i

In partial fulfillment of requirements in

General Physics 2
Third Quarter
A.Y. 2021-2022

Performance Task

Submitted by
Dondre Dominic S. Andrade
Redrick Marel B. Caidic
Elvin Henrik S. Elum
Jeremy Dirk J. Fualo
Abraham Judah C. Mamaril
Bradley F. Servillon
Rhy Bjorn C. Tanghingco
Lance Aldwin Tolentino

Grade and Section

12-STEM 2 St. Adeleoga

Submitted to:
Mr. Andres S. Budiao

May 8, 2022
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Table of Contents

Preliminaries Page
Cover Page i
Table of Contents ii

Body

Introduction 1
Objectives 2
Problem Question 3
Description of how Solid-State Batteries Work 3
Graphics of the Solid-State Battery 4
Materials and Cost 5
Findings and Similar Works 5
Design Proposal 7
References 10
Appendices 12
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I. Introduction
Having been created during the late 1700s by Alessandro Volta, the impact of batteries on
our society cannot go unnoticed. Imagine a world where batteries did not exist. These devices
that store energy are crucial in the society that we currently live in, being used in many objects
we use on a day-to-day basis. From cameras, simple household appliances, the clocks in our
homes, the watches on our wrists, the toys that parents use to entertain their children, to the very
vehicles that allowed humanity to travel long distances in short periods of time all use batteries.
Granted, all of these could exist and work without the existence of batteries, though, the matter
of when a person knowledgeable enough to introduce new methods to society will arrive is
unknown. These devices are found everywhere in this society of ours, yet they seem almost
invisible to the people who use them, not even realizing how remarkable this invention is.

Smartphones have become essential in the lives of many who roam this world today. It
has opened up new possibilities, allowing for wireless communication, allowing the public to
access information without the need of a library or computer, and creating new business
opportunities for many who wish to thrive in this busy and bustling society. Smartphones, like
many other devices, are powered by batteries. To be more specific, modern-day smartphones use
liquid lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, usually having a combination of lithium cobalt oxide as its
cathode, and graphite as its anode, and for very good reasons. Compared to other rechargeable
batteries, namely nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) or nickel-metal-hydride (Ni-MH), liquid lithium-ion
batteries have one of the highest energy densities of any battery technology up to date, as well
each cell being able to deliver up to 3 times as much voltage as what Ni-Cd and Ni-MH batteries
are able to (University of Washington, 2020). On top of what was mentioned, liquid lithium-ion
batteries are lighter compared to other batteries, all the while maintaining the same capabilities,
allowing smartphones to stay light and keep their sleek design. In addition, according to
Temidayo (2019), liquid lithium-ion batteries have a low maintenance cost, making them all the
more appealing for manufacturers. However, as much as its advantages are appealing, liquid
lithium-ion batteries also have their disadvantages. Like all things in this world, time will always
take a toll on everything that exists, and liquid lithium-ion batteries are no different. Their
dependency and performance will decrease over a period of time, mainly affected by the amount
of charge-discharge cycles the battery has gone through, generally being able to withstand
around 500-1000 of these cycles before their capacity starts falling (ElectronicsNotes, n.d.).
Though, it is worth mentioning that it does not matter if the battery was used or not as these
batteries will continue to age and wear out even if the batteries were not used at all; this is one of
the biggest disadvantages of liquid lithium-ion batteries. Another well-known disadvantage,
mostly regarding safety, is the tendency of liquid lithium-ion batteries to overheat, resulting in
damaging the battery when there are high voltages involved.

With all of that in mind, our team wishes to provide an alternative battery for
smartphones, namely, solid-state batteries (SSBs). One problem that arises with this matter is the
manufacturing costs. According to Jones et al. (2012), the cost of manufacturing solid-state
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batteries is high due to the highly complex equipment needed for its manufacturing process,
indicating that the price could reach up to over $1,000 per 1-Ah cell. Though, if we take into
account the developments in technology over the past decade, we can guarantee that this price
has lowered. By 2030, the price of solid-state batteries is expected to be around $80-$90 per
kWh (Solid-State Car Battery Market, 2021). With the increase in smartphone users over the past
few years, numerous companies will want to propose new ideas to seem innovative, allowing
them to one-up their competition. One innovation our team has in mind is the replacement of
liquid lithium-ion batteries with solid-state batteries. For the same reasons why liquid lithium-ion
batteries are the leading types of batteries used in smartphones, solid-state batteries have
numerous advantages over liquid lithium-ion batteries. Firstly, solid-state batteries are capable of
delivering up to 2.5 times more energy density than liquid lithium-ion batteries. This allows for a
smaller, more lightweight cell, leaving more space for other components that would benefit the
performance of smartphones. Secondly, according to Dragonfly Energy (2022), solid-state
batteries are capable of working at high rates of power, being able to recharge 4-6 times faster
than current technologies, and safely at that. Thirdly, the liquid electrolytes used in liquid
lithium-ion batteries are volatile, highly flammable, and should not be exposed to air. No such
risks are present in solid-state batteries, as they use solid electrolytes instead; the use of solid
electrolytes eliminates the safety hazards mentioned earlier, all the while allowing solid-state
batteries to perform at higher ranges of temperature. Staying on the topic of solid electrolytes,
the use of these also benefit the battery as it has a longer life cycle than liquid electrolytes (Peter,
2022), which means that the lifespan of a solid-state battery far exceeds that of liquid lithium-ion
batteries. The main hindrance with solid-state batteries is their high manufacturing costs, costing
up to 8 times more than liquid lithium-ion batteries (Dragonfly Energy, 2022).

II. Objectives

Our team aims to identify a better alternative for batteries that will be used in modern-day
smartphones. The team will be trailing on the following objectives;

● To identify an alternative to lithium-ion batteries used in smartphones

● Determine the advantages and disadvantages of using solid-state batteries instead
of lithium-ion batteries
● To propose the usage of solid-state batteries to companies that manufacture
modern-day smartphones
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III. Problem Question

Let us assume that the voltage (V) of a solid-state battery cell is 3 V. How much energy in
watt-hours is needed if the cell has a charge in milliamp-hours (mAh) of 5,000?

𝐸𝑊ℎ
The formula needed for this equation would be 𝑄𝑚𝐴ℎ = 1000 * 𝑉 ,

Where V is voltage,

Where 𝐸𝑊ℎ is energy in watt-hours,

Where 𝑄𝑚𝐴ℎ is charge in milliamp-hours.

Figure 1 Solution for Energy in watt-hours

IV. Description of how Solid-State Batteries Work

Solid-state batteries work the same way as liquid lithium-ion batteries. Their difference
lies in the electrolytes used, solid-state batteries have solid electrolytes, as opposed to liquid
lithium-ion batteries which use liquid electrolytes. Simply put, a battery is a device that stores
chemical energy, later converting it into electricity; it can be made up of one or more
electrochemical cells. Solid-state batteries, like all batteries, have two electrodes, namely the
cathode (positive electrode) and the anode (negative electrode). An electrolyte that is in between
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these two electrodes contains electrically charged particles, known as ions. The electrolyte
allows the ions to travel through it in order to combine with the anode (if it is charging) or the
cathode (if it is discharging). A flow of electrical charge between the anode and the cathode,
using a circuit, is generated as a result of the chemical reaction mentioned earlier (Dragonfly
Energy, 2022). This allows the battery to generate an electric current to power the device or
electronic it was intended to power.

V. Graphics of the Solid-State Battery

Figure 2.1 Battery & Battery with Parts Labelled

Brief Description of the Materials

1. Pure silicon (Anode): Pure silicon is a hard, dark gray solid with a metallic luster
and an octahedral crystalline structure similar to diamond, with which silicon
shares many chemical and physical properties (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.).
This will serve as the anode in the battery.
2. Lithium sulfide (Cathode): Simply the inorganic compound with the formula
Li2S. This will serve as the cathode of the battery
3. Li1.5Al0.5Ge1.5(PO4)3 (LAGP) (Electrolyte): Deemed as a promising electrolyte,
this will serve as the solid-state batteries’ electrolytes.
4. Iron-nickel alloy: An iron-nickel alloy, sometimes known as a nickel-iron alloy, is
a series of alloys made principally of the metals nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe) (Fe). It
is the primary component of planetary cores and iron meteorites. This will serve
as the plating, or what encloses the battery and its components.
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VI. Materials and Cost

Before being able to start the manufacturing process, the team identified the materials,
and the quantity needed to produce a number of solid-state batteries, which in our team’s case is
a 3-cell battery. The materials that will be used for the electrodes of the battery, as well as the
electrolyte that will be used, are pure silicon, lithium sulfide, iron-nickel alloy, and
Li1.5Al0.5Ge1.5(PO4)3 (LAGP), refer to Table 2. Pure silicon, with a purity of 99.9% will be used
as the batteries’ anode, costing the team around $22.67/kg. As for the cathode, lithium sulfide
(Li2S) will be used, which will cost the team around $12.9/kg. Li1.5Al0.5Ge1.5(PO4)3 (LAGP) will
serve as the batteries’ electrolyte, costing around $37.82/kg. Lastly, iron-nickel alloy will be used
for the plating that will enclose the solid-state battery, costing the team around $5.46/kg. As
mentioned earlier, the team concluded that the 50 kilograms of each material would suffice for
the manufacturing of the solid-state batteries, which would later be used in smartphone
prototypes that will serve as an experiment to observe the performance of said smartphones.

VII. Findings and Similar Works

According to recent research, there have been many attempts in improving the overall
design of solid-state batteries. The focus of these attempts was mainly on reducing the cost,
temperature, and pressure sensitivity, simplifying fabrication processes, and improving
interfacial properties. One attempt that has shown great promise is Lithium solid-state batteries,
studied by Boaretto et al. (2021), which proposed solutions for simplifying fabrication processes
and improving component integration and battery functionality at full cell level. However, such
batteries faced a couple of challenges which include lacking developments in materials research
which limits their progress. This is a limitation that our product wishes to address.

Another recent development in SSB research is pure silicon anode solid-state batteries,
developed by the University of California in collaboration with LG Energy Solution. The battery
utilizes a solid-state electrolyte and an all-silicon anode. It promises a safe, long-lasting, and
energy-dense alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries. Silicon anodes are 10 times more
energy-dense than conventional graphite anodes but have the limiting factor of quickly degrading
when used often. This technology also reduces the interfacial contact with the electrolyte,
eliminating capacity loss. In addition to this, silicon anode solid-state batteries can charge at a
lower temperature and at faster rates, are cheaper and are environmentally friendly solely due to
the properties of silicon (Tan et al., 2021).

According to Samsung, solid-state batteries are developed to increase the capacities of

electric vehicles. Samsung cites that market research has revealed that electric vehicles will be
the next trend in the automobile industry, and thus to make EVs competitive with traditional
internal combustion vehicles, solid-state batteries are seen as the next big step in increasing EV
mileage. solid-state batteries offer a unique advantage that makes them favorable to EV
 6

producers which is their incredible energy density compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries.
This reduces the overall space needed to be dedicated to batteries. Furthermore, solid-state
batteries do not have the disadvantage of having the risk of catching fire or triggering an
explosion, thus reducing the need of implementing expensive and complicated safety
precautions. In 2022, Samsung was successful in showcasing an SSB discharging and charging
1000 times with an estimated 800km of mileage. (Samsung SDI, 2020)

In regards to the market of solid-state batteries, the leading applications for solid-state
batteries are for consumer and portable electronics, electric vehicles, medical devices, and energy
storage. By capacity, 20-500 mAh batteries hold the majority of the market share and are the
most promising. In addition, trends predict that portability will continue to be its central focus.
The most lucrative market for solid-state batteries is in the Asia-Pacific. The key players in SSB
research, development, and production are SK Innovation Co., Ltd., STMicroelectronics,
TotalEnergies, Store Dot, QuantumScape Corporation, Solid Power Inc, Factorial Inc, Ganfeng
Lithium Co., Ltd, Ilika, and Prieto Battery. (Dixit and Prasad, 2022).

However, it is still evident that solid-state batteries still require an extensive amount of
research and development, as indicated by Sun (2020). One of its more pressing issues is its
inherent lower ionic conductivity, which governs how easily ions are passed within the material.
Overall impacting the effectiveness of solid-state batteries. This is accompanied by lower
coulombic efficiency, poor power performance, unstable cycling stability, and the range of the
electrochemical stability window. Each of these flaws bring their own unique set of issues such
as unwanted ambient reactions, reduced efficiency, and even cessation of function. Regardless,
Sun recommends that further research, especially in the materials department, will solve these
underlying issues.

Mauger et al. (2019) in their review of research regarding solid-state batteries show that
recent research has numerous different materials that offer solutions to solving the issues stated
in Sun (2020). Some of which even propose integrating trace amounts of liquid electrolytes into
the design. Another possible solution is the combination of ceramic and polymer-based gel
electrolytes, which provide the benefit of high conductivity and processability. However, further
research is still needed as it still remains a challenge of processing these materials in a
large-scale production plan. In the review, chemistries such as Li-air, Li–O2, Li–S, and
sodium-ion batteries are intensively discussed. It is important to remember that the main goal all
of this provided research aims to achieve is to improve the low ionic conductivity of solid-state
batteries.
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VIII. Design Proposal

The invention/product will be sold to companies interested in implementing solid-state

batteries into their future smartphones. The team will seek out potential buyers, making use of
the internet to look for companies willing to experiment with a new type of battery. Generally,
companies that are financially capable of mass-producing said solid-state batteries will be the
companies of interest. The team will not sell the batteries to smartphone manufacturing
companies that cannot risk the implementation of these batteries into their smartphones. The
purpose of these batteries is to promote the usage of safe and clean energy, which coincides with
the 7th sustainable development goal (SDG), all the while presenting a new, better alternative to
the current liquid lithium-ion batteries that are used in smartphones.

Figure 3 Distribution System to the Community

Table 3 Delivery Plan

Output Quality Standard of a Quality Control

Finished Product Procedure
1. Each material meets Step 1: After purchasing
the standard set by the needed materials, the
the manufacturing materials are then
company/group. inspected to determine if
2. Each battery is they fit the necessary
working and is able requirements to be used in
to power an the solid-state batteries.
electronic device. Step 2: Specify the needed
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3. Once implemented amount of each material to

into smartphones, produce one 3-cell
the smartphones solid-state battery.
show improvement Step 3: Once fabricated,
regarding their batteries will be tested to
battery performance see their limits.
and life. Step 4: Once the batteries
Delivery of the Product have been checked, they
1. Final quality and will be implemented into
performance check smartphones.
2. Packaging the Step 5: The smartphones
product will be checked for any
appropriately and performance issues.
safely. Step 6: If the smartphone
3. Sealing and works as intended, it is
labeling of the allowed to be packaged.
packages Packing of the Products
containing the for Delivery
products. Step 1: The solid-state
4. Inventory batteries will be placed in a
inspection package, safely
5. Releasing Products surrounding it with wraps
for Delivery to to ensure no damage will
smartphone be received during delivery
manufacturing to the smartphone
companies manufacturing companies.
Sealing and Labeling
Step 1: Label each package
accordingly, with
appropriate stickers to
ensure the safe delivery of
the batteries.
Step 2: Provide receipts
(Mandate of Section 237 of
the Tax Code)
Inventory:
Step 1: Inventory will be
checked daily
Step 2: Upon checking, the
supplies and materials used
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will be tracked
Step 3: The inventory list
will be compiled monthly
Releasing Products for
Delivery
Step 1: Ensure that the
product was packaged
safely.
Step 2: Ensure proper
transactions with
smartphone manufacturing
companies and provide
receipts.
Step 3: The smartphone
manufacturing companies
will sell the smartphones
(with solid-state battery)
via their physical and
online stores.
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IX. References

Boaretto, N., Garbayo, I., Valiyaveettil-SobhanRa, S., Quintela, A., Li, C., Casas-Cabanas, M., &

Aguesse, F. (2021). Lithium solid-state batteries: State-of-the-art and challenges for

materials, interfaces and processing. Journal of Power Sources.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229919

Dixit, S., & Prasad, Y. E. (2022). Solid State Battery Market Growth - 2030 | By Type,

Application. Allied Market Research.

https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/solid-state-batteries-market#:%7E:text=Solid%20

State%20Battery%20Market%20Research,18%25%20from%202021%20to%202030

Dragonfly Energy. (2022, April 7). What is a Solid-State Battery & Why You Will Want One.

https://dragonflyenergy.com/solid-state-battery/#:%7E:text=Benefits%20of%20Solid%2

DState%20Batteries,safety%20in%20a%20smaller%20size

ElectronicsNotes. (n.d.). Li-Ion Battery Advantages / Disadvantages: Lithium Ion » Electronics

Notes.

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/electronic_components/battery-technology/li-i

on-lithium-ion-advantages-disadvantages.php

Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). silicon | Element, Atom, Properties, Uses, & Facts.

https://www.britannica.com/science/silicon

Jones, K. S., Rudawski, N. G., Oladeji, I., Pitts, R., & Fox, R. (2012). The State of Solid-State

Batteries. American Ceramic Society Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.201247219

Mauger, A., Julien, C. M., Paolella, A., Armand, M., & Zaghib, K. (2019). Building Better

Batteries in the Solid State: A Review. MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12233892

 11

Peter, A. (2022, March 22). Pros and Cons of Solid-State Batteries. Amazefeeds.

https://amazefeeds.com/pros-and-cons-of-solid-state-batteries/

Samsung SDI. (2020). What is a Solid-state Battery?

https://www.samsungsdi.com/column/technology/detail/56462.html?listType=gallery

Solid-State Car Battery Market. (2021). Solid-State Car Battery Market by Vehicle (Passenger

Car and Commercial Vehicle), Battery Energy Density (>450 Wh/kg, >450 Wh/kg),

Propulsion (BEV, PHEV), Component(Cathode, Anode, and Electrolyte), and Region -

Global Forecast to 2030.

https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/solid-state-car-battery-market-3675

2602.html

Sun, Y. K. (2020). Promising All-Solid-State Batteries for Future Electric Vehicles. ACS

Publications. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.0c01977

Temidayo, E. M. (2019, October 23). Why Most Smartphone Devices Use Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Dignited.

https://www.dignited.com/53866/why-most-smartphone-devices-use-lithium-ion-batteries

University of California - San Diego. (2021). A new solid-state battery surprises the researchers

who created it: Engineers create a high performance all-solid-state battery with a

pure-silicon anode. ScienceDaily.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/09/210923165942.htm

University of Washington. (2020, September 26). Lithium-Ion Battery. Clean Energy Institute.

https://www.cei.washington.edu/education/science-of-solar/battery-technology/
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X. Appendices

Table 1 Quantitative electrical requirements needed to meet

Quantitative Electrical Requirements

Unit Value

Voltage (V) 3V

Energy in watt-hours (𝐸𝑊ℎ) 15 Wh

Charge in milliamp-hours (𝑄𝑚𝐴ℎ) 5,000 mAh

Table 2 Materials and Cost

Material Cost Quantity Total

Anode: $22.67/kg 50 $1,133.5

Pure silicon (99.9
wt %)

Electrolyte: $37.82/kg 50 $1891

Li1.5Al0.5Ge1.5(PO4)3
(LAGP)

Cathode: $12.9/kg 50 $645

Li2S
(Lithium sulfide)

Iron-nickel alloy $5.46/kg 50 $273

(Fe-Ni)
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Figure 2.2 Comparison of Li-ion Batteries and Solid-State Batteries