COMPOSTING

-Composting is the controlled decay of organic matter in a warm, moist environment by

the action of bacteria, fungi, and other organisms. The organic matter may be in municipal solid
waste, wastewater sludge, septage, agricultural waste, manure, leaves and other yard waste, or
combinations of these materials and other organic wastes. Composting is becoming an
increasingly popular waste management option as communities look for ways to divert portions
of the local waste stream from landfills.
-The principal applications of composting are for (1) yard wastes, (2) the organic fraction
of MSW, (3) partially processed commingled MSW, and (4) co-composting the organic fraction
of MSW with wastewater sludge. Because of the importance of composting in meeting
mandated waste diversion goals, the number of composting facilities has increased significantly
over the past 10 years.
-Biodegradable wastes can be composted and turned into organic fertilizer, in a process
that essentially returns to the earth what is of the Earth. Food wastes, such as peelings, leftover,
veggi trims, fish fowl, seeds, entrails, innards, soft shells; garden wastes such as manure and
carcasses are compostable and become organic fertilizer through a controlled process of
biological decomposition in average of 35 to 45 days. It is a messy and tedious process, but not
so, if we realizes that it is good for the earth and its profitability.

-Biodegradable wastes comprise about half (52.31%) of MSW. Typical bio-waste consists
of kitchen or food waste and yard or garden waste. From the available information, it could be
estimated that 86.2% of compostable waste comes from food scraps while 13.8% are leaves and
twigs.
-Under RA 9003, composting is regarded as a means to meet the mandatory waste
diversion requirements. It is the biological decomposition of biodegradable solid waste under
controlled predominantly aerobic conditions to a state that is sufficiently stable for nuisance-free
storage and handling and is satisfactorily matured for safe use in agriculture. It can either be a
component of an MRF or established as a standalone processing facility. The law also provides
for an inventory of markets for compost and guidelines for compost quality.
Typical small-scale composting in the Philippines is done in compost pits, tire towers,
coconut shell stack, bottomless bins, clay pots and plastic sacks. Meanwhile, large-scale
composting is done in windrows (by turning, passive aeration, active aeration and static piles),
in-vessel (e.g., agitated beds, composting silos and rotating drum bioreactors), and through vermi
or worm composting.
It is estimated that composting could reduce the weight of organic waste by 50% or more
and vermicomposting by 70-80%, the latter capable of turning biodegradables into a high-quality
vermicompost product. The different types of composting techniques used by LGUs, national
government agencies, private farms and cooperatives in the Philippines are shown:
USES OF COMPOST AND CONSTRAINTS TO ITS USE
Compost improves soil moisture retention; it is a good soil conditioner but a poor
fertilizer. Compost, depending on the waste source and its composition, may be used as a soil
amendment for agricultural soil and landscaping in municipal parks, golf courses, gardens, and
green belts; sod growing; home gardens; and nursery and greenhouse use. Compost may also be
used as landfill cover, land reclamation, animal litter, and possibly animal feed. It may also be
used as an additive to fertilizer, as a fuel, or in building materials.
The presence of toxic levels of pesticides, heavy metals, and pathogens should be
determined and evaluated to ensure the levels are compatible with the intended use of the
compost. A typical listing of permissible metal concentrations in compost is presented. For
pathogen reduction purposes, the temperature of the mixture must be maintained at or above
131◦F (55◦C) for at least three consecutive days. The total composting time, including curing, is
determined by the material, process used, and exposure to the elements. Two weeks to as much
as 18 months may be required for complete stabilization and curing of the compost. Thus, a plant
location distant from habitation is recommended, as odors may become a problem. Also, because
the demand for compost may be seasonal, provision must be made for compost storage.
Minimum requirements according to Philippine National Standard by the Bureau of
Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards of the Department of Agriculture (PNS/BAFPS
40:2013).
DIFFERENT COMPOSTING TECHNOLOGIES
Composting is the most preferred method for managing organic waste, as it applies to the
masses, may not require significant areas, and of course, is capable of reducing the rate of the
production of waste, while at the same time, producing valuable by-products, in the form of
compost with potentially reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions, if done properly.
There are 2 types of composting technology: Manual Technology and Automatic Composting
Technology.
1.Manual Technology
In manual composting, the process is operated by hands and through mechanical means
without automation. Five common types of manual composting methods: windrow, passively
aerated windrow, bin, in-vessel, and vermicomposting methods.
1.1. Windrow Composting

Windrow is the general term for the use of an elongated pile of stacked raw organic materials for
composting, as shown in Figure 1a, and represents the most basic composting method. The
method is suitable for treating large volumes of organic waste and producing large volumes of
compost [1]. However, due to its simplicity, it is one of the most commonly adopted manual
composting methods, especially for domestic composting.
Due to the sometimes-large windrow compost heaps, air-filled porosity needs to be maintained
throughout the compost heaps, and aeration becomes a very important issue [2]. Commonly, the
compost heaps are mixed with structure-giving materials, such as twigs, cardboard, or hard
vegetables, to allow air to pass throughout the compost heaps effectively and oxygen, which is
consumed by the microorganisms, to be replenished [3]. Particles in the compost heaps may also
be reduced, either manually or automatically using a grinding machine, to increase surface area
and hence, allow faster decomposition. In any case, the compost heaps need to be manually or
mechanically turned [4] to re-establish porosity over time and re-introduce air and oxygen back
into the compost heap. Additionally, turning also allows the rotation of compost materials, such
that the exterior of the heap can be rotated to the interior of the heap and allow the
microorganisms to inter-changeably decompose different parts of the heap.
The obvious benefits of windrow composting are that it requires low funding and maintenance [5].
However, it needs an amount of space to accommodate the compost heaps, which need to be
spaced out from one another, for an effective composting process. Composting using the
windrow method also consumes a relatively longer amount of time to produce good compost
and requires manual labor for reducing the particle size to the appropriate size and turning.

1.2. Passively Aerated Windrow Composting

As shown in Figure 1b, passively aerated windrow composting is an improvement over simple
windrow composting by introducing perforated pipes to allow convection airflow throughout the
organic compost heaps, particularly at the center of the heaps [6]. Different pipe configurations
can be adopted to bring oxygen to the microorganisms, with the use of the pipe eliminating the
need for frequent turning. However, it is important to introduce the right air-filled porosity
before putting the organic waste in the compost heap by appropriately reducing the compost
particles as well as thorough pre-mixing. Insulation of the compost heap with finished compost
may also be done to ensure thermophilic temperatures reach the outer layer of the compost
heap.
The main benefit of this technology is that it does not require any turning [7], which subsequently
allows the compost heap to retain its heat effectively while still being able to supply the much-
needed oxygen to the microorganisms via the passive aeration system. Consequently, the
method may result in a slightly shorter composting period than conventional windrow
composting. However, the absence of turning during the composting process necessitates more
thorough preparations of the organic waste before putting it in the compost heaps.

1.3. Bin Composting

This technology is mainly practiced at a domestic household level with limited space, as depicted
in Figure 1c. It can treat only a limited amount of waste and only produce compost for self-
consumption. Organic wastes are commonly inserted from the top of a specially designed
container with a perforated wall to allow convectional air flow to the compost heap. The organic
composting material degrades and becomes compacted slowly as it gets down into the container,
with the final ready compost collected from the bottom of the container. Some containers may
also include a stirring mechanism to allow a convenient method of mixing the compost heap, and
as such, improve the air-filled porosity of the heap. The use of the self-contained system with
perforated walls allows heat retention while enabling air to be circulated throughout the
compost heap. For more extensive composting operations, bin composters can also be used on
a large scale by combining the passively aerated method with bin composting [8]. The technology
requires medium funding and a minimal amount of maintenance. Additionally, it requires less
space than windrow composters as the waste is piled up vertically in the bin. No turning is also
required, with the exception of stirring, which may need to be performed occasionally [9].
However, the composting process may take longer than windrow composting as the waste is
contained inside a bin, and no turning is performed.

1.4. In-Vessel Composting

In-vessel composting is a method that encloses the composting materials within a container or a
vessel [10], as shown in Figure 1d. Installations vary from very high-tech options, with different
parameters monitored to very low-tech alternatives. In all configurations, airflow and
temperature can be more easily controlled using this technology via the air portals from the holes
around and on the sides of the vessel, allowing some air to pass through, which speeds up the
composting process. Turning takes place manually, and it needs to be turned more frequently
during the first two weeks of the composting process to help with the aeration process as well as
to control both temperature and moisture. Large batches of organic waste can be added and
composted using this technology, with the main benefit of requiring less space than the previous
technologies. The organic waste is reduced in volume, and usually, after three weeks to months,
the compost is further treated in an open space for the curing stage. Additionally, less labor is
required as the mixing or turning occurs within the vessel. However, it is capital-intensive and
requires high maintenance, necessitating regular checks inside the vessel to ensure a favorable
composting environment [11] and manual mechanical rotation.

1.5. Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting, as depicted in Figure 1e, is a type of composting in which microorganisms and

certain macroorganisms, such as earthworm species, are utilized at room temperature to
improve the organic waste decomposition process and to provide a better final compost [12]. The
method is different from conventional aerobic composting, with specially chosen red worms,
commonly Eisenia Foetida, added to the compost heap. These worms have high appetites and
breeding abilities, can digest the organic waste materials and pass them through their digestive
tract to produce vermicompost in the form of granules [13]. Essentially, vermicompost is the
worms’ feces, also known as castings, which are rich in nutrients. Their castings are packed with
microbes, which help continue the decomposition process to produce the final compost.
However, they need a comfortable space to live and work. Some bedding materials, either
shredded paper or cardboard, have to be prepared inside a worm bin for the worms to live and
work. They also need some moisture and organic waste. The timeline for the whole process varies
depending on the quantity of worms, the temperature, and how much waste is added to the bin.
Furthermore, worm reproduction can occur [14], which eventually floods up the worm bin with
worms after some time, and this may require transfers to an additional worm bin to maintain
effectiveness. Vermicomposting can decrease the pathogens in the process, albeit not as
effectively as traditional composting, as pathogens are generally eliminated quicker in hot
conditions. However, the worms cannot survive very hot temperatures, allowing some pathogens
and weeds to survive. This method requires relatively low costs, maintenance, and space [15]. The
worms used have the ability to consume the organic matter quickly, resulting in a faster
composting process with additional help from the microbes in their castings, and the method
requires very little labor.

2. Automatic Composting Technology

There are various reasons for the relatively low adoption level of composting, including a lack of
awareness, the relatively long time required for composting to complete, and lack of knowledge
of the biological composting process. Manual composting methods require some time to produce
good compost, in addition to monitoring and effort, which can be a hassle for busy working
people. Additionally, some composting methods also require plenty of space [16], and hence, may
not be suitable for those who live in urbanized areas. An automatic composter aims to solve some
of these problems.
2.1. Forced Aerated Windrow Composting

In a forced aerated windrow setting, blowers are installed at the end of perforated pipes to force
airflows to the compost heaps, as shown in Figure 2a [17]. The blowers inject air into the compost
heaps, especially during the active stage, to supply the much-needed oxygen for the
microorganisms, and hence, allow decomposition of organic waste materials. Airflow can be
adjusted by changing the frequency and duration of the blower. The compost heaps are also
commonly insulated to prevent heat loss and allow thermophilic temperature throughout the
compost heaps, including the outer layers. Due to the efficient retention of heat and the ability
to supply oxygen without turning, the composting process is commonly shorter. Little labor is
required as compost heaps need not be turned [18]. However, the method requires high
investment, given the need for blowers and aeration channels for airflow. Maintenance is also
high and requires high space requirements.

Figure 2. (a) Forced aerated windrow composting; (b) automatic turning in-vessel composting.

2.2. Automatic Turning In-Vessel Composting

The technology illustrated in Figure 2b is similar to the manual in-vessel composting; however,
the technology may vary in designs, size, and equipment. One of the automatic in-vessel
composting processes is the motorized turning in-vessel composter. The automatic turning in-
vessel composting uses a powered motor to rotate the vessels for aerating the compost heaps
and can be scheduled to rotate at desired times and frequency [19]. Some in-vessel composting
processes also utilize a motor for rotating the vessel, and are equipped with temperature and
humidity sensors to automatically monitor important parameters; replacing most of the
manpower required in manual in-vessel composting. As a high torque motor is needed to rotate
the heavy waste-filled vessels, the method requires very high investment and maintenance to
ensure every piece of equipment works well to carry out the work. However, the in-vessel
composting method is considered space-efficient and requires a low amount of labor.

2.3. Electrical Home Composter

An electric composter is an indoor compost bin that uses aeration, heat, and pulverization to
minimize the volume, emissions, and odor of food waste. A common home composter may be
small enough to fit on a counter, but for other types, large amounts of garbage also do exist and
can be used in both indoor or outdoor applications. A home electrical composter, also known as
a food recycler, uses three-phase cycles to break down food waste [20], with most composters
taking an average of 24 h to a few days to break down waste into simpler compositions.
An electrical home composter attempts to provide the optimum composting environment
occurring during selected phases of the natural composting process. Mesophilic and thermophilic
phases are shortened in most electrical home composters through the applications of heat, such
that excess moisture in the organic materials can be rapidly reduced. Organic materials are
commonly automatically ground to increase their surface area to speed up the composting
process before the materials are mixed with soils or additives to populate the microorganisms.
After going through the accelerated mesophilic and thermophilic phases, the end products are
eventually cooled down to room temperature to give entirely dry and sterile products, instead of
the common texture of mature compost. This is because the end product from the home
composter has only undergone partial phases of the composting process: the mesophilic and
thermophilic phases, but has not undergone the maturation phase. These end products may be
further cured outside of the system to ensure the resultant compost is adequately matured.
Electrical home composters may differ in terms of the adopted processes, quality of end product,
and duration to completion. Nevertheless, the majority of the electrical home composters are
based on three-phase cycles, which include drying, grinding, and cooling phases [21]. Some
electrical home composters may also produce non-dehydrated and non-dry compost. This is
possible due to the implementation of an additional phase, called the curing phase. In this phase,
the organic materials that have been broken down into smaller substances are stabilized, applied
with some heat, aerated, and turned until the compost is partially-cured (albeit not fully cured
and stabilized) and able to be used as a garden compost as a final product. Due to the extra phase,
these types of composters may take up to two weeks to complete the whole process.
Electrical home composters are commonly embedded with different sensors for monitoring and
control purposes. Temperature and moisture sensors are the most common sensors integrated
onto an electrical composting system [28] to aid in the monitoring of thermal conditions inside the
electrical composter and to ensure effective decomposition of the organic matter, preventing
too wet or too dry contents, as well as to regulate the temperature from exceeding 70 °C, which
can kill the microbes. An air pump is commonly used as an actuator to regulate temperature,
such that the temperature within the system does not rise beyond a certain value, which may kill
the microorganisms. Grinders are commonly used to shred organic materials to increase the
surface area for the microorganisms to act on. These systems can be commonly operated with
just a click of a button to activate the process, equipment, and sensors, from start to end product
completion.
Most food recyclers use ventilation and heat to quickly break down food waste, much like a pile
of regular compost. However, most of the end-product is completely dry, sterile, and
immature [29], and hence, it cannot be considered proper compost. A home composter is
primarily designed as an alternative for conventional composting; by reducing the hassle of
managing compost heap and, as such, is suitable for people who want an odorless composting
process with limited space to carry out conventional composting methods. This composter is
designed to be used by anyone and may facilitate the reduction of food waste or organic waste
from home. Despite its fast process, the initial investment of the machine itself can be high and
requires high maintenance. However, its low space requirement and very low labor requirement
make it an attractive alternative to conventional composting.
COMPOSTING PROCESS
Composting involves the biological decomposition of organic materials (substrates) under
controlled conditions that allow for the development of an end product that is biologically stable
and free of viable pathogens and plant seeds and can be applied to land beneficially. The key
concepts and objectives contained in the definition of compost are as follows:
• Composting is a biological process (e.g., aerobic anaerobic).
• Composting results in the production of a biologically stable end product.
• The end products free of viable pathogens.
• The end product is free of viable plant seeds.
• The end product can be applied to land beneficially.
To meet the above objectives, the composting process involves the following three basic steps:
1. Preprocessing (e.g., size reduction, seeding, nutrient addition, and addition of bulking
agent)
2. Decomposition and stabilization of organic material (two-stage process comprised of a
first-stage high-rate phase followed by second-stage curing phase)
3. Postprocessing (e.g., grinding, screening, bagging, and marketing of compost product)
Composting of mixed solid waste should be preceded by a separation and recycling program,
including glass, plastic, and metal separation; then usually shredding or grinding; and a program
for the periodic collection of household hazardous waste. Industrial and other hazardous waste
must be excluded.

DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Design considerations associated with the aerobic biological decomposition:

• The size of solid wastes should be between 25 and 75 mm (1 and 3 in).

• Initial C/N ratios (by mass) between 25 and 50 are optimum.
 • Composting time can be reduced by seeding with partially decomposed solid wastes to
the extent of about 1-5% by weight.
• Moisture content should be in the range between 50 and 60% during the composting
process.
• To prevent drying, caking, and air channeling, material in the process of being composted
should be mixed or turned on a regular schedule or as required.
• Temperature should be maintained between 122 ° and 131 °F (50 ° and 55 °C) for the first
few days and between 131 ° and 140 °F (55 ° and 60 °C) for the remainder of the active
composting period.
• The theoretical quantity of oxygen required can be estimated using the stoichiometric
equation for the conversion of organic matter.
• To achieve an optimum aerobic decomposition, pH should remain at 7-7.5 range.
• The land requirements for a plant with a capacity of 50 tons/day will be 1.5-2.0 acres.

COMPOST PROCESS DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

The principal design considerations associated with the aerobic biological decomposition of
prepared solid wastes are presented in Table 3.18. It can be concluded from this table that the
preparation of a composting process is not a simple task, especially if optimum results are to be
achieved. For this reason, most of the commercial composting operations that have been
developed are highly mechanized and are carried out in specially designed facilities. Because of
their importance, pathogen and odor control are considered further below. Additional details on
the design and operation of compost processes may be found in Refs. 13 and 16.

Pathogen Control - Pathogenic organisms and weed seeds exposed to the higher temperatures
for the times indicated in Table 3.19 will be destroyed. However, because of the nature of solid
waste, the processes used, and the range in temperature within compost clumps or zones and
between the outside and inside of a mass of compost, the required lethal temperatures cannot
be ensured. The EPA requires 131 ◦ F (55 ◦ C) for three days to obtain pathogen destruction before
compost land spreading, but this temperature does not kill all pathogens. The World Health
Organization (WHO) recommends that the compost attain a temperature of at least 140 ◦ F (60 ◦
C). It has been found that salmonella repopulation is possible in a soil amendment from
composted sludge. Microbial activity is greatest when mean municipal compost temperature is
114 ◦ to 140 ◦ F (40 ◦ –60 ◦ C), using aeration to control the temperature to achieve the highest
composting rates. Temperatures above 140 ◦ F (60 ◦ C) tend to slow down the process as many
organisms die off at and above this temperature.

Control of Odor - Most of the odor problems in aerobic composting processes are associated
with the development of anaerobic conditions within the compost pile. In many large-scale
aerobic composting systems, it is common to find pieces of magazines or books, plastics
(especially plastic films), or similar materials in the organic material being composted. These
materials normally cannot be decomposed in a relatively short time in a compost pile.
Furthermore, because sufficient oxygen is often not available in the center of such materials,
anaerobic conditions can develop. Under anaerobic conditions, organic acids will be produced,
many of which are extremely odorous. To minimize the potential odor problems, it is important
to reduce the particle size, remove plastics and other nonbiodegradable materials from the
organic material to be composted, or use source-separated and uncontaminated feedstocks.

ISSUES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPOSTING FACILITIES

Production of Odors - Without proper control of the composting process, the production of odors
can become a problem, especially in windrow composting. It is fair to say that every existing
composting facility has had an odor event and in some cases numerous events. As a consequence,
facility siting, process design, and biological odor management are of critical importance.

Facility Siting - Important issues in siting as related to the production and movement of odors
include proper attention to local microclimates as they affect the dissipation of odors, distance
to odor receptors, the use of adequate buffer zones, and the use of split facilities (use of different
locations for composting and maturation operations). The proposed project site must be
away from landfills or dump-sites and flood-free; it must have an area of at
least 200 square meters.

Proper Process Design and Operation - Proper process design and operation are critical in
minimizing the potential for the production of odors. If composting operations are to be
successful, special attention must be devoted to the following items: preprocessing, aeration
requirements, temperature control, and turning (mixing) requirements. The facilities used to
prepare the waste materials for the composting process must be capable of mixing any required
additives, such as nutrients, seed (if used), and moisture with the waste material to be composted
completely and effectively. The aeration equipment must be sized to meet peak oxygen demand
requirements with an adequate margin of safety. In the static pile method of composting, the
aeration equipment must also be sized properly to provide the volume of air required for cooling
of the composting material. The composting facilities must be instrumented adequately to
provide for positive and effective temperature control. The equipment used to turn and mix the
compost to provide oxygen and to control the temperature must be effective in mixing all
portions of the composting mass. Unmixed compost will undergo anaerobic decomposition,
leading to the production of odors. Because all of these operations are critical to the operation
of an odor-free composting facility, standby equipment should be available.

Biological Odor Management - Because occasional odor events are impossible to eliminate,
special attention must be devoted to the factors that may affect biological production of odors.
Causes of odors in composting operations include low carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratios, poor
temperature control, excessive moisture, and poor mixing For example, in composting
operations where the compost is not turned and the temperature is not controlled, the compost
in the center of the composting pile can become pyrolyzed. When subsequently moved, the
odors released from the pyrolyzed compost have been extremely severe. In enclosed facilities,
odor control facilities such as packed towers, spray towers, activated-carbon contactors,
biological filters, and compost filters have been used for odor management. In some cases, odor-
masking agents and enzymes have been used for the temporary control of odors.
Public Health Issues - If the composting operation is not conducted properly, the potential exists
for pathogenic organisms to survive the composting process. The absence of pathogenic
organisms is critical if the product is to be marketed for use in applications where the public may
be exposed to the compost. Although pathogen control can be achieved easily with proper
operation of the composting process, not all composting operations are instrumented sufficiently
to produce pathogen-free compost reliably. In general, most pathogenic organisms found in
MSW and other organic material to be composted will be destroyed at the temperatures and
exposure times used in controlled composting operations (typically 55 ◦ C for 15–20 days).
Temperatures required for the control of various pathogens were given previously in Table 3.19.

Health Hazards Exposure of workers to dust at a wastewater sludge and other composting site
might cause nasal, ear, and skin infections, burning eyes, skin irritation, and other symptoms,
pointing to the need for worker protection safeguards. Other concerns are possible leachate
contamination of groundwater and surface water, toxic chemicals remaining in the finished
compost, insect and rodent breeding, noise, and survival of pathogens, including molds and other
parasite spores and eggs. Pathogens may be spread by leachate, air, insects, rodents, and poor
housekeeping and personal hygiene. Tests for pathogens, and the toxic level of chemicals and
metals listed in Table 3.16 should be made periodically. Precautions are indicated in view of the
potential hazards. Workers should be advised of the infectious and hazardous materials likely to
be present in the solid waste handled and the personal hygiene precautions to be taken and be
provided with proper equipment, protective gear, and housing. Their health should be
monitored. All solid waste should be inspected before acceptance to ensure that it does not
contain hazardous wastes. A dressing room, including lockers, toilet, lavatory, and shower
facilities, is needed. Equipment cabs should have air conditioning, including dust filters.

Heavy-Metal Toxicity - A concern that may affect all composting operations, but especially those
where mechanical shredders are used, involves the possibility of heavy-metal toxicity.5 When
metals in solid wastes are shredded, metal dust particles are generated. In turn, these metal
particles may become attached to the materials in the light fraction. Ultimately, after
composting, these metals would be applied to the soil. While many of them would have no
adverse effects, metals such as cadmium (because of its toxicity) are of concern. In general, the
heavy-metal content of compost produced from the organic fraction of MSW is significantly lower
than the concentrations found in wastewater treatment plant sludges. The metal content of
source separated-wastes is especially low. The co-composting of wastewater treatment plant
sludges and the organic fraction of MSW is one way to reduce the metal concentrations in the
sludge.

Product Quality - Product quality for compost material can be defined in terms of the nutrient
content, organic content, pH, texture, particle size distribution, moisture content, moisture-
holding capacity, presence of foreign matter, concentration of salts, residual odor, degree of
stabilization or maturity, presence of pathogenic organisms, and concentration of heavy metals.
Unfortunately, at this time, there is no agreement on the appropriate values for these
parameters. The lack of agreement on appropriate values for these parameters has been and
continues to be a major impediment to the development of a uniform compost product from
location to location. For compost materials to have wide acceptance, public health issues must
be resolved in a satisfactory manner.

Cost- The cost of composting should reflect the total cost of the operation less the savings
effected. The cost of the operation would include the cost of the site, site preparation, compost
concrete or asphalt platform, worker housing and facilities, utilities, equipment (grinder, bucket
loader, and composting drum and aeration facilities if part of the process), power, separation and
recycling preparation, and disposal of noncompostable materials as well as leachate collection,
treatment and disposal, odor control, final screening, bagging, and maintenance. Savings would
include reduced landfill disposal cost, income from sale of salvaged material, and sale of
stabilized compost. Under favorable conditions, the total net cost of composting might be less
compared to other methods. The size of the operation, labor costs, process used, sustained
market for recovered materials, need for an enclosure, and other factors will determine the net
cost.

A comprehensive market analysis should be made in the planning stage. The cost of an
indoor system is much higher than an outdoor system. The operation of an outdoor system is
significantly affected by the ambient temperature and precipitation. The indoor system makes
possible better temperature, leachate, odor, and operation control as well as better public
relations. Composting is not a profit-making operation.

COMPOSTING FACILITY SAMPLE (Composting Facility in Sta. Maria, Bulacan)

In Sta. Maria, Bulacan, the barangays are not capable of collecting garbage so the
municipal government collects and disposes municipal waste. The collection and disposal of
organic waste used for composting purposes fall under this arrangement. In Metro Manila, a
regional body called the Manila Metropolitan Development Authority (MMDA) takes care of the
transfer stations and disposal sites while the 17 municipalities and cities within the region are
responsible for collection.

Waste Flow In Sta. Maria

Sta. Maria is a semi-rural, semi-urban municipality located about 25 kilometers north of

Metro Manila (see Figure 2-1). Majority of the land use is agricultural where various types of
farms (rice and corn predominantly with a number of livestock and orchards) are located. It has
a very dense town center where all the residential, commercial and institutional establishments
are located (see Figure 2-2). Many have observed that Sta. Maria is fast becoming urbanized due
to its proximity to Metro Manila. It has a population of about 110,000 residents.

Given the two dump trucks which average four trips a day to the dump site, MSW is
estimated to be around 10-12 tons a day. Solid waste characterization has not been done in the
Sta. Maria so there is no data on its waste composition. However, using the average per capita
of solid waste generation in rural areas at 0.40 kg/day, the estimated solid waste generated by
the whole municipality is 44,000kg/day or 44 tons/day. Of these, only 10 tons are collected daily
or 23 % of the total waste generated goes to the dumpsite.

According to AWARE (Assorted Waste Administration and Recycling Enterprise), almost

fifty percent of the MSW is biodegradable waste. Only the biodegradable waste from the public
market is segregated. This is where AWARE gets its basic raw material input. Household organic
wastes are not segregated and end up in the dumpsite.

Organizational Structure

The town council had approved the use of the 2,000 square meters public land for the
plant site within the 2.5 ha. garbage dumpsite of the municipality and a P500,000 budget for
equipment, and building expenses.

Site Selection

The site is surrounded by ricefields and their are no inhabitants which are directly affected
by the dumpsite. The local government decided to built the composting facilities within the
dumpsite to avoid the NIMBY effect if located elsewhere. Likewise, AWARE will be free to use the
land availed of by the municipality, thus, cutting down the initial capitalization which should have
been used to purchase/lease the land. It provides also AWARE the advantage of reducing its
operational expenses since the municipal collector trucks delivers the sorted garbage into the
site free of charge.

Composting Process

A shredder was installed in the public market premises where it is accessible to the public.
The shredded waste materials are placed in sack which are tied and hauled. A compactor truck
which was donated by a Rotary Club in Japan is used to transport the waste materials to the
composting plant, located within the municipal garbage dumpsite, 7 kms. away from the market.
Another truck brings in rice hull and animal manure from nearby farms.

About 10 to 12.5 kilos of compost fungus activator (CFA) or Trichoderma, are mixed per
layer of wastes to help accelerate the decomposition process. The DOST and the University of
the Philippines (UP) introduced to them the technology and provided AWARE with the initial
supply of trichoderma. Thus, the four month period of decomposition was shortened to 30 days.

Production Level

Since the start of operations in February 1994, the present production capacity of the
plant is dependent upon the volume of waste materials recovered from the market. Present
production volumes were estimated three (3) tons per day up from 1.5 MT per day during the
initial year of operation. This is based on the projected increase of biodegradable wastes of four
(4) tons (from the market and households) combined with the two (2) tons of organic additives
based on a ratio of 1:2 to maintain the quality of the compost produced. Recovery rate is
estimated to be 50% and thus compost production volume is around 3 tons per day.

AWARE is limited to a maximum production volume of three (3) tons of compost due to
the space availability at the composting plant. There are only about 30-35 composting heaps with
each heap containing about 2 to 3 tons. With a production cycle of 30 days, this translates to an
average of about one heap per day. There is no room for expansion of the heaps because of the
space limitations, it occupies only a part of the dumpsite property of the municipality.

Production levels are estimated to be as follows:

Year 1-2 Year 3-10

Annual production 540,000 kgs. 1,080,000 kgs.

Monthly production 45,000 kgs. 90,000 kgs.

Daily production 1,500 kgs. 3,000 kgs.

It must be noted that even on Saturdays and Sundays they also harvest compost. Market
wastes are delivered to the site daily except Sundays since the government offices, garbage
collection unit included, are closed during these days. Thus, on Mondays, the volume of market
wastes delivered are two (2) times higher than the volume of market wastes during ordinary
days.

Cost of Production

The materials cost incurred by AWARE amounted to P544,680.00 in Years 1 and 2 on an

average daily production input comprising of two (2) tons of biodegradable wastes plus additive
of one (1) ton to produce at least 1.5-2 tons of compost. In the succeeding years, Years 3 to 10,
there is an increase in input of four (4) tons as a result of effectiveness of sourcing raw materials
and these biodegradable wastes are combined with two (2) tons of additives. With a recovery
factor of 50%, the production output is expected to be around three (3) tons per day. Cost of raw
materials was assumed to increase by five (5) percent every other year. The increase in the
volume of raw material inputs and cost resulted to an increase in raw materials cost from
P1,051,056 for Years 3 and 4 up to P1,211,962 in Year 10.
REFERENCE
Lapid, D., et al. (December 1996). Composting in the Philippines, WASTE.
https://sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/LAPID%20et%20al%201996%20C
omposting%20in%20Philippines.pdf
Philippine National Standard by the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards of the
Department of Agriculture (PNS/BAFPS 40:2013).
https://members.wto.org/crnattachments/2013/sps/PHL/13_2078_00_e.pdf
https://emb.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/3-Solid-Waste-1.8.pdf
Azis, F, et al. (Sep. 2022). Different Composting Technologies.
https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/27283
Dr. Darrin Lew (Nov. 2022). Compost Process Design and Operational Considerations.
https://www.drdarrinlew.us/environmental-engineering-2/compost-process-design-and-
operational-considerations.html