taught man many things like fire-making, rice
cultivation, and marriage rituals. “Kabuniyan” has many meanings in the
Cordillera. Aside from being the name of a sky god, it is applied to all culture
heroes. It signifies ultimate power and may also refer to the lowest level of the

skyworld – the sky that can be seen every day.

a. Ifugao (Linnawa) – The soul (linnawa) of a child floats around in the

heavens, awaiting its entry into the human world. During sexual intercourse
the soul/spirit enters the female through the male, resulting in pregnancy. If a
woman cannot conceive, shamans conduct sacrifices to see if the couple is
compatible. If they are, shamans offer other sacrifices to enhance fertility.

b. Ibaloi – the Ibaloi afterlife is populated by ancestral spirits and

explains animal sacrifices. In that spiritual world, when the soul arrives with
physical treasures, it receives a great welcome. An empty-handed soul finds
himself the object of scorn. He is unwelcome and unaccepted in his new
world and this feeling of insecurity may cause the spirit to bring evil, disease,
and even death among his relatives. In the light of all those believes; relatives
of the dead bring donation of cash or animals.

c. Kankana-ey (Ab-abiik or Kadkadwa) – Ab-abiik is the spiritual self as

opposed to the physical self (Awak). The Ab-abiik can also apply to
inanimate objects such as mountains, trees, or rivers. It can also mean
inspiration in some contexts.

9. Tagalog (Kaluluwa and Kakambal) – Kaluluwa is the Tagalog soul,

which can leave the body involuntarily. It refers more to the soul of the
deceased. Kakambal on the other hand, is the soul of the living, which may
travel around at night and some particularly bad encounters are the cause
of nightmares.
- the Tagalos call their supreme god Bathala Maykapal or Lumikha
(The Creator). An enormous being, he could not straighten up due to the
lowerness of the sky and the sun burned brightly near him. One day, Bathala
got a bolo and pierced one of the sun’s eyes so that it could generate just
enough heat to sustain life. And he was able to straighten up with his hands
pushed the cooler sky to its present level.

10. Bagobo (Gimokud) – according to the Bagobos of Davao, each

individual is inhabited by two souls called gimokud. The right hand gimokud is
the good soul that manifests itself as a shadow on the right-hand side of the
path. It is associated with health, activity, and joy. The right-hand soul is also
associated with life itself and remains in the body throughout one’s life. The
left hand gimokud is the bad soul that shows itself as a shadow on the left
side of the path. It is harmful to the body it inhabits because it is the cause of
sluggishness, pain, and sickness. It also leaves the body at night and wanders

about risking various dangers. The left-hand soul inevitably becomes a busaw

or demon ghost. The Bagobos also believe that large animals like fowls, big
birds, carabaos, cats, and horses have two souls, while small animals like
insects have only one soul.

II. Rituals

A ritual is “a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, and

objects, performed in a sequestered place, and performed according to set
sequence” (Paarlberg & van de Wiel, p.219). All peoples have rituals and
these are actions that follow a prescribed pattern and are believed to be
highly efficacious. It is often viewed as a sincere religious series of actions
which follow a certain order.

Many rituals intervene at the different stages of the life-cycle: birth,

courtship, marriage, and death (Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, p.
139). Some reasons for doing rituals are:

a. Seeking help for a child;

b. Success for the suitor;
c. Fertility for the spouse;
d. Smooth journey to the next world;
e. Healing the sick and the dying;
f. Success in fishing and hunting;
g. For an abundant harvest; and
h. Victory over enemies

Related practices:

1. Life-cycle Rituals - these are often known as rites of passage as they

signify
a status change from one vital life stage to another. There are three stages:
(a) Separation or parting from the old state; (b) Transition, which is a form of
segregation; and (c) Reintegration, which is being incorporated with the
society. In these rituals, the presence of a Supreme being is often invoked for
guidance and blessing
2. Pilgrimage - a trip to a place viewed sacred for the purpose of devotion. A
pilgrimage often has hardships and is meant to achieve spiritual change.
3. Rituals of Reversal - these require that usual social roles be momentarily
reversed. Some believe that these rituals allow for a social “blowing off of
steam” and allow individuals to go against certain social norms
4. Sacrifice - the offering of something valuable to a supernatural being. This
is often done to please or appease deities as a sign of gratitude, humility,
worship, and/or devotion.

III. Logotherapy: Finding Meaning in Life (Viktor Frankl)

Human beings are motivated by a “will to meaning,” an inner pull to

find a meaning in life. The meaning in life according to Viktor Frankl lies in
finding a purpose and taking responsibility for oneself and others. Humans do
not have an obligation to define the meaning of life in general terms. Each
person will do it on his way, starting with himself, with his own potential and
experiences, and discovering himself every day.

The following are the philosophical assumptions of Logotherapy:

1. Human being is an entity consisting of body, mind and spirit. The body
and the mind are what we have and the spirit is what we are.
2. Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable. As
Viktor Frankl puts it: “You can find meaning in suffering.”
3. People have a will to meaning. If a man finds meaning, he is ready for
any type of suffering.
4. People have volition under all situations to activate the will to find
meaning. We do not have restrictions to look for what is sensible.
5. Existence has a mandate characteristic to which individuals feel must
acknowledge. The essence of the circumstance is more applied in
routine life than ultimate meaning.
6. Each individual is unique. This deals with one’s sense of meaning. This is
heightened by the understanding that we are irreplaceable.

In his book Man’s Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl said that there are three
ways of finding meaning in life:

1. By creating a work or doing a deed;

2. By experiencing something or encountering someone; and
3. By the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering

The most important, however, is the third avenue. Even the helpless victim of
a hopeless situation, facing a fate he cannot change, may rise above himself,
may
grow beyond himself, and by so doing change himself. Frankl also puts it as:
“Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of human
freedoms – to
choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances.”

Page of 10
ACTIVITY: DEBIT CARD
CHALLENGE
A very rich man gave you a debit card and
told you to use it as much as you want to make
you happy. List at least 3 items that you want
to buy.
MATERIAL SELF
According to William James, an American psychologist, defined the material
self as referring to tangible objects which we call as “mine”.

COMPOSITION OF MATERIAL SELF:BODY, FAMILY,HOME, CLOTHES

POSESSIONS AND BEHAVIOR
Our relationships with objects have evolved over time. The following are
based on “The Psychology of Stuff and Things” (Jarret, 2013):
A. Understanding Ownership
2 years old: understand the concept of ownership
2 – 4 years old: children assume that the person who first possessed
something is always the owner, even if the object was already given
away.
6 years old: exhibit “endowment effect” – a phenomenon where
people tend to put more value on objects that has been theirs.
B. ENVY/JEALOUSY
With ownership comes envy.
In his 1932 book The Moral Judgment of the Child, Jean Piaget observed
that even babies express jealousy over objects, giving signs of ‘violent rage’
when a toy is taken from them and given to another.
C. ATTACHMENT OBJECTS
Most children have a “favorite” toy or object with which they have intense
relationships.
D. MATERIALISM
when an individual give importance to material possessions than intangible
values.
E. SENSE OF IDENTITY
material self become a significant reference of one's sense of self and
identity.
F. CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION
public display of economic power by spending much money on luxurious
goods.
G. MEMBERSHIP
Our possession of certain things can signal association with specific social
groups.
Loyalty is one of the reasons why some fans are motivated to fall in line for
many hours to avail of a product or to spend much money on something
with a logo.
H. LOSS
People whose things are destroyed in a disaster are traumatized, almost as
if grieving the loss of their identities.
I. DISPOSAL
there are many times when people intentionally dispose of things. Often
happens at a key juncture, such as when leaving student life behind, moving
home, or during divorce. Old belongings are shed like a carapace, fostering
the emergence of a new identity.
MAIN VARIABLES OF THE
MATERIAL SELF

1. Needs vs. Wants

Needs - these are important for survival.
Wants - synonymous with luxuries. People buy them for reasons that do
not warrant necessity.
2. Utility vs Significance
Utility - concerned with how things serve a practical purpose.
Significance - concerned with the meaning assigned to the object.
3. Experiential vs Material Purchases
Experiential - obtain a life experience (entertainment events, eating
out, going on vacations, etc.)
Material - get an ownership of an object that is tangible and stays in
one’s possession (jewelry, gadgets, clothing, etc.)
4. High Materialists vs Low Materialists
High Materialists - keep capitalism going because their frequent
purchases keep the flow of the demand and supply.
Low Materialists – people living frugal life or still in isolated
communities with low level of urbanization and contact with
industries.

SPIRITUAL SELF
a broad term that includes:
o Search for meaning and essence;
o Intuition and connectedness to the metaphysical; and
o Basis for the practice of religion, rituals, ceremonies, etc.

SPIRITUALITY
from the Latin root spiritus meaning breath or life.
a belief that people can connect with something that is beyond mind
and matter.
Three Main Themes of Spirituality
as Viewed by Filipinos (Yabut, 2016)
A. Connectedness with the Sacred
 manifested through a connection with a Supreme being, with people, or
with nature.
B. Sense of Meaning and Purpose
 related to developing a purposeful sense of self, identity, morality,
conscience, and values. This theme about spirituality is goes beyond the
religious dimension.
C. As passion and expression in Life
 Being spiritual is actionable. One can act out his/her spirituality by living
out the values. It is manifested in one’s actions like in one’s relationships
and activities.
What is RELIGION?
RELIGION
comes from the Latin word “religare” which
means to bind
any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices
pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power be forces, gods, spirits
or demons
Universality of Religion
Modern sociologists, anthropologists, and psychologists
indicate that religion is created by humans in response
to certain universal need such as:
The Need to Understand
Reversion to Childhood Feelings
Anxiety and Uncertainty
The Need for Community
Universality of Religion
1. The Need To Understand
 Religion originated in people's speculations about trances, dreams, and
death.
Beliefs in souls was the earliest form of religion (animism) - the attribution of
a soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena
2. Reversion to childhood feelings
This theory has roots in Freud’s idea that events in childhood infancy have
long-lasting and powerful effects on beliefs and practices in adult life.
They may look for gods or magic to do what they cannot do for themselves,
just as they looked to their parents to take care of their needs.

3. Anxiety and Uncertainty

All rituals are performed in times of emotional distress (sociological)
Religion provides people with a transcendental understanding of the world
(Abraham Maslow)
Religion helps people resolve their inner conflicts and attain maturity (Carl
Jung)
4. The Need for Community
 Religion arises out of the experience of living in social groups.
 Religious belief and practice affirm a person’s place in society; enhance
feelings of community, and give people confidence. Universality of Religion
3. Anxiety and Uncertainty
All rituals are performed in times of emotional distress (sociological)
Religion provides people with a transcendental understanding of the world
(Abraham Maslow)
Religion helps people resolve their inner conflicts and attain maturity (Carl
Jung)
4. The Need for Community
 Religion arises out of the experience of living in social groups.
 Religious belief and practice affirm a person’s place in society; enhance
feelings of community, and give people confidence.
RITUALS - “a sequence of activities involving gestures,
words, and objects, performed in a sequestered place, and
performed according to set sequence” (Paarlberg & van de
Wiel, p.219).
Canao of Benguet
Logotherapy
• a scientifically based school of psychotherapy, based on the
belief that the search for meaning even amidst misery can
constitute a potential solution to human suffering
Moral Perspective
Lawrence Kohlberg (October 25, 1997 – January, 1987)
Kohlberg focused on the moral aspect of the self.
He developed his theory of moral development by assessing what morality
meant. In his search, he asked children to consider certain moral dilemmas –
situations in which right or wrong actions are not always clear.
Kohlberg did not focus on the answer of the children but he studied their
reasoning. His most famous story is “Heinz Steals the Drug” or more popularly
known as the Heinz Dilemma (Fleming, 2005, 2006). The story can be seen
below:
“In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There
was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of
radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug
was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the
drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2000 for a
small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone
he knew to borrow the money, but he could get together only $1000. He told
the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him
pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug, and I am going to
make money from it.” Desperate, Heinz broke into the man’s store to steal the
drug for his wife.”
Based on the responses of the children, Kohlberg developed his theory of
moral
development.
Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Morality
Pre-Conventional Morality
Behavior is guided by rewards and punishments. Behaviors are “good” or
“bad” depending on their consequences. Child does not understand the
rules of society.

STAGE 1 Obeying the rules is

Obedience or important to
Punishment avoid punishment.
Orientation
STAGE 2 Self-Interest Equal exchange. If one
Orientation is good to
others, then others will
be good to
you.
STAGE 2 Self-Interest
Orientation
Equal exchange. If one is good to
others, then others will be good to
you.

Conventional Morality
Child begins to grasp social rules and gains a more objective perspective
on right and wrong.
STAGE 3 Social Conformity
Orientation
There is a sense of what “good boys”
and “nice girls” do. Adolescents aim
to get the social approval from those
closest to them.
STAGE 4 Law and Order
Orientation
Focus is on following rules of society,
respecting authority and doing
one’s duty.

Post-Conventional Morality
At this level, emphasis is on the personal or idealized principles of a person.
STAGE 5 Social Contract
Orientation
The understanding is that laws, rules,
and regulations are created for
mutual benefit of all citizens. People
at this stage may sometimes disobey
rules if they find them inconsistent
with their personal values and will
also argue for certain laws to be
changed if they are no longer
working. People understand and
believe in democracy in action.
STAGE 6 Universal Ethics
Orientation
At this stage, people have a
principled conscience and will to
follow universal ethical principles
regardless of what the official laws
and rules are. Right and wrong are
not determined by rules and laws,
but by individual reflection on what
is proper behavior
b. Carl Rogers (January 9, 1908 – February 4, 1987)
For Rogers, the self emerges through the individual’s
experiences with the world. Rogers described the self as the
“I” or “Me” of our existence. The self is a whole, consisting of
one’s self-perceptions (how attractive I am, how well I get
along with others, how good an athlete I am) and the values
we attach to these perceptions (good/bad, worthy/unworthy).

The self has two subsystems, the self-concept and the ideal self. The
self-concept includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences
that are perceived in awareness (though not always accurate) by the
individual. Experiences that are inconsistent with the self-concept are either
denied or accepted in distorted forms. An example would be an individual
who believes that he is the best in class but ends up getting the lowest score.
This individual would reason that he did not take the test seriously or that his
or
her classmates cheated. The ideal self is one’s view of self as one wishes to
be. It contains attributes that a person wishes he or she has. If the self-
concept and ideal self-do not match, tendency is that the self will be mal-
adjusted and will experience incongruence.
To address this maladjustment, a more positive self-concept should be
achieved. This can be obtained through three methods: unconditional
positive regard, empathy, and genuineness. Unconditional positive regard is
accepting, valuing, and being positive toward another person regardless of
the person’s behavior. However, he distinguished between unconditional
positive regard directed at the individual as a person of worth and dignity,
and directed at the individual’s behavior. For example, a teacher who
adopts Rogers’ view might tell a student, “I don’t like what you did to your
classmates, but I accept you, value you, and care about you as a person.”
Empathy is listening, understanding and being sensitive to others’
feelings. It is putting yourself in the shoes of others and looking at their world
from their point of view. Being genuine means being open with our feelings
and dropping our pretenses and facades.

In fact, only around 5% of our population realistically looks like the ones shown
in social media (Kirby, 2019). This may mean that a part of the 95% are
desperately trying to achieve unrealistic physical traits. For instance, models
need to undergo hours of makeup and photos are being edited before they
get published. It then becomes a vicious cycle of having a negative body
image and low self-esteem.
Hence, it is important to be more critical when being exposed to mass media.
It is also helpful to guide young minds regarding the reality of what they see on
screen. Experts recommend taking breaks from the use of social media and
wisely choosing the content which we get exposed to. We have to keep in
mind that we would often feel unhappy if we keep on comparing ourselves
with the “perfect” superstars. The aim is to be healthy, not to be like a celebrity.
Afterall, we can never be “unreal”.

Impact of Culture on the Physical Self

Our culture may have been discriminating individuals who do not measure up
to the “beauty standard”. It is no secret that a number of people have been
bullied because of their weight, height, skin, facial features, and other physical
attributes. Moreover, you may have felt pressured to look like someone else
because you want to be accepted or admired by your peers.
A number of Filipinos are using skin-lightening products as evidenced by store
shelves filled with whitening cosmetics. Aside from the influence of mass media,
this kind of cultural conditioning may also be attributed to the Pinoy’s mestizo/
mestiza hype. Since, we were colonized by the fair-skinned Spaniards for more
than three centuries, we may have been conditioned that having white skin
marks a superior class (La Pena, 2010). After the Spanish regime, this attitude
may have been reinforced by the American commercialism. Until now,
Western (and European) standards have been shaping the Philippine
exocentric culture.
For a healthier physical self, it is imperative to be aware of the impact of your
personal standards of what is being “beautiful”. Some recommendations are
to practice positive self-talk, be careful of comparisons, be grateful for what
you have, and aim for good health.