WEEK 1: FORMATION OF ELEMENTS

What is nucleosynthesis?
- is a theory that explains the formation of the chemical elements
- this process is identified in three cosmological events namely: Big Bang, Stellar
formation and explosion, and Supernova explosion

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis - happened in the first few minutes after the Big Bang
a. n + p -> + y
b. d + y -> n + p
c. d + n -> 3H + y and d + p -> 3He + y
d. 3H + p -> 4 He + y and 3 He + n -> 4 He + y
- in Big Bang nucleosynthesis, neutral atoms of H and He were produced
- protons, neutrons, and electrons were formed during this phase

Stellar Nucleosynthesis/Stellar Formation and Evolution

- in simple helium fusion reaction, 4He + 4He→ 8Be 8Be is unstable and breaks apart as
rapidly as it forms
- a third 4He is required to participate in the reaction
- 4He + 4He + 4He -> 12C + y
- after the formation of 12C additional reactions follow:
- 12C + 4He →16O + γ
- 16O + 4He →20Ne + γ
- 20Ne + 4He →24Mg + γ , and so on
- when the fuel is exhausted, contraction sets in again in increasing the temperature so
that other reactions can occur, such as carbon burning
- 12C + 12C -> 24Mg + y
- heavier elements such as magnesium and sodium were formed

Supernova Nucleosynthesis - during a supernova, the star releases very large amounts of
energy as well as neutrons, which allow elements heavier than iron, such as uranium and gold,
to be produced
- in a supernova explosion, all these elements are expelled out into space
● What happens to elements beyond Fe?
- an element beyond A = 56 cannot be produced through fusion
- these is produced through a process called neutron-capture process
- n -> p + e _ y
- this increases the number of protons by 1
- 56Fe + n →57Fe + γ
- 57Fe + n →58Fe + γ
- 58Fe + n →59Fe + γ
- 58Fe and 57Fe are stable, but 59Fe is not since it is radioactive
- it undergoes beta decay, with a half-life of 45 days to 59Co
- nickel and cobalt are usually involved in the beta decay process
 - 59Co can capture a neutron to become 60Co, which is radioactive and beta decays to
60Ni. It continues this way, and all the heavier elements were formed through the
neutron capture which is a beta decay process

How did the concept of atomic number lead to the synthesis of new elements in the
laboratory?
- in 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction - a
process of transforming one element or isotope into another element
- in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the atomic
numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87
- elements with atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using particle accelerators
- elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are called
transuranium elements, they were discovered in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or
particle accelerators
- an atomic number identifies an element in the periodic table

WEEK 2: POLARITY OF MOLECULES

What is electronegativity?
- electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons
- elements with high EN have a greater tendency to attract electrons compared to those
with low electronegativity
- from left to right, EN increases and from top to bottom EN decreases
Ionic bond - ΔEN > 1.7
Polar Covalent - 1.7 > ΔEN > 0.3
Nonpolar covalent - ΔEN < 0.3
Nonpolar molecule - made of one element; monoatomic gases such as He, Ne, Ar, and Xe or
diatomic molecules such as H2, O2, F2, I2, Cl2, Br2, N2
- hydrocarbon are also its examples
- has symmetrically distributed electrons
- equal sharing of electron pairs
- maximum of two different elements

Polar molecule - not made entirely of the same element; made at minimum of two elements
- made of 2 or more different elements
- has asymmetrically (lack symmetry) distributed electrons
- has a partial positive change in one part of the molecule and a partial negative charge in
another part
- acids and hydroxides

How can you relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties?

- mixing water and acetone, etc.
- like dissolves like, which means polar substances dissolve in polar solvents, nonpolar
substances dissolve in nonpolar solvents

VALENCE ELECTRONS OF EACH ELEMENT:

● C-4
● H-1
● Cl - 7
● N-5
● O-6
● B-3
● Fl - 7
● S-6

Why Water is a Polar Molecule

- water is polar because oxygen and hydrogen have different electronegativity values
- oxygen has two lone electron pairs that repel each other and the electrons bonded to the
hydrogen atoms
- this gives the water molecule a bent shape
- the oxygen side has a partial negative charge, the hydrogen side has a partial positive
charge

How does the polarity of water molecule relate to its being the “universal solvent”?
- one of the most valuable properties of water is its ability to dissolve
- an individual water molecule has a bent shape with a H-O-H bond angle of
approximately 105 degrees
- water is polar thus having positive and negative partial charges on its ends
WEEK 3: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
What is intramolecular force and intermolecular force?
● Intramolecular force - exists between two atoms that make up the molecule or the
formula unit of a compound. It is a strong force of attraction formed by either an ionic or
covalent bond
● Intermolecular force - exists between molecules/formula units. It is a weak force of
attraction

What are the types of Intermolecular Forces?

● Dipole-dipole - interactions that act between polar molecules
● Hydrogen bonding - occurs only between molecules that contain hydrogen bonded to
small, highly electronegative atoms like fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen. HF and H2O are
examples of this IMF
● Dispersion forces - which are attractive forces between nonpolar gases like diatomic
molecules: O2 and N2 and noble gases which can be liquefied under correct conditions
of pressure and temperature
- they act not only between nonpolar molecules but also between all molecules
- these are the only intermolecular forces exhibited by nonpolar molecules
- usually happens with gas elements
● Ion-dipole - are the force of attraction between ionic and polar molecules like NaCl in
water to form salt solution

How do intermolecular forces affect the properties of substances?

- molecules with weak IMF are easy to separate
- the rule of thumb is that the stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, the more
energy is required to break those forces
 ● KCl has the highest boiling point, meanwhile H2 has the lowest boiling point
● Oil has weaker intermolecular forces than mayonnaise
● Salt has a higher melting point than butter

WEEK 4: RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTION

What is collision theory?
- a theory that states that in order for a substance to have a reaction, particles must collide
with one another with sufficient energy and correct orientation

What are the factors affecting the rates of chemical reaction?

● Effect of Concentration - the term concentration refers to the number of particles
present in a given volume of a solution
- concentration may also mean a measure of how much of the solute is dissolved in a
solvent to form a homogenous mixture
- a higher concentration means there is more of the solute in the solution
- if the concentration of the reactant is increased, the rate of a reaction also increases
- when the number of particles of the reactant is increased, there is a great chance for
particles to collide
- examples: detergent powder in water, milk or coffee in warm water
- increasing the concentration of a substance increases the kinetic energy of the particles
that make up the substance
 ● Effect of Surface Area and Particle Size - surface area is the measure of how much
exposed area a solid object has, expressed in square units
- in a reaction between a solid and liquid, the more finely divided a solid is, the faster the
rate of reaction
- as you powder a solid, its surface area becomes greater, thus the particles have higher
chance of colliding and faster reaction happens
- increasing the surface rate of a reactant increases the rate of reaction
● Effect of Temperature - the rate of chemical reaction increases with increasing
temperature
- as the temperature increases, collision between atoms and molecules become faster
resulting to build up of more energy
- the increased kinetic energy will equal to or exceed the activation energy resulting to
more collisions giving rise to a reaction
● Activation Energy - you can think of activation energy also as a hill
- this refers to the minimum energy required for a reaction to take place
- when a collision provides energy equal to or greater than the activation energy, a product
can form

The Effect of a Catalyst on Rate of Reaction

- adding a catalyst affects the rate of reaction
- it assumes the familiarity with basic concepts in the collision theory of reaction rates, and
with the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies in a gas
- a catalyst is a substance which speeds up a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at its
end
- when the reaction has finished, the mass of a catalyst is the same as at the beginning
- increasing a substance’s volume will not increase the rate of reaction
- a catalyst does not enhance the equilibrium rate

WEEK 5 - BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

What are carbohydrates?
- they are made from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- monomer: monosaccharides
- examples: rice, cereal, potatoes, fruits, pasta
- function: main energy source of the body
● Monosaccharides (single sugar) - glucose, fructose, galactose
● Disaccharides (two sugar molecules linked) - maltose, sucrose, lactose
● Polysaccharides (many sugar molecules linked) - starch, glycogen, cellulose

What are the consequences of a carbohydrate-deficient diet?

- a carbohydrate-deficient diet may cause headaches, fatigue, weakness, difficulty
concentrating, nausea, constipation, bad breath, and vitamin and mineral deficiencies
- too many simple carbs can contribute to weight gain
- they can also increase your risk of diabetes, heart disease, and high cholesterol
What are lipids?
- they are made from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- they are soluble in oil but are insoluble in water
- monomer: fatty acid
- examples: fats, oils, and waxes
- function: long-term storage of energy in the body
● Saturated fats - unhealthy
● Unsaturated fats - healthy

What are the consequences of a lipid-deficient diet?

- may cause dermatitis, low wound healing, hair loss, frequent sickness, night blindness,
infertility, swollen gums, easy bruising, dry hair, loose teeth, depression, muscle pain,
blood clots under your nails
- an excess amount of blood lipids can cause fat deposits in your artery walls, increasing
your risk for heart disease

What are proteins?

- they are made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
- proteins are made up of amino acids combined through a dehydration link called a
peptide bond
- monomer: amino acid
● Examples of proteins and their functions are:
1. Keratin
2. Fibroin/Silk protein
3. Collagen
4. Enzymes
● Examples of enzymes
a. Lipase - help in digestion of fats
b. Pepsin - help in breaking down proteins into peptides
c. Sucrase - help in the digestion of sugars and starches
5. Myoglobin
- avocado oil, salmon, eggs, grassfed beef, dark leafy greens, blueberries, nuts, mangoes

What are the consequences of a protein-deficient diet?

- a protein-deficient diet may cause edema, fatty liver, skin, hair and nail problems, loss of
muscle mass, greater risks of bone fractures, stunted growth in children, and increase
severity of infections
- risk of high protein are: weight gain, bad breath, constipation, diarrhea, dehydration, and
kidney damage

What are nucleic acids?

- made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
- monomer: nucleotide
- examples: DNA and RNA
 - function: involves the genetic materials, Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic
Acid (RNA)
- DNA is the blueprint of life because it contains instructions on how to make proteins in
the body

Structures of the Different Biomolecules

- mnemonic device ob biomolecules: CHO CHO CHON CHONP