Beowulf

Beowulf: Key facts

AUTHOR  · Unknown
GENRE  · Poem in alliterative verse; elegy; a heroic
LANGUAGE  · Anglo-Saxon (Old English)
TIME AND PLACE WRITTEN · Estimate date between 700 and 1000 A.D.; written in England
NARRATOR  · A Christian narrator telling a story of pagan times
SETTING (TIME)  · The main action of the story is set around 500 A.D.; the narrative also recounts
historical events that happened much earlier.
SETTING (PLACE)  · Denmark and Geatland (a region in what is now southern Sweden)
PROTAGONIST  · Beowulf (/ˈbeɪ.ɵwʊlf/; in Old English [ˈbeːo̯wʊlf] or [ˈbeːəwʊlf], literally "bee
wolf")

Beowulf Mortally Wounds Grendel

Now many an earl
of Beowulf brandished blade ancestral,
fain the life of their lord to shield,
their praised prince, if power were theirs;
never they knew,—as they neared the foe,
hardy-hearted heroes of war,
aiming their swords on every side
the accursed to kill,—no keenest blade,
no farest of falchions fashioned on earth,
could harm or hurt that hideous fiend!
He was safe, by his spells, from sword of battle,
from edge of iron. Yet his end and parting
on that same day of this our life
woeful should be, and his wandering soul
far off flit to the fiends' domain.
Soon he found, who in former days,
harmful in heart and hated of God,
on many a man such murder wrought,
that the frame of his body failed him now.
For him the keen-souled kinsman of Hygelac
held in hand; hateful alive
was each to other. The outlaw dire
took mortal hurt; a mighty wound
showed on his shoulder, and sinews cracked,
and the bone-frame burst. To Beowulf now
the glory was given, and Grendel thence
death-sick his den in the dark moor sought,
noisome abode: he knew too well
that here was the last of life, an end
of his days on earth.—To all the Danes
by that bloody battle the boon had come.
From ravage had rescued the roving stranger
Hrothgar's hall; the hardy and wise one
had purged it anew. His night-work pleased him,
his deed and its honor. To Eastern Danes
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had the valiant Geat his vaunt made good,
all their sorrow and ills assuaged,
their bale of battle borne so long,
and all the dole they erst endured
pain a-plenty.—'Twas proof of this,
when the hardy-in-fight a hand laid down,
arm and shoulder,—all, indeed,
of Grendel's gripe,—'neath the gabled roof.

Beowulf Kills Grendel’s Mother

'MID the battle-gear saw he a blade triumphant,
old-sword of Eotens, with edge of proof,
warriors' heirloom, weapon unmatched,
—save only 'twas more than other men
to bandy-of-battle could bear at all—
as the giants had wrought it, ready and keen.
Seized then its chain-hilt the Scyldings' chieftain,
bold and battle-grim, brandished the sword,
reckless of life, and so wrathfully smote
that it gripped her neck and grasped her hard,
her bone-rings breaking: the blade pierced through
that fated-one's flesh: to floor she sank.
Bloody the blade: he was blithe of his deed.
Then blazed forth light. 'Twas bright within
as when from the sky there shines unclouded
heaven's candle. The hall he scanned.
By the wall then went he; his weapon raised
high by its hilts the Hygelac-thane,
angry and eager. That edge was not useless
to the warrior now. He wished with speed
Grendel to guerdon for grim raids many,
for the war he waged on Western-Danes
oftener far than an only time,
when of Hrothgar's hearth-companions
he slew in slumber, in sleep devoured,
fifteen men of the folk of Danes,
and as many others outward bore,
his horrible prey. Well paid for that
the wrathful prince! For now prone he saw
Grendel stretched there, spent with war,
spoiled of life, so scathed had left him
Heorot's battle. The body sprang far
when after death it endured the blow,
sword-stroke savage, that severed its head.
Soon,[1] then, saw the sage companions
who waited with Hrothgar, watching the flood,
that the tossing waters turbid grew,
blood-stained the mere. Old men together,
hoary-haired, of the hero spake;
the warrior would not, they weened, again,
proud of conquest, come to seek
their mighty master. To many it seemed
the wolf-of-the-waves had won his life.

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The ninth hour came. The noble Scyldings
left the headland; homeward went
the gold-friend of men. But the guests sat on,
stared at the surges, sick in heart,
and wished, yet weened not, their winsome lord
again to see.
Now that sword began,
from blood of the fight, in battle-droppings,
war-blade, to wane: 'twas a wondrous thing
that all of it melted as ice is wont
when frosty fetters the Father loosens,
unwinds the wave-bonds, wielding all
seasons and times: the true God he!
Nor took from that dwelling the duke of the Geats
save only the head and that hilt withal
blazoned with jewels: the blade had melted,
burned was the bright sword, her blood was so hot,
so poisoned the hell-sprite who perished within there.
Soon he was swimming who safe saw in combat
downfall of demons; up-dove through the flood.
The clashing waters were cleansed now,
waste of waves, where the wandering fiend
her life-days left and this lapsing world.
Swam then to strand the sailors'-refuge,
sturdy-in-spirit, of sea-booty glad,
of burden brave he bore with him.
Went then to greet him, and God they thanked,
the thane-band choice of their chieftain blithe,
that safe and sound they could see him again.
Soon from the hardy one helmet and armor
deftly they doffed: now drowsed the mere,
water 'neath welkin, with war-blood stained.
an awe to clan and queen alike,
a monster of marvel: the men looked on.
[1] After the killing of the monster and Grendel's decapitation.
[2] Hrothgar.
[3] The blade slowly dissolves in blood-stained drops like icicles.
[4] Spear.

The Funeral of Beowulf

THEN fashioned for him the folk of Geats
firm on the earth a funeral-pile,
and hung it with helmets and harness of war
and breastplates bright, as the boon he asked;
and they laid amid it the mighty chieftain,
heroes mourning their master dear.
Then on the hill that hugest of balefires
the warriors wakened. Wood-smoke rose
black over blaze, and blent was the roar
of flame with weeping (the wind was still),
till the fire had broken the frame of bones,
hot at the heart. In heavy mood
their misery moaned they, their master's death.
Wailing her woe, the widow[1] old,
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her hair upbound, for Beowulf's death
sung in her sorrow, and said full oft
she dreaded the doleful days to come,
deaths enow, and doom of battle,
and shame.—The smoke by the sky was devoured.
The folk of the Weders fashioned there
on the headland a barrow broad and high,
by ocean-farers far descried:
in ten days' time their toil had raised it,
the battle-brave's beacon. Round brands of the pyre
a wall they built, the worthiest ever
that wit could prompt in their wisest men.
They placed in the barrow that precious booty,
the rounds and the rings they had reft erewhile,
hardy heroes, from hoard in cave,—
trusting the ground with treasure of earls,
gold in the earth, where ever it lies
useless to men as of yore it was.
Then about that barrow the battle-keen rode,
atheling-born, a band of twelve,
lament to make, to mourn their king,
chant their dirge, and their chieftain honor.
They praised his earlship, his acts of prowess
worthily witnessed: and well it is
that men their master-friend mightily laud,
heartily love, when hence he goes
from life in the body forlorn away.
Thus made their mourning the men of Geatland,
for their hero's passing his hearth-companions:
quoth that of all the kings of earth,
of men he was mildest and most beloved,
to his kin the kindest, keenest for praise.

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 Focus on the text:
1. When was the book written? What is the history of the existence of the manuscript?
Beowulf is an Old English epic poem consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines. It is one of the most
important and most often translated works of Old English literature. The date of composition is a matter
of contention among scholars; the only certain dating is for the manuscript, which was produced between
975 and 1025
The events in the poem take place over most of the sixth century, and feature no English
characters. Some suggest that Beowulf was first composed in the 7th century at Rendlesham in East
Anglia, as the Sutton Hoo ship-burial shows close connections with Scandinavia, and the East Anglian
royal dynasty, the Wuffingas, may have been descendants of the Geatish Wulfings.[7][8] Others have
associated this poem with the court of King Alfred the Great or with the court of King Cnut the Great.[9]
The poem blends fictional, legendary and historic elements. Although Beowulf himself is not
mentioned in any other Anglo-Saxon manuscript,[10] many of the other figures named in Beowulf appear
in Scandinavian sources. This concerns not only individuals (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf,
Eadgils and Ohthere), but also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and certain events (e.g., the
battle between Eadgils and Onela). The raid by King Hygelac into Frisia is mentioned by Gregory of
Tours in his History of the Franks and can be dated to around 521.
In Denmark, recent archaeological excavations at Lejre, where Scandinavian tradition located the
seat of the Scyldings, Heorot, have revealed that a hall was built in the mid-6th century, matching the
period described in Beowulf, some centuries before the poem was composed. Three halls, each about 50
metres (160 ft) long, were found during the excavation.
The majority view appears to be that people such as King Hroðgar and the Scyldings in Beowulf
are based on historical people from 6th-century Scandinavia. Like the Finnesburg Fragment and several
shorter surviving poems, Beowulf has consequently been used as a source of information about
Scandinavian figures such as Eadgils and Hygelac, and about continental Germanic figures such as Offa,
king of the continental Angles.
Finds from Gamla Uppsala's western mound, left, excavated in 1874, support Beowulf and the
sagas.
19th-century archaeological evidence may confirm elements of the Beowulf story. Eadgils was
buried at Uppsala (Gamla Uppsala, Sweden) according to Snorri Sturluson. When the western mound (to
the left in the photo) was excavated in 1874, the finds showed that a powerful man was buried in a large
barrow, c. 575, on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings. The eastern mound was excavated
in 1854, and contained the remains of a woman, or a woman and a young man. The middle barrow has
not been excavated.

2. What are the main sources which influenced Beowulf according to contemporary scholars?

3. Who were the most important translators of Beowulf into Contemporary English?
What were the problems connected with the translation?
You'll also notice a strange format to this poetry from the so-called Dark Ages: there's a break in
the middle of each line, called a caesura. It's not always printed with blank space as in this example but
the caesura is at least sensed in the lines. On each side of the caesura are two stressed syllables. At least
one stressed syllable in the first half of the line begins with the same sound as—that is, alliterates with—a
stressed syllable in the second half of the line. (Vowels starting words all count as having the same sound,
namely an expulsion of breath.) Different effects are accomplished by alliterating different stressed
syllables. For example, alliterating the first three syllables of the line and not the fourth will create a
different rhythm than alliterating the second and fourth syllables. That's how Old English poetry worked,
instead of using rhyme and metre like later English poetry.
Recreating this alliterative rhythm in modern English is difficult. Some translators give up
altogether and render Beowulf into prose or into a more modern verse form. Others use some features of
Old English verse, such as alliteration, but drop others, like the caesura.
Another issue with Beowulf is that Old English is inflected, which means the cases of the words—
and thus the meanings of sentences—depend on word endings. In modern English, which is generally not
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inflected, we have to use more words to say the same thing. So it is not so easy to keep the same number
of syllables in each line of the verses.
As the standard Old English work studied by Anglophone college students around the
world, Beowulf has had many translations in the two centuries it has been available. We'll mention just a
few of the editions you might come across.
Several translations appeared in the nineteenth century. The first complete translation into English
was by John Mitchell Kemble in 1837. Kemble's is a literal, prose translation, rather rough-sounding to
our ears. Benjamin Thorpe translated Beowulf in 1865 into verse with caesura, but also with very literal
meaning and erratic alliteration. James M. Garnett was the first American translator in 1882; he used the
Old English metre but again it's a rather dull alliterative translation. Better is the faithful John Lesslie
Hall translation of 1892. Many of these and others of the period can be found on the Internet as their
copyrights have long ago run out. They're all rather stiff and unimaginative though.
A more recent version, which is also freely available online, is Francis B. Gummere's translation
of 1910. Gummere retains the alliterative rhythm and caesura (albeit unmarked). It's better but still heavy
going to my ear. Check out some longer passages by Gummere to see what I mean.
The most lively translations have all appeared in the past forty or fifty years, it seems. I haven't
read the Burton Raffel rendiiton of 1963, but it has been praised for being a rather free translation into
metre roughly similar to the original.
One you are more likely to find because it is published for Penguin Classics—and the one I cut my
own teeth on—is Michael Alexander's 1973 translation. It's alliterative verse with unmarked caesura, but
relatively easy on modern ears, especially compared to earlier translations. It finds an acceptable
compromise between slavishly following the original text literally (a trap too many earlier translators fell
into) and being too creative in rewriting the lines in the modern idiom. It's been called a "taut, gritty
translation in imitative verse, influenced by Ezra Pound, of whose poetry Alexander is a scholar". I
couldn't say if the Pound connection is apt, but the work is indeed taut and gritty.
The volume that scholars seem to prefer though is Howell D. Chickering's 1977 translation into
verse with marked caesura but only occasional alliteration. Talk about terse though. This is one of the few
translations that uses almost as few words as the original. The edition includes the Old English and the
translation on facing pages.
My own favourite is the 1991 translation by American scholar, short story writer and poet
Frederick R. Rebsamen. Just compare the sample shown above, especially noting the chilling last line.
The "cold banquet" is certainly poetic license as nothing in the original spells out a feast, uncooked or
otherwise. But the poem certainly intends to indicate such barbarism and Rebsamen's choice of words
gets this across to a modern audience, while also echoing the modern expression about revenge being a
dish best served cold, bringing out that Grendel's barbarism is indeed an act of vengeance. Despite this
creativity, Rebsamen's translation is also stylistically faithful to the original poetry, retaining the proper
stresses, caesura, and alliteration.
The most popular recent translation however is by the late Seamus Heaney, a Nobel Prize-
winning poet in his own right. Heaney uses his native Irish turns of phrases in the translation and they fit
in surprisingly well (the Celtic meeting the Saxon?). He also uses conjoined words in phrases like "God-
cursed Grendel", "great-shafted spear", "the wine-hall", and "gem-studded goblet" to keep his text
compact. It comes across like the sprung rhythm of poet Gerard Manley Hopkins, quite readable but with
a coiled energy. Exciting, many readers find it.
One of Heaney's most startling innovations is in his translation of the very first word of Beowulf.
In Old English it is "Hwaet", literally meaning "what" but used as an interjection to begin a story. Many
early translators, perhaps influenced by the King James Bible, use "Lo," and then launch into their tale.
Alexander adapts the Greek translator's tradition and starts with the commanding "Attend!" Rebsamen
bravely adopts the enthusiastic "Yes!" Heaney however is the most colloquial with the even shorter "So."
Like an anecdote that begins "So, this monster walks into a bar...."
Apart from straight translations of Beowulf you will also find various retellings of the story.
Rebsamen, for instance, earlier published Beowulf Is My Name (1971), the same story as told by Beowulf
in prose. Poet David Breeden has produced an illustrated adaptation available online; here's how he
presents the passage shown above in translations:
One night, after a beer party,
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 the Danes settled in the hall
for sleep; they knew no sorrows.
The evil creature, grim and hungry,
grabbed thirty warriors
and went home laughing.
Good, fun stuff. By all means, read these. But they don't give the full Beowulf experience. For that
you need a translation, not an adaptation.
Also keep an elfish eye out for the long anticipated translation by J.R.R. Tolkien. The Lord of the
Rings author translated the complete Beowulf into prose, as well as the first quarter into verse, though it's
never been published. An announcement was made in the early 2000s that it would appear in a few years.
However the project seems to have stalled.
In any case, Tolkien gave a lecture, "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" in 1936 that is
considered to have salvaged Beowulf from historians, redeeming it as literature and greatly influencing
other modern translators. That is available, both in book form and online.

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 4. What do you know about epic poem as a genre? What stylistic devices are characteristic of
such a form? Find some examples to illustrate your statements in the text of the poem.

5. How is Beowulf structured? Give two man approaches to the structure of the poem.
Beowulf is loosely divided into three parts, each of which centers around Beowulf's fight with a
particular monster: first Grendel, then Grendel's mother, then the dragon. ... Alternatively, one might
make a division of the text into two parts, examining youth and old age as the two distinctive phases of
Beowulf's life.
Beowulf is loosely divided into three parts, each of which centers around Beowulf's fight with a
particular monster: first Grendel, then Grendel's mother, then the dragon. One can argue that this structure
relates to the theme of the epic in that each monster presents a specific moral challenge against which the
Anglo-Saxon heroic code can be measured and tested. Beowulf's fight with Grendel evokes the
importance of reputation as a means of expanding one's existence beyond death. Grendel's great and
terrifying nature ensures that Beowulf will long be celebrated for his heroic conquering of this foe. His
subsequent encounter with Grendel's mother evokes the importance of vengeance. Just as Beowulf exacts
revenge upon Grendel for killing Hrothgar's men, so too must Grendel's mother seek to purge her grief by
slaying her son's murderer. Beowulf's final encounter with the dragon evokes a heroic approach to wyrd,
or fate. Though he recognizes that his time has come and that he will thus not survive his clash with the
dragon, he bravely embraces his duty to protect his people, sacrificing his life to save them.
Alternatively, one might make a division of the text into two parts, examining youth and old age
as the two distinctive phases of Beowulf's life. Along these lines, the gap of fifty years between the first
two conflicts and the last marks the dividing line. One of the main thematic points highlighted by such a
division is the difference in responsibilities of the warrior and of the king. As a young warrior, Beowulf is
free to travel afar to protect others, but as an old king, he must commit himself to guard his own people.
Additionally, whereas Beowulf focuses on the heroic life early on, seeking to make a name for himself,
he must focus on fate and the maintenance of his reputation late in life.

6. Beowulf is set in a male-dominated world full of violence and danger. What role does
patriarchal history play in this world?
The obsession with patriarchal history manifests itself throughout Beowulf, which opens by
tracing Hrothgar's male ancestry and constantly refers to characters as the sons of their fathers. An
awareness of family lineage is one way in which the heroic code integrates itself into the warriors' most
basic sense of identity. By placing such an emphasis on who their fathers were and how their fathers
acted, the men of Beowulf bind themselves to a cycle of necessity governed by the heroic code. For
example, because Beowulf's father owed a debt of loyalty to Hrothgar, Beowulf himself owes a debt of
loyalty to Hrothgar. In this way, patriarchal history works to concretize and strengthen the warrior code in
a world full of uncertainty and fear.
One might contrast this socially accepted version of patriarchal history with the various alternative
models that the poem presents. Grendel, for example, descends from Cain, the biblical icon of familial
disloyalty, and the avenging of his death is undertaken by a female relative rather than a male one.
Examples of family discontinuity abound as well. For instance, Shield Sheafson is an orphan, and the Last
Survivor represents the end of an entire race. Beowulf is similar to both of these characters—his father
died while Beowulf was still young, and Beowulf himself dies without an heir. The anxiety about
succession focuses attention on the ties between generations. Both Hrothgar and Hygelac depend on the
loyalty of others if their sons are to inherit their respective kingships. All of these concerns help
emphasize the importance of family heritage as a cultural value

7. What role does Christianity play in Beowulf? Find examples to prove that pagan and
Christian approaches to the world are mixed in the poem.

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 The Beowulf story has its roots in a pagan Saxon past, but by the time the epic was written down,
almost all Anglo-Saxons had converted to Christianity. As a result, the Beowulf poet is at pains to resolve
his Christian beliefs with the often quite un-Christian behavior of his characters. This tension leads to
frequent asides about God, hell, and heaven—and to many allusions to the Old Testament throughout the
work. In the end, however, the conflict proves simply irresolvable. Beowulf doesn't lead a particularly
good life by Christian standards, but the poet cannot help but revere him. Though some of Beowulf's
values—such as his dedication to his people and his willingness to dole out treasure—conceivably
overlap with Christian values, he ultimately lives for the preservation of earthly glory after death, not for
entrance into heaven. Though his death in the encounter with the dragon clearly proves his mortality (and
perhaps moral fallibility), the poem itself stands as a testament to the raw greatness of his life, ensuring
his ascension into the secular heaven of warrior legend.

8. What is the proper relationship between a lord and his warriors? What examples can you
find throughout Beowulf? What kind of a leader was Hrothgar? What duty of the leader is described in
the following lines: ‘Not reckless of promise, the rings he dealt, treasure at banquet’? What can be said
about Beowulf as a leader and a king?
The Beowulf poet provides us with the picture of the ideal warrior king in his description of Scyld
Sheaf-child in the poem's opening lines:
Often Scyld Sheaf-child [or Sheaf-son] scattered his enemies,/captured their mead benches and
brought his enemies low/. . . all those peoples around his borders/over the whale-road had to obey
him,/pay him tribute.  Now, that was a good king! (ll. 4-11)
In the warrior societies of Scandinavia and Anglo-Saxon England, the relationship between a
leader and his warriors is founded on the leader's ability to create wealth, which is then distributed among
his warriors and creates a loyalty based on strength and generosity.  The key to this relationship is
encapsulated in the phrase "pay him tribute" above--in other words, Scyld inspires such fear in other
tribes that they are willing to pay him to leave them alone.  This tribute then becomes the mechanism by
which the bond between Scyld and his warriors is sealed.  This relationship--based on power and money
or land--is the precursor of feudalism in the Middle Ages.
When Hrothgar and his mead-hall, Heorot, are first described, the poet describes more fully how
the relationship between a warrior-king and his people is created and made permanent:
. . . and there within [that is, in Heorot] [Hrothgar] gave away anything/to young and old, as God
had given to him,/but common lands or the lives of people. (ll. 71-73)
As a good leader, obviously successful in war, Hrothgar distributes his wealth to "both young and
old," thereby creating a relationship between himself and all his subjects, not just his group of warriors.
The poet also tells us that Hrothgar gave away neither common land, which means land used by the whole
tribe, nor "the lives of people," perhaps an indication that Hrothgar did not consider those whom he had
captured in war to be property.  Because the Beowulf poet is most likely a Christian monk writing in the
7th or 8th centuries, he is careful to depict Hrothgar as a king who did not traffic in slaves.  We know that
slaves, often those who were captured in battle, were a valuable commodity in these societies. 
At its most fundamental level, then, the relationship between a warrior-king and his warriors is
based on the leader's power, his ability to inspire fear in his opponents, and his generosity to his warriors
and, more widely, to his people.  Wealth and power are the goals in a warrior society, and all relationships
are founded on the ability to obtain wealth and distribute that wealth freely to those upon whom a leader
must rely to obtain more wealth or land or, in rare cases, a lasting peace, as Beowulf did for the Geats.

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 Hrothgar enjoys military success and prosperity until Grendel terrorizes his realm. A wise and
aged ruler, Hrothgar represents a different kind of leadership from that exhibited by the youthful warrior
Beowulf. He is a father figure to Beowulf and a model for the kind of king that Beowulf becomes.
For his part, Beowulf, through his heroic exploits, is an abundant fountain of treasure during his
years as the leader of his warrior band, and as king of the Geats he is a renowned ring-giver. Through his
own strength and in his capacity as role model, Beowulf ensures that his band and tribe achieve their
goals.

9. Why did Hrothgar decide to build a “master mead-house”? What role does the mead-hall
play in Anglo-Saxon warrior culture? Why was the Hall called ‘Heorot’?
Hrothgar was such a great warrior that men were eager to fight alongside him. His army grew
large. He decided to build an enormous hall, the largest anyone had ever seen.
A mead-hall is a gathering place for the warriors of the Anglo-Saxon culture. The warriors would
drink mead, a honey based alcoholic drink, celebrate victories, and listen to stories that had been passed
down. The mead-hall was also off-limits to women. Only men were allowed to gather there. This is when
the warriors would share their stories and boast of what they have done. In literature the mead hall
represented more than just a gathering place. It was a place of security and safety, it represented the light
in the darkness of their culture.
What is a mead-hall? Mead halls were built as early as the 400's (CE). They were built narrow and
long with two doors, one on each end. This style of architecture is now referred to as "bow-sided". Within
the halls there would long benches, often glossed in fine woods or sometimes even gold, and matching
tables. The men would use these benches for feasts and drinking. Sometimes, the men would even sleep
there.
Further Architecture In the middle of the Mead Hall there would be a fire pit made for roasting
and warmth. In the story Heorot it is described with high towers and gables. Because of this Heorot is
often compared to Scandinavian Stave Churches.
The name Heorot may stem from an association between royalty and stags in Germanic paganism.
Archaeologists have unearthed a variety of Anglo-Saxon finds associating stags with royalty.

10. Why did Beowulf and his warriors go to Hrothgar’s place?

Beowulf goes to help Hrothgar because Hrothgar helped Beowulf's father when Beowulf was a
baby. -After Beowulf was born his father got into a war with another tribe's warrior. The other warrior
was killed by Ecgtheow (Beowulf's father).

11. What does a reader learn about Grendel and his life?
The answer to this question can be found after the first narration of Grendel's attacking the mead
hall of Hrothgar and the chaos he thus causes, which of course oppresses Hrothgar and his people and
makes them fear that they will never be able to be free of Grendel's tyranny and grip of fear over their
lives. We are told, however, that news of this situation is brought to King Hygelac of the Geats by Danish
sailors:
This heard in his home Hygelac's thane,
great among Geats, of Grendel's doings.
It is Hygelac's nephew, Beowulf, who chooses to respond to the implicit challenge of such news
by going to Hrothgar's aid with some loyal men and challenging Grendel. Beowulf has already made
himself famous for monster-killing and for his impressive feats of strength, and so obviously relishes the
chance to test his skill and gain fame by slaying Grendel.
Beowulf learns about Grendel through word of mouth, as news reports of the trials and tribulations
facing Hrothgar and his people have traveled abroad. The reader first learns of Grendel and his appetite
for death and destruction in the early part of the epic poem, and the shocking descriptions of Grendel's
violence are full of powerfully gruesome details and bloody scenes; the reader can easily imagine the
terrifying news traveling quickly through the land as other communities learn of the threat of Grendel and
perhaps attempt to prepare themselves for similar tragedy should a creature of Grendel's power appear in
their own midst. Beowulf responds to the news not with understandable fear, but with determination; he

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immediately sees an opportunity to be a hero and travels across the seas to confront the evil force of
Grendel himself.

12. What was the outcome of the battle between Beowulf and Grendel?

13. Where did Grendel’s Mother live? Why did Beowulf go there?

14. What did Beowulf find in the witch’s cave? Who made this precious object?

15. What did Beowulf do after the fight with Grandel’s mother? What happened to the sword
he used in the battle?

16. Who waited for the return of Beowulf next to the lake? Who stayed to the very end and
who left? Explain the motives of both groups of people.

17. Under what circumstances did the dragon attack the people of Beowulf?

18. What happened during the fight between Beowulf and the dragon?

19. Describe Beowulf’s funerals with your own words. There is one more description of the
funerals in the text. Whose funerals are described and in what way are the rites different?

Stylistic analysis:

1. Beowulf, like almost all Anglo-Saxon poetry, is written with a great deal of alliteration. What is
called Alliteration? As an example of alliteration, examine the following phrase:

“A foundling was he when he first lay friendless; fate later brought

him solace as he waxed in power and flourished in wealth, until folk
who lodge on the whale-paths near and far heeded his decree and
gave him tribute—that was a good king!”

2. A pause, or cæsura, was inserted in the middle of each line of poetry, dividing the line into two parts.
The words that were most strongly pronounced or given emphasis in the line were usually the
alliterated words. In original transcripts of the poem this is marked by a space while in the translation
it is represented by a comma. Find examples in the text where the original caesura was reproduced
with a comma, colon, semi-colon or full stop.
3. The Anglo-Saxon language of Beowulf is filled with compound words called kennings. Here are
some kennings for Hrothgar:
shield of the Danes/of the people
helmet/crown of the Danes
friend of the Scyldings
son of Healfdene
chief of Ing's descendants
lord of the Ingwines
white-haired gold-friend of men
What kennings are used for: Beowulf….., Grendel…., Grendel’s mother…., sword….?
What characteristics of Beowulf the kennings for him emphasize?

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