1.

 Photosynthesis is the process used by plants and some bacteria to create

energy from sunlight. Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants that is
responsible for this conversion process. In all other living things, they rely on
the process of respiration to stay alive.

 Respiration is the process of taking oxygen from the air and cycling it through
the lungs, which then gives oxygen to blood to be used in the body. The carbon
dioxide waste is expelled out of the lungs. Cellular respiration uses glucose, or
sugars, from food molecules and turns them into carbon dioxide, water, and
ATP a nucleotide essential to the body.

 The main difference between photosynthesis and respiration is

where it occurs, one being in plants and some bacteria and the
other being in most every other living thing.

 The other difference is that plants require sunlight for the process to
occur, whereas respiration does not.

 But there is an important mutual relationship between the two

processes because of the ingredients required, and bi-products
produced. If plants take carbon dioxide and expel oxygen, and most
other living things take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide, the
importance of both systems working in unison is obvious.

The difference between respiration and photosynthesis is as follows:

Photosynthesis Respiration

Photosynthesis is the process where green plants produce their own Respiration is the process by which living organisms convert oxygen and glucose
food by converting light energy into chemical energy. into carbon dioxide and water producing high amount of energy.

Photosynthetic pigment like chlorophyll and sunlight is essential for the Respiration does not require chlorophyll and sunlight.
process of photosynthesis.

It takes place in the chloroplast present in the cells of leaves. It takes place in the mitochondria of cells.

Photosynthesis process requires energy to produce food in the form of Respiration is the process that breaks down food and releases energy.
starch.

Photosynthesis occurs only in plants and few photosynthetic bacteria. Respiration takes place in both plants and animals.
 What are the main factors affecting photosynthesis and respiration in
plant?

Factor Affecting Photosynthesis

Light

It is one of the major factors affecting

photosynthesis. Photosynthesis cannot occur in the dark and the source
of light for the plants is sunlight. Three attributes of light are important
for photosynthesis:

 Intensity: Photosynthesis begins at low intensities of light and

increases till it is maximum at the brightest time of the day. The
amount of light required varies for different plants. Photosynthesis
uses maximum up to 1.5 % light in the process and so light is
generally not a limiting factor at high intensity. However, the light
becomes a limiting factor in low intensity because no matter how
much water or CO2 is present, without light photosynthesis cannot
occur. At high intensities, the temperature of the plant increases
which leads to increased transpiration in the plant. This leads to the
closing of the stomata which leads to a reduced CO2 intake. Thus,
leading to a reduction and finally stoppage of photosynthesis.
Therefore, excessive light inhibits photosynthesis.
 Quality: Experiments conducted by Engelmann prove that the
chlorophyll most effectively absorbs red and blue wavelengths from
the entire spectrum of light. Thus, maximum photosynthesis occurs
when the plant is exposed to the light of these wavelengths.
 Duration: The longer the plant is exposed to light, the longer the
process of photosynthesis will continue. As long as the temperature
of the plant remains balanced, photosynthesis will occur.
Carbon Dioxide Concentration

The atmosphere contains 0.03% of carbon dioxide amidst other gases.

Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air. But, since the amount of
CO2 in the air is very less, it acts as a limiting factor for photosynthesis.
Experiments have been performed to study the rate of photosynthesis on
increasing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere.

It is seen that, when light and temperature are not the limiting factors,
increasing CO2 concentration leads to an increase in the rate of
photosynthesis. But, beyond a certain limit, CO2 starts accumulating in
the plant and this leads to slowing down of the process. So, excessive
CO2 inhibits photosynthesis especially when it starts to accumulate.

Temperature

It is commonly seen in all biological and biochemical processes that

they occur best in a certain optimum range of temperature. This holds
true for photosynthesis as well.  It is observed that, when CO2 and light
are not limiting factors, the rate of photosynthesis increases with
increase in temperatures till the optimum level for that plant. Beyond
the optimum levels on both sides of the normal range, the enzymes are
deactivated or destroyed and photosynthesis stops.

Water
Water is considered one of the most important factors affecting
photosynthesis. When there is a reduced water intake or availability, the
stomata begin to close to avoid loss of any water during transpiration.
With the stomata closing down the CO2 intake also stops which affects
photosynthesis. Therefore, the effect of water on photosynthesis is more
indirect than direct.

Oxygen

Optimum levels of oxygen are favorable for photosynthesis. Oxygen is

needed for photorespiration in C3 plants and the by-product of
photorespiration is CO2 which is essential for photosynthesis. Also, the
energy generated during the oxygen respiration is needed for the
process of photosynthesis as well. However, an increase in the oxygen
levels beyond the optimum for the plant leads to inhibition of
photosynthesis. This is because oxygen tends to break down the
intermediaries that are formed in photosynthesis. Oxygen also
completes with CO2 to combine with RUBISCO which a part of the
dark reaction of photosynthesis and photorespiration. Therefore,
increased levels of O2 would mean that RUBISCO will combine with
O2 to initiate photorespiration and photosynthesis will slow down.

Blackman’s Principle of Limiting Factors

This principle states that when a process is governed by more than one
factor, the rate of the process is governed by that factor which is closest
to its minimum value.
For example, if a leaf is exposed to a certain amount of light intensity
with constant temperature but the CO2 available is less, the rate of
photosynthesis will not increase with an increase in the light intensity.
Therefore, in this case, CO2 is the limiting factor.

Factors affecting respiration

Respiration is a cellular process by which plants, animals and other organisms produce
energy. In the mitochondria of the cell, sugars are combined with oxygen in a series of
chemical reactions. This results in the creation of carbon dioxide, water and energy in the
form of an adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecule, which is used to fuel other cellular
processes.

In plants, respiration can be viewed as reversing the process of photosynthesis. Like

photosynthesis, respiration requires an exchange of gases with the atmosphere. Unlike
photosynthesis, however, respiration can take place during the day or night and occurs
not just in the leaves, but in the stem and roots as well.

Respiration rates have a significant effect on plant health and growth. A major factor
determining the respiration rate is plant physiology, with each species respiring
according to its specific adaptations to the local environment. As well as the natural
differences between plant types, there are many environmental factors affecting
respiration rates in plants. This can have large implications for issues such as agriculture
and horticulture, the ecology of natural areas and food preservation.

Tissue Age & Life Stage

Life stage is one of the most important factors affecting respiration in plants. When a
seed has absorbed enough water, it produces a burst of respiration to germinate and
power its emergence from the seed case. As leaves emerge, branches grow and root tips
dig into the soil. These parts initially respire at a high rate as they use energy to grow. As
the roots, branches and leaves mature, respiration rates decrease.

Respiration also increases when fruits and seed are developing, with energy use peaking
when fully ripe. Respiration falls dramatically after this point, with many annual plants
dying off completely after fruiting, while perennials may shed older and damaged leaves.

Sunlight or Artificial Light

Many plants have two forms of respiration. Plants, and all other living organisms, use
dark respiration, which is not dependent on sunlight. However, plants can also use
photorespiration, which is dependent on light to power the chemical reactions. Therefore,
changes in light levels caused by clouds, shading or being covered by dust, paint or other
materials can affect the rate of respiration.

Respiration Rates & Temperature

Respiration rate is directly linked to the ambient temperature , with respiration rate
peaking at an optimal temperature. Changes in temperature from this optimum will
decrease efficiency. Different plant species have varying optimal ranges that are generally
between 18 degrees Celsius (65 degrees Fahrenheit) and 40 degrees Celsius (105 degrees
Fahrenheit).

All plants will stop respiring when temperatures reach near freezing (zero degrees
Celsius, 32 degrees Fahrenheit) or when temperatures of 50 degrees Celsius (122 degrees
Fahrenheit) or higher cause cells and tissue to break down.

The respiration rates of fruits can be controlled by storage in cool, dry places. Lower
storage temperatures are able to slow the respiration and ripening of fruit.

Anaerobic Respiration
As respiration requires oxygen from the atmosphere, decreased available oxygen will
reduce respiration rates. In plants, this normally occurs in the root zones in water-logged
and poorly drained soils. Under these conditions, cells will use anaerobic respiration
(fermentation), which does not require oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration is the same process used to produce breads, yogurts, wine and
beer. However, it is a less efficient method of respiration, and plants cannot survive for
long periods using this process alone. Some plants, such as mangrove trees, adapt to low-
oxygen soils by growing aerial roots that emerge from the soil surface to increase oxygen
availability.
The rate of respiration for most plants peaks around the normal oxygen level in the
atmosphere.

Water Availability
Although drought has a much greater impact on the process of photosynthesis in plant
cells, lack of available water  also negatively affects respiration. Plants will attempt to
limit their loss of water to the atmosphere, including reducing their exchange of gases
with the atmosphere, which then reduces the amount of oxygen available to the
respiration process.

Dry or desiccated tissue has a lower respiration rate than hydrated tissue, which is
why many fruits can be preserved through drying.

Carbon Dioxide Levels

Carbon dioxide, one of the waste products of the respiration process, also affects
respiration. The higher the concentration of carbon dioxide, the lower the rate of
respiration. This can occur during times of reduced gas exchange in the atmosphere,
such as when a plant is conserving water.

Carbon dioxide is also used to measure the rate of respiration, described as the
quantity of carbon dioxide (in mg) produced by one kilogram of plant material in one
hour.

Damage and Disease

When a plant is damaged or infected, it will begin a process of healing and repair. This
can include the leaking of sap to fill a wound or the creation of a gall to trap a
burrowing insect. This is an energy-intensive process, and respiration will increase in
both the damaged tissue and the surrounding cells to supply the necessary fuel.

Additionally, some diseases can interfere with the transfer of sugars within a plant. In
these cases, parts of the plant with restricted flows of sugar can experience reduced
respiration.

Excess Sugars
Respiration requires sugars to convert into energy. All sugars a plant uses are
produced from photosynthesis, which generally occurs in the green leaves and stems.
An increased rate of photosynthesis often leads to an increased rate of respiration,
with leaves in the upper canopy of trees and shrubs respiring faster than shaded
material lower down. However, excess sugars can be stored in the roots and stem of
the plant for use in times of reduced photosynthesis.
 2.

The relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air relative to the
maximum amount of water vapor that the air can hold at a certain temperature.
If the relative humidity level is 75 percent at 80° F, this means that every
kilogram of the air in the respective space contains 75 percent of the maximum
amount of water that it can hold for the given temperature.

Relative humidity levels affect when and how plants open the stomata on the
undersides of their leaves. Plants use stomata to transpire, or “breathe.” When
the weather is warm, a plant may close its stomata to reduce water losses. The
stomata also act as a cooling mechanism. When ambient conditions are too warm
for a plant and it closes its stomata for too long to conserve water, it has no way
to move carbon dioxide and oxygen molecules, slowly causing the plant to
suffocate on water vapor and its own transpired gases.

As plants transpire, the humidity around saturates leaves with water vapor.
When relative humidity levels are too high or there is a lack of air circulation, a
plant cannot make water evaporate (part of the transpiration process) or draw
nutrients from the soil. When this occurs for a prolonged period, a plant
eventually rots. When surrounded by warm temperatures in low relative
humidity levels, transpiration rates in a plant increase, reducing the need for a
grower to fertilize it.

Transpiration
When a leaf's guard cells shrink, its stomata open and water is lost. This process is
called transpiration. In turn, more water is pulled through the plant from the roots. The
rate of transpiration is directly related to whether stomata are open or closed. Stomata
account for only 1% of a leaf's surface but 90% of the water transpired.

Transpiration is a necessary process and uses about 90% of the water that enters a plant's
roots. The other 10% is used in chemical reactions and in plant tissues. Transpiration is
responsible for several things:

 Transporting minerals from the soil throughout the plant.

 Cooling the plant through evaporation.
 Moving sugars and plant chemicals.
 Maintaining turgor pressure.
 The amount and rate of water loss depends on factors such as temperature,
humidity, and wind or air movement. Transpiration often is greatest in hot, dry
(low relative humidity), windy weather.
As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the transpiration
rate decreases. It is easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more
saturated air.
Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a higher
transpiration rate. If there is no wind, the air around the leaf is still and
transpiration raises the humidity around each leaf.
Wind moves saturated air, close to the leaf, away replacing it with less saturated
air.

3.
Under conditions of intensive light exposure, it is noted that leaves contain more
epicuticular waxes than those shaded. The seasonal buildup and development of
secondary wax structures on the abaxial surface of leaves also positively correspond
with increasing light intensity. Generally, it is believed that light favors absorption
of mineral nutrients by the leaves. On the other hand, a negative relationship
between air temperatures and the amount of epicuticular waxes on a surface unit of
plum leaves had been noted.
High air temperatures during rapid leaf expansion may enhance the absorption of
mineral nutrients by the leaves due to a lower amount of waxes on unit surface area
of a leaf. It is speculated that differences in nutrient absorption rates depend on
chemical composition and compound configuration of epicuticular waxes. There is
also claims that under conditions of high air temperatures the surface wax
components have vertical configuration and the leaf surface coverage decreases
which consequently may increase nutrient absorption.

This view is generally accepted in thinking that even slight alterations in the molecular
configuration of surface waxes significantly affect nutrient absorption rate.

Wind influences ;

(1) Physiological impact:

 Increases transpiration especially cuticular transpiration than stomatal

transpiration.
 Hot wind accelerates the drying of the plants by replacing humid air by dry air in
the inter cellular spaces.
For example, rice crop during June-July months shows tip drying.
 Wind increases turbulence in the atmosphere and availability of CO2 and thereby
increased photosynthesis.
 Beyond a certain wind speed the rate of photosynthesis becomes constant.

(2) Mechanical impact on plants:

            (i) Strong wind damages the shoots
            (ii) Lodging (Paddy, Sugarcane, Banana etc.,)
            (iii) Flower and fruit shedding
            (iv) Crops and trees with shallow roots are uprooted.
            (v) Cold wind causes chilling injuries
            (vi) Causes soil erosion
            (vii) Soil deposition causes poor aeration in root zone

4.
Essential Elements
Over 95 percent of the dry weight of a flowering plant is made up of three elements—
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—taken from the air and water. The remaining 5 percent
of the dry weight comes from chemicals absorbed from the soil. Roots absorb the
chemicals present in their surroundings, but only 14 of the elements absorbed are
necessary for plant growth. These 14 elements, along with carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, are called the 17 essential inorganic nutrients, or elements. Some of the
essentials are needed in larger amounts than others and are called
the macronutrients; those needed in lesser amounts are the micronutrients. 

Non-essential elements