1.

REPAIR OF STUCTURAL TIMBER

2.REPAIR OF HISTORIC TIMBER STRUCTURES

Repair of structural timbers has always been an expensive and time

consuming operation. From a timber lintel, to a huge tie beam , if a new
piece could not be spliced, or bolted on, the lot had to come out. Very
often, even if it were possible to bolt a new section of timber on, the
overlap for the bolts was so long it was almost like replacing the entire
timber anyway.

Removing complete timbers or carrying out traditional splices in joists,

rafters and other structural timbers requires considerable opening up of
ceilings, floors and roofs. In most cases complete replacement of a timber
will be impossible by traditional means without scaffolding or roof
removal, but a TRS TIMBER RESIN SPLICE will allow the Low
Disturbance (and therefore cheaper) repair of beams, roof purlins, tie
beams, lintels, joists and rafters.

Using the TRS section of timber can be cut out, in situ, and a new section
added. The repair will be stronger than the original.

Rotten
joist in
wall
Rotten
end cut
off and
slots
drilled

New end
attached
and
pushed
into wall

Resin
poured

Cut slot
into good
timber
 Remove
damaged
section

Apply
quick
setting
paste to
faces

New
section
with
repair
rods
attached

Resin
poured
into slots.

REPAIRING CRACKS, SPLITS AND SHAKES IN TIMBER.

Cracks in timber beams need not affect the overall integrity of the
structure. Indeed, cracks in timber beams can be taken as a positive
visual feature of the timber, which, in conjunction with the timber grain,
distinguish timber from the more uniform man-made materials such as
steel and concrete. The integrity of the timber can be called into question
when it is impaired by cracks, splits and shakes and often it has required
the replacement of a beam or rafter which has formed part of the original
structure. This can now be overcome in a great many cases with the use
of an injected epoxy resin.

Timber Resin Splice units can Timber Resin Splice in an

replace any rotted wooden arch repair. FREE
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Cracks, shakes, warps and fissures are formed as a result of the timber
giving up moisture and shrinking. This may occur as part of initial drying
or subsequent changes, during service, in the Equilibrium Moisture
Content. The EMC of timbers inside buildings can range from 9% to 14%.
Fibre saturation is reached in constructional softwoods at about 28%.

For cracks and splits that are greater than 5mm wide the void can be
filled with an Mouldable Epoxy Mortar, but if the crack penetrates more
than 30% through the timber it will be necessary to provide dowels
(Epoxy-Glass Bars) across the filled section in order to 'stitch' the two
halves together. The advice of a Structural Engineer should be taken with
regards to the number, diameter, length and spacing of the dowels. The
dowels can be made of glass fibre, carbon fibre, steel or stainless steel.
We recommend the use of epoxy/glass or epoxy coated steel, set in a
Thixotropic Epoxy Injection Resin.
Clean out cracks or splits with a saw blade and vacuum out all sawdust.
Fill the cracks with Mouldable Epoxy Mortar.

When the Mortar has set drill small holes, about 6mm in diameter through
the epoxy into the back of the crack. Blow, or vacuum out the dust.
Directly inject Thixotropic Epoxy Injection resin from the cartridge into
the hole, until the resin flows from the adjacent hole. Continue until all
the holes have been injected and cap off each with Mouldable Epoxy
Mortar.

Sand off any excess Mortar and colour finish to suit the timber. If
‘stitching’is required the cracked areas can now be cross drilled and
epoxy-glass or steel rods fitted in Thixotropic Epoxy Injection resin.
Repairing Historic Roof
Timbers

Inserting a new principal beam that's 6.5 metres long and weighs half a tonne presents some
interesting problems.

The repair of structural timbers in historic buildings, and especially churches, can be demanding
and controversial. Most historic roofs are visible from below, they are often of considerable historic
and aesthetic significance, and all demand a thorough understanding of the principles and
techniques involved in order to effect a suitable repair strategy. This must not only successfully
restore the structural integrity of the timber framework, but it must also satisfy complex aesthetic
and historical requirements.

In some cases the timbers will have been hand worked or wrought, salvaged from earlier work and
reused, usually during some drastic restoration. In other cases the timber will be found to have
been hewn using machinery contemporary with the restoration, in some cases from the earliest
days of the industrial revolution.

The choice of repair type needs to take into account the character and the age of the original timber
to be repaired, and it should be sympathetic to the actual building itself as well as to the repairs that
may have previously been carried out during an earlier repair programme. All contribute to the
historic interest of the building's fabric.

Effective timber repair needs careful investigation, specification and execution.

TYPICAL PROBLEMS
Timber failure may be attributed to insect infestation, fungal attack, or shakes and splits caused
during the drying out of unseasoned timber.

The three most common repair types would usually deal with:

• beam end repairs, due to timber being embedded or in contact with damp masonry
• losses of cross sectional area due to fungal or insect attack
• longitudinal cracks appearing due to changes in moisture content of the timber.

The repair regime will usually be decided on through consultation with experienced practitioners
and professionals.

Repair can take the following forms:

• like-for-like repairs using timber from an appropriate source

• 'honest' repair, where steel strapping or plates are used
• resins, which although controversial in certain circumstances, can have a place.

LIKE-FOR-LIKE REPAIRS
The choice of repair will depend largely upon discussions over the exact philosophy and approach
taken to each individual project and whether a decision has been made to repair, restore or
conserve. There are many ways of repairing timber structures and sometimes a mix of repair types
may be appropriate.

When carrying out a repair using timber it is important to select material of the same species,
preferably from a reputable source and, most importantly, with a moisture content which matches to
within one per cent that of the timber being repaired. If this condition is not met, the different drying
rates of the timber may cause problems with the repair joint.

Typical timber repair: the structural timber of the principal beam Rafter end repairs: a traditional like-for-like approach to repairing
had suffered from fungal decay, while the connection of the purlin a rafter end, using a spliced scarfed repair to retain as much of the
had suffered from insect attack, as a result of a leaking lead roof. original rafters as possible.
Wedged scarfe joint: in this typical detail the new end of a purlin is A replacement beam: in some cases, the extent of decay prohibits
spliced to the existing with a wedged scarfe and fixed with stainless any solution other than replacement.
steel bolts. The square end of the wedge can be seen between the
heels of the joint.

Scarfe joints (see top right illustration, above) are commonly used where the ends of timbers have
decayed, for example in a damp exterior wall. This approach, which enables the decayed timber to
be cut out and replaced with sound material, depends on careful joint detailing for its structural
integrity. Scarfe joints are usually fixed using stainless steel bolts or screws with traditional wedges
or adhesives used between each timber surface.

To adopt the philosophy of 'conserve as found' is always the best starting point, and where like-for-
like repairs are to be used, scarfed repairs allow the maximum amount of original timber to be
retained. However, there are occasions where a timber beam has deteriorated to such an extent
that the only possible solution is to replace the complete member.

When deciding on whether to replace a complete structural member or not, it is important to take
into account the perceived life span of the particular timber.

The illustration above right shows a situation where a 15th century oak principal beam had suffered
from insect infestation to such an extent that there was a serious danger of its collapse. It was
noted that particular problems appeared around the area of the mortice slots in the beam, where
the purlins were tenoned. A previous repair, carried out during the latter part of the 19th century,
had resulted in the introduction of wrought iron straps, in effect carrying the ends of the purlins.
These were re-connected as historic evidence of this past repair.

Replacing an entire beam can entail significant logistical problems and complex access issues
which need to be overcome. The replacement of the principal beam illustrated on the first page
posed many difficulties, not least sourcing a beam of the correct length and section, suitable
moisture content and correct species.

Too much emphasis can be placed today on the country of origin. In this case European oak
(Quercusrobor) was selected as a suitable replacement as at the time of procurement a suitable
beam was not available from English oak stock.

HONEST REPAIR
Reinforcing timber with metalwork has historical precedents dating back to the Middle Ages, and in
many instances can be seen as having the advantage of being reversible.

The removal of large chunks of historic fabric during some timber repair strategies is viewed as
destructive and invasive, and consideration must be given to the use of metalwork in some
instances. Although perceived as altering the way in which various members of a timber frame
interact with one another, metal plates can provide an engineered and cost- effective way to repair
timber. One of the most common uses of this approach involves inserting a flitch plate to reinstate
the end bearing of a beam (illustrated below, left).

Flitch plate repairs: the decayed end of a principal

beam is shown
with repairs in progress. Reinforcing a ridge beam: this beam on the raised end
of a roof had moved and pulled out of the stonework. In
order to reinstate its bearing capacity a stainless steel
flitch plate was inserted into a pre-cut slot in the timber
and built into the masonry

Whether this technique or a like-for-like repair is chosen, it must be remembered why the end of the
beam has rotted in the first instance. Timber in contact with damp masonry sets up the conditions
for fungal decay: timber with moisture content of less than 20 per cent does not seem to suffer, and
ideally, the moisture content of all timber should be closer to 15 per cent.

When reinstating the beam end it is good practice to allow air circulation around the end of the
beam and to provide a membrane between the timber and any masonry that will provide support.
The use of lead sheet or a lead-based damp-proof membrane is preferable. Modern impervious
membranes are best avoided, as airborne moisture will be retained in the void behind the beam,
setting up conditions for re-contamination.

Steel plate reinforcements: connections between the rafters and

the purlin in this 15th century aisle roof were reinforced with steel
plates and stirrup cradles.
 Another common example of an honest
repair is the use of steel plates. A complex
example of this approach is shown in the
illustration, right. In this 15th century aisle
roof a typical connection detail between a
purlin and a principal beam was weakened
due to the insect infestation of the mortice
and tenon joints at the intersection. A mild
steel plate was fixed to the top of the purlin
and supported over the principal beam. This
plate provided addition support to the purlins
below via stirrup cradles welded to the side
of the mild steel upper plate. All that was
visible below were the cradles supporting
the purlin.

RESIN REPAIRS A longitudinal crack due to the timber drying

One of the most controversial repair

methods in conservation today must be the
use of resin for structural timber repairs.
Prejudices often stem from the lack of
knowledge and understanding of this
technology. However, there are risks
attached: timber treated with resins can
become stiff and impermeable and may not
be subject to the usual moisture and thermal
related movement of the adjacent timber. It
is possible that this could eventually impair
the structural performance of the timber, but
as resins are a relatively recent innovation,
their long term affects remain uncertain.

In order to proceed with a resin repair

certain justifications may be necessary in
order to convince interested parties of the
suitability of this type of repair in a particular
situation.

Perhaps the most common example of its

use is for replacing decayed beam ends.
Simple beam ends can be partially or
entirely replaced by cutting away the
infected timber, inserting reinforcing rods
into the timber ends and pouring resin into a
pre-formed mould box, thus re-forming the
original profile.
Loss of cross-sectional area due to insect attack
Cracks and fissures in timber beams which
threaten their performance may also benefit
from the use of resins, as they are rarely deep enough to warrant more drastic measures.
Longitudinal cracks caused by drying (see illustration, right) may be simply repaired by drilling
vertical holes at right angles and through the fissures at appropriate centres; rods can be fixed into
these pre-prepared holes with injected resin. Reinstatement of the shear transfer of the upper and
 lower section of the beam is thereby restored. A simple timber plug on the underside makes this
repair inconspicuous.

Another common problem which can benefit from the use of resins is the loss of a significant cross
sectional area of a timber beam due to fungal or insect attack. In many instances the decay is
confined to a relatively short section of the beam and does not warrant wholesale replacement.

In this situation a combination of a number of technologies may be appropriate. In the case of an

oak roof purlin beam of 18th century origin (see illustration, opposite), which was curved in both
plan and section, it was decided that the most cost-effective solution to the repair was to glue
laminated 20mm strips of seasoned oak timber to the side of the beam. These laminations were
held in position with addition stainless steel rods. Once set the timber could be shaped and planed
to the correct profile.

ON BALANCE
There is a wide range of interventions available should repairs become necessary. Timber repairs
are the favoured solution, not least for reasons of compatibility of materials.

The use of metals can be less intrusive structurally. However, care must be exercised in the choice
of metals and the interaction with the natural resins and tannins within the timber species.

Resins repairs are frowned upon in some quarters, partly because insufficient time has passed
since their introduction to ascertain the life expectancy of the bond between the resin and the
mortar under different environmental conditions. However, in certain circumstances resin systems
are worthy of consideration.

It is important to bear in mind that timber repairs are usually necessary because a building has
been neglected. Historic structures are notoriously damp and poorly ventilated places, providing
perfect conditions for fungal and insect attack. In the past, large amounts of money were spent on
flooding the surfaces of a building with some chemical concoction or other, however current
thinking dictates a rather different approach. By environmental control of the micro-climate within a
building, for example through increased ventilation and the eradication of excessive amounts of
moisture, the conditions for setting up the agents of decay are minimised.

Regular maintenance and monitoring regimes need to be in place in order to avoid or minimise
costly repairs.
Failures In Timber Beams
If abeamis loaded too heavily it will break or fail in some characteristic manner.
Thesefailuresmay be classified according to the way in which they develop, as tension,
compression, and horizontal shear; and according to the appearance of the broken surface, as
brash, and fibrous. A number of forms may develop if the beam is completely ruptured.
Since thetensile strengthof wood is on the average about three times as great as
thecompressivestrength, a beam should, therefore, be expected to fail by the formation in the
first place of a fold on the compression side due to the crushing action, followed by failure on
the tension side. This is usually the case in green or moist wood. In drymaterialthe first
visible failure is not infrequently on the lower or tension side, and various attempts have been
made to explain why such is the case.15
[Footnote 15: See Proc. Int. Assn. for Testing Materials, 1912, XXIII, pp. 12-13.]
Within the elastic limit the elongations and shortenings are equal, and the neutral plane lies in
the middle of the beam. (See page 23.) Later the top layer of fibres on the upper or
compression side fail, and on the load increasing, the next layer of fibres fail, and so on, even
though this failure may not be visible. As a result the shortenings on the upper side of the
beam become considerably greater than the elongations on the lower side. The neutral plane
must be presumed to sink gradually toward the tension side, and when the stresses on the
outer fibres at the bottom have become sufficiently great, the fibres are pulled in two, the
tension area being much smaller than the compression area. The rupture is often irregular, as
in direct tension tests. Failure may occur partially in single bundles of fibres some time
before the final failure takes place. One reason why the failure of a dry beam is different from
one that is moist, is that drying increases the stiffness of the fibres so that they offer more
resistance to crushing, while it has much less effect upon the tensile strength.
There is considerable variation in tension failures depending upon the toughness or the
brittleness of the wood, the arrangement of the grain, defects, etc., making further
classification desirable. The four most common forms are:
(1) Simple tension, in which there is a direct pulling in two of the wood on the underside of
the beam due to a tensile stress parallel to the grain, (See Fig. 17, No. 1.) This is common in
straight-grained beams, particularly when the wood is seasoned.
(2) Cross-grained tension, in which the fracture is caused by a tensile force acting oblique to
the grain. (See Fig. 17, No. 2.) This is a common form of failure where the beam has
diagonal, spiral or other form of cross grain on its lower side. Since the tensile strength of
wood across the grain is only a small fraction of that with the grain it is easy to see why a
cross-grained timber would fail in this manner.
(3) Splintering tension, in which the failure consists of a considerable number of slight
tension failures, producing a ragged or splintery break on the under surface of the beam. (See
Fig. 17, No. 3.) This is common in tough woods. In this case the surface of fracture is fibrous.
(4) Brittle tension, in which the beam fails by a clean break extending entirely through it.
(See Fig. 17, No. 4.) It is characteristic of a brittle wood which gives way suddenly without
warning, like a piece of chalk. In this case the surface of fracture is described as brash.
Compression failure (see Fig. 17, No. 5) has few variations except that it appears at various
distances from the neutral plane of the beam. It is very common in green timbers. The
compressive stress parallel to the fibres causes them to buckle or bend as in an endwise
compressive test. This action us
ually begins on the top side shortly after the elastic limit is reached and extends downward,
sometimes almost reaching the neutral plane before complete failure occurs. Frequently two
or more failures develop at about the same time.

Figure 17
Characteristic failures of simple beams.
Horizontal shear failure, in which the upper and lower portions of the beam slide along each
other for a portion of their length either at one or at both ends (see Fig. 17, No. 6), is fairly
common in air-dry material and in green material when the ratio of the height of the beam to
the span is relatively large. It is not common in small clearspecimens. It is often due
toshakeor season checks, common in large timbers, which reduce the actual area resisting the
shearing action considerably below the calculated area used in the formulæ for horizontal
shear. (See page 98 for this formulæ.) For this reason it is unsafe, in designing large timber
beams, to use shearing stresses higher than those calculated for beams that failed in
horizontal shear. The effect of a failure in horizontal shear is to divide the beam into two or
more beams the combined strength of which is much less than that of the original beam. Fig.
18 shows a large beam in which two failures in horizontal shear occurred at the same end.
That the parts behave independently is shown by the compression failure below the original
location of the neutral plane.
Figure 18
Failure of a large beam by horizontal shear. Photo by U. S,Forest Service.
Table XI gives an analysis of the causes of first failure in 840 large timber beams of nine
different species of conifers. Of the total number tested 165 were air-seasoned, the remainder
green. The failure occurring first signifies the point of greatest weakness in the specimen
under the particular conditions of loading employed (in this case, third-point static loading).

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 HISTORY

Before the close of the 11th century, the rebuilding of the Saxon churches had begun at
Canterbury, Gloucester, St. Albans, Ely, Durham and Lindisfarne. An additional 20 new sites
running from Battle to Tynemouth had also been colonised by monks. Throughout the 12th century
this continued at an increasing rate and by the mid 13th century another three hundred convents,
financed by land grants and endowments, were constructing abbeys or priories, and other ancillary
buildings.

Whilst these edifices were in their final form, invariably constructed of stone, they took years to
complete. It was therefore the job of carpenters to construct temporary chapels, accommodation
and storage facilities for the founding communities during interim periods. These highly skilled and
important craftsmen also arranged the scaffold for the masons as work on the walls progressed and
constructed the complex, load bearing formwork. Upon these, the arches and vaults could be
assembled before finally raising the framework to support the building's protective covering.
Durham Cathedral Priory Church is a good example of the length of construction for a project. It
was completed in 1133 after 40 years' work. Its cloisters, chapter-house, dormitories, kitchen
cellars and reception buildings were added later.

The growth of religious communities was mirrored in the development of new construction
techniques. Master carpenters began to develop specialised jointing techniques and explore the
mechanics of structures. By the mid 14th century, they were able to produce structures like the
internal scaffold frame for Salisbury Cathedral spire and the octagon and lantern which float above
the crossing of Ely Cathedral. The culmination of this craftsmanship occurred in 1400 with the
completion of Master Hugh Harland's 'hammerbeam' roof to the Great Hall at Westminster. Here,
he transcended the limitations of timber lengths to create the largest clear-span roof in the world
and a work of outstanding beauty.

Vernacular building, which didn't have the backing of Church and State, was slow to absorb and
react to these developments. Instead, it tended to be predominantly influenced by tradition and
local custom. 'Cruck-framing', where the roof is carried by paired curved timbers from ground level
to ridge, found predominantly in the Midlands, Mid Wales, the North and West of Britain, may
represent the survival well into the 16th century of timber framing techniques from a pre-Norman,
possibly Celtic, culture. Box framing, on the other hand, seems to have developed predominantly in
the South and East of England. The introduction of the 'cill beam', a horizontal wooden base into
which timber posts were tenoned to overcome problems associated with earth fast wall members,
was attributable to the Saxons.

The'sans-purlin' roof of the medieval hall was simple. Uniformly sized rafter couples, joined by a
collar, were held vertical by steep hips at each end, with intervening rafter spaces maintained solely
by the thatch or tile battens.

Larger roofs were given the additional support of 'scissor' or 'passing braces'. After 1350 use of a
central purlin braced to crown posts mounted on the tie beams became widespread in the
southeast and continued in use for the next 200 years.

Larger sectioned principal rafters, jointed into the tie beam to form a truss which could carry side
purlins, came into general use towards the end of the 15th century. These took the form of butt
purlins tenoned into the side of the principals or clasped purlins held between a deep collar and the
principal's inner face. In areas with a cruck tradition, these principals tended to be heavy, carrying
trenched purlins in notches on their outer faces and ridge beams at the truss apex.

The dissolution of the monasteries in the 16th century precipitated a change in building layout from
the open hall to houses more suited to occupation by a priest or member of the emerging merchant
class. These incorporated smoke bays or brick chimneys through framed floors at storey height,
with glazed casements gradually replacing the open 'wind eye' or 'wind hole'. In line with this
 development, the open hearth was slowly eliminated from the halls by the introduction of the
chimney allowing the hall to be modified by the insertion of a floor.

Release of the monastic woodlands also had its effects as the increase in available timber
promoted a period of conspicuous consumption in such practices as close studding, ornamental
panelling, heavy mouldings and decorative carving. As domestic oak stocks dwindled during the
17th century rising prices led to the importation of Baltic softwood as well as oak billets to supply
the continuing demand for cleft oak panel interiors.

The Great Fire of London in 1666 gave added impetus to the fashion for brick construction favoured
by the new architects for its greater design flexibility, and marked the beginning of a decline in the
timber frame tradition.

Architects began to look to

Europe for inspiration and
introduced from Italy the
'stressed' truss in which a 'king-
post' is suspended from the top
of the principals, picking up the
dead load weight of the tie beam
at its base. This, in combination
with the great lengths available
in the imported softwoods, gave
the ability to bridge wide spans
with roofs of low pitch. The king-
post and its variant, the 'queen-
post' truss, was much used
during the 18th century with the
Joist end tenon with diminished haunch. First use thought to be at King's College
Chapel, Cambridge, 1510-1512, where it was found on side purlins (Hewett)
addition of iron straps and
tension bolts. The circulation of
manuals giving construction details, the mechanisation of timber conversion and the sourcing of
new softwood supplies from North America brought about the 'laminated' truss. These
foreshadowed the mechanical trusses of the 19th century as solutions were sought for the roofs of
industrialised England.

Victorian Gothic had the tendency to be an applied visual effect; ornate hammerbeam forms being
suspended from more conventional roof structures or held together by iron ties. Exteriors on the
other hand, were decorated with elaborate fake half-timbering. Though carpenters remained
responsible for the framing of floors and roofs, the traditional framing of timber buildings had been
largely relegated to agricultural purposes.

The problems encountered in timber framed structures fall into three main categories: insect attack,
fungal decay and mechanical damage.

MECHANICAL FAILURE
If a building is able to rack or twist, placing individual members under excessive loads, then
mechanical failure is likely to occur. This can happen if:

i) the frame is inadequately braced

ii) foundations have moved

iii) a sill beam has deteriorated bracing

 The resulting forces of compression, tension and torsion, will eventually lead to mechanical damage
when the timbers can no longer absorb them through deflection or crush. Failure may occur in the
form of shear, joint failure; plate or post fracture; rafter spread or ultimate collapse.

More often than not such events are initiated by alterations or 'improvements' which have involved
severing structural members to accommodate inserted floors, communicating doors, additional
windows or relocated stairways. Internally, the removal of partition walls or, the installation of
services in trenches cut through floor joists, may have severely reduced the structural frame, while
beam ends encased in masonry walls can decay, allowing the beam to descend along with the floor
joists.

REPAIRS

Before timber repairs are put in hand, a drawn and measured survey of the building should be
prepared, showing:

i) the timber type, condition and dimensions

ii) surface finish or treatment

iii) position, nature of construction and assembly marks

iv) details of mouldings or decorative features

v) the exact location of any damage or distortion.

Since timber frames and roofs are designed to stand alone as a unit, it is our opinion that the repair
should be aimed at restoring that unity. Carpentry solutions may therefore be preferred to
alternative approaches - although this will often entail a degree of replacement. Under these
circumstances, 'green' or unseasoned timber may be used when the dimensions required exceed 4
- 5 inches. (Dry stock is difficult to obtain and prohibitively
costly for most applications.)

When considering the replacement of such elements as

shaped door heads, deep mouldings, large boards and
panels or wide braces, dry stable material is essential.
This is because subsequent shrinkage will cause
distortion and possible damage to adjacent fabric.

An indication of conversion methods used in producing

original members may be obtained by examination of the
cross-section. Heart/sapwood orientation is important
when considering the weathering of exposed timbers,
whilst conversion methods dictate to a large degree, the
surface finish, and at times, the final form.

For the individual trying to minimise the visual impact of a

repair, the material which is to be permanently bonded to
the original must be closely matched in type, moisture
content, surface, sectional grain pattern and colour. This Notched lap joint designed to resist withdrawal,
Coggeshall Abbey Barn, 1120-1147 (Hewett)
can easily be sourced from reclaimed material.

The glues used in bonding should be boil and waterproof (commonly two-part epoxy resins). Whilst
this may also serve as a grout for bedding or to fill fissures up to 10mm, suppliers should be
consulted regarding suitability for filling larger voids.
Where metal work is to be embedded in timber, as in flitch-plate repairs to fracture, stainless steel
should be used for both plate and fixing pins or bolts. They should be set in a grout of resin and the
entry point masked by the insertion of a timber fillet. Surface applied plates, straps or bands, may
be of mild steel but adequate protection must be provided by the application of rust inhibiting
coatings or paint, particularly, on contact surfaces.