C ONTENTS

Preface xix Topic of Special Interest: Thermal

Comfort 48
Summary 55
CHAPTER ONE References and Suggested Reading  56
Problems 56
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS 1
CHAPTER TWO
1–1 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer  2
Application Areas of Heat Transfer  3 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION  75
Historical Background  3

1–2 Engineering Heat Transfer  4 2–1 Introduction 76

Modeling in Engineering  5
1–3 Heat and Other Forms of Energy  6
Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids  7
Energy Transfer  9
1–4 The First Law of Thermodynamics  11
Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass) 12
Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems  12
Surface Energy Balance  13
1–5 Heat Transfer Mechanisms  16
1–6 Conduction 17
Thermal Conductivity  18
Thermal Diffusivity  22
1–7 Convection 25
1–8 Radiation 27
1–9 Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms  29
1–10 Aerogel—A Remarkable Superinsulating
Material 34
1–11 Prevention Through Design  36
1–12 Engineering Codes and Standards  39
1–13 Problem-Solving Technique  41
Step 1: Problem Statement  41
Step 2: Schematic  41
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations  42
Step 4: Physical Laws  42
Step 5: Properties  42
Step 6: Calculations  42
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion  42
1–14 Engineering Software Packages  43
Equation Solvers  44
1–15 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits  45
Steady Versus Transient Heat Transfer  77
Multidimensional Heat Transfer  78
Heat Generation  80
2–2 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation 81
Heat Conduction Equation in a Large
Plane Wall  81
Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder  83
Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere  84
Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation 85
2–3 General Heat Conduction Equation  87
Rectangular Coordinates  87
Cylindrical Coordinates  89
Spherical Coordinates  89
2–4 Boundary and Initial Conditions  90
1  Specified Temperature Boundary Condition  92
2  Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition  92
Special Case: Insulated Boundary  93
Another Special Case: Thermal Symmetry  93
3  Convection Boundary Condition  94
4  Radiation Boundary Condition  96
5  Interface Boundary Conditions  97
6  Generalized Boundary Conditions  97
2–5 Solution of Steady One-Dimensional Heat
Conduction Problems  99
2–6 Heat Generation in a Solid  112
2–7 Variable Thermal Conductivity, k(T ) 120
Topic of Special Interest: A Brief Review of
Differential Equations  123
Summary 129
References and Suggested Readings  130
Problems 130
 xii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER THREE
STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION  151
3–1 Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Walls  152
Thermal Resistance Concept  153
Thermal Resistance Network  155
Multilayer Plane Walls  157
3–2 Thermal Contact Resistance  162
3–3 Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks  167
3–4 Heat Conduction in Cylinders and Spheres  169
Multilayered Cylinders and Spheres  172
3–5 Critical Radius of Insulation  176
3–6 Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces  179
Fin Equation  180
1  Infinitely Long Fin (​​T​fin tip​​  = ​T​∞​​)​  182
2 Negligible Heat Loss from the Fin Tip
·
​​​  ​​​​ fin tip​​  =  0​)  183
(Adiabatic fin tip, Q
3  Specified Temperature (​​Tfin, tip
4  Convection from Fin Tip  184
Fin Efficiency  185
Fin Effectiveness  187
Proper Length of a Fin  190
3–7 Bioheat Transfer Equation  196
3–8 Heat Transfer in Common Configurations  201
Topic of Special Interest: Heat Transfer Through
Walls and Roofs  206
Summary 216
References and Suggested Reading  218
Problems 218
CHAPTER FOUR
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION  249
4–1 Lumped System Analysis  250
Criteria for Lumped System Analysis  251
Some Remarks on Heat Transfer in Lumped Systems  253
4–2 Transient Heat Conduction in Large Plane
Walls, Long Cylinders, and Spheres with Spatial
Effects 256
Nondimensionalized One-Dimensional Transient
Conduction Problem  257
Exact Solution of One-Dimensional Transient Conduction
Problem 259
Approximate Analytical Solutions  262
4–3 Transient Heat Conduction in Semi-Infinite
Solids 269
Contact of Two Semi-Infinite Solids  273
4–4 Transient Heat Conduction in Multidimensional
Systems 278
Topic of Special Interest: Refrigeration and
Freezing of Foods  283
Summary 294
References and Suggested Reading  296
Problems 296
CHAPTER FIVE
NUMERICAL METHODS IN HEAT
CONDUCTION 315
5–1 Why Numerical Methods?  316
1 Limitations 317
2 Better Modeling 317
3 Flexibility 318
4 Complications 318
​ ​​  = ​TL​ ​​)​  183 5 Human Nature 318
5–2 Finite Difference Formulation of Differential
Equations 319
5–3 One-Dimensional Steady Heat Conduction  322
Boundary Conditions  324
Treating Insulated Boundary Nodes as Interior Nodes: The
Mirror Image Concept  326
5–4 Two-Dimensional Steady Heat Conduction  333
Boundary Nodes  334
Irregular Boundaries  338
5–5 Transient Heat Conduction  342
Transient Heat Conduction in a Plane Wall  344
Stability Criterion for Explicit Method: Limitation on Δt 346
Two-Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction  355
Topic of Special Interest: Controlling the
Numerical Error  360
Summary 363
References and Suggested Reading  364
Problems 365
CHAPTER SIX
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION  391
6–1 Physical Mechanism of Convection  392
Nusselt Number  394
6–2 Classification of Fluid Flows  396
Viscous Versus Inviscid Regions of Flow  396
Internal Versus External Flow  396
Compressible Versus Incompressible Flow  396
Laminar Versus Turbulent Flow  397
 xiii
CONTENTS
Natural (or Unforced) Versus Forced Flow  397 7–4 Flow Across Tube Banks  462
Steady Versus Unsteady Flow  397 Pressure Drop  465
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows  398
Summary 469
6–3 Velocity Boundary Layer  399 References and Suggested Reading  470
Wall Shear Stress  400 Problems 471
6–4 Thermal Boundary Layer  401
Prandtl Number  402

6–5 Laminar and Turbulent Flows  402

CHAPTER EIGHT
Reynolds Number  403 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION  491
6–6 Heat and Momentum Transfer in Turbulent
Flow 404 8–1 Introduction 492
6–7 Derivation of Differential Convection 8–2 Average Velocity and Temperature  493
Equations 406 Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes  494
The Continuity Equation  407 8–3 The Entrance Region  495
The Momentum Equations  407 Entry Lengths  497
Conservation of Energy Equation  409
8–4 General Thermal Analysis  498
6–8 Solutions of Convection Equations for a Flat Constant Surface Heat Flux (​​​q• ​​s​​  ​​  =  constant)​  499
Plate 413 Constant Surface Temperature ​(T ​ ​s​​  =  constant)​  500
The Energy Equation  415
8–5 Laminar Flow in Tubes  503
6–9 Nondimensionalized Convection Equations and Pressure Drop  505
Similarity 417 Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number  507
Constant Surface Heat Flux  507
6–10 Functional Forms of Friction and Convection Constant Surface Temperature  508
Coefficients 419 Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes  509
Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region  510
6–11 Analogies Between Momentum and Heat
Transfer 420 8–6 Turbulent Flow in Tubes  514
Fully Developed Transitional Flow Heat Transfer  515
Topic of Special Interest: Microscale Heat Rough Surfaces  516
Transfer 423 Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region  518
Summary 426 Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes  518
References and Suggested Reading  427 Flow Through Tube Annulus  518
Problems 428 Heat Transfer Enhancement  519
Topic of Special Interest: Transitional
Flow in Tubes  526
CHAPTER SEVEN Summary 538
References and Suggested Reading  539
EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION  439 Problems 540

7–1 Drag and Heat Transfer in External Flow  440

Friction and Pressure Drag  440
Heat Transfer  442
CHAPTER NINE
7–2 Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates  443 NATURAL CONVECTION  555
Friction Coefficient  444
Heat Transfer Coefficient  445 9–1 Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection  556
Flat Plate with Unheated Starting Length  447
Uniform Heat Flux  448 9–2 Equation of Motion and the Grashof
General Solutions for Simultaneously Moving Plates and Number 559
Fluids 448 The Grashof Number  561

7–3 Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres  454 9–3 Natural Convection Over Surfaces  562
Effect of Surface Roughness  456 Vertical Plates ​(Ts =  constant)​  563
Heat Transfer Coefficient  458 Vertical Plates ​(​q· ​s  =  constant)​  563
 xiv
CONTENTS

Vertical Cylinders  565 10–6 Film Condensation Inside Horizontal

Inclined Plates  565
Tubes 651
Horizontal Plates  566
Horizontal Cylinders and Spheres  566 10–7 Dropwise Condensation  653
9–4 Natural Convection from Finned Surfaces and Topic of Special Interest: Non-Boiling
PCBs 570 Two-Phase Flow Heat Transfer  655
Natural Convection Cooling of Finned Surfaces
Summary 662
(Ts = constant)  570
References and Suggested Readings  664
Natural Convection Cooling of Vertical PCBs
Problems 664
​(​q· ​s  =  constant)​  571
Mass Flow Rate Through the Space Between Plates  572

9–5 Natural Convection Inside Enclosures  574

Effective Thermal Conductivity  575 CHAPTER ELEVEN
Horizontal Rectangular Enclosures  575
Inclined Rectangular Enclosures  576 HEAT EXCHANGERS  677
Vertical Rectangular Enclosures  577
Concentric Cylinders  577 11–1 Types of Heat Exchangers  678
Concentric Spheres  578
Combined Natural Convection and Radiation  578 11–2 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient  681
Fouling Factor  684
9–6 Combined Natural and Forced Convection  584
11–3 Analysis of Heat Exchangers  688
Topic of Special Interest: Heat Transfer
Through Windows  589 11–4 The Log Mean Temperature Difference
Summary 600
Method 690
Counterflow Heat Exchangers  692
References and Suggested Reading  601
Multipass and Crossflow Heat Exchangers: Use of a
Problems 602
Correction Factor  693

11–5 The Effectiveness–NTU Method  700

CHAPTER TEN 11–6 Selection of Heat Exchangers  714
Heat Transfer Rate  715
BOILING AND CONDENSATION  623 Cost 715
Pumping Power  715
10–1 Boiling Heat Transfer  624 Size and Weight  716
Type 716
10–2 Pool Boiling  626 Materials 716
Boiling Regimes and the Boiling Curve  626 Other Considerations  716
Natural Convection Boiling (to Point A on the Boiling
Curve) 626 Topic of Special Interest: The Human
Nucleate Boiling (Between Points A and C) 627 Cardiovascular System as a Countercurrent
Transition Boiling (Between Points C and D) 628 Heat Exchanger  718
Film Boiling (Beyond Point D) 628
Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling  629 Summary 725
Nucleate Boiling  629 References and Suggested Reading  726
Peak Heat Flux  630 Problems 726
Minimum Heat Flux  632
Film Boiling  632
Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Pool Boiling  633
C H A P T E R T W E LV E
10–3 Flow Boiling  637
FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL
10–4 Condensation Heat Transfer  638
RADIATION 747
10–5 Film Condensation  639
Flow Regimes  641
Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation  641 12–1 Introduction 748
Effect of Vapor Velocity  647 12–2 Thermal Radiation  749
The Presence of Noncondensable Gases in
Condensers 647 12–3 Blackbody Radiation  751
 xv
CONTENTS

12–4 Radiation Intensity  758 Summary 847

Solid Angle  758 References and Suggested Reading  848
Intensity of Emitted Radiation  759 Problems 849
Incident Radiation  761
Radiosity 761
Spectral Quantities  761 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
12–5 Radiative Properties  764 MASS TRANSFER  871
Emissivity 764
Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity  768
Kirchhoff’s Law  771 14–1 Introduction 872
The Greenhouse Effect  774 14–2 Analogy Between Heat and Mass
12–6 Atmospheric and Solar Radiation  774 Transfer 873
Temperature 874
Topic of Special Interest: Solar Heat Gain Conduction 874
Through Windows  779 Heat Generation  874
Summary 786 Convection 875
References and Suggested Reading  787 14–3 Mass Diffusion  875
Problems 788 1 Mass Basis  875
2 Mole Basis  876
Special Case: Ideal Gas Mixtures  877
Fick’s Law of Diffusion: Stationary Medium
CHAPTER THIRTEEN Consisting of Two Species  877

RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER  799 14–4 Boundary Conditions  881

13–1 The View Factor  800
13–2 View Factor Relations  804
1  The Reciprocity Relation  807
2  The Summation Rule  807
3  The Superposition Rule  809
4  The Symmetry Rule  810
View Factors Between Infinitely Long Surfaces: The
Crossed-Strings Method  812
13–3 Radiation Heat Transfer: Black Surfaces  814
13–4 Radiation Heat Transfer: Diffuse, Gray
Surfaces 816
Radiosity 816
Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface  817
Net Radiation Heat Transfer Between Any Two
Surfaces 818
Methods of Solving Radiation Problems  819
Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures  820
Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures  822
13–5 Radiation Shields and the Radiation
Effects 828
Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements  830
13–6 Radiation Exchange with Emitting and
Absorbing Gases  834
Radiation Properties of a Participating Medium  835
Emissivity and Absorptivity of Gases and Gas
Mixtures 836
Topic of Special Interest: Heat Transfer
from the Human Body  843
14–5 Steady Mass Diffusion Through a
Wall 886
14–6 Water Vapor Migration in Buildings  890
14–7 Transient Mass Diffusion  895
14–8 Diffusion in a Moving Medium  897
Special Case: Gas Mixtures at Constant Pressure and
Temperature 901
Diffusion of Vapor Through a Stationary Gas: Stefan
Flow 902
Equimolar Counterdiffusion  904
14–9 Mass Convection  909
Analogy Between Friction, Heat Transfer, and Mass
Transfer Coefficients  913
Special Case: Pr ≈ Sc ≈ 1 (Reynolds Analogy)  913
General Case: Pr ≠ Sc ≠ 1 (Chilton–Colburn
Analogy) 914
Limitation on the Heat–Mass Convection
Analogy 915
Mass Convection Relations  915
14–10 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer  919
Summary 924
References and Suggested Reading  926
Problems 926
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
(Online Chapter)
 xvi
CONTENTS
15–1 Introduction and History
15–2 Manufacturing of Electronic Equipment
15–3 Cooling Load of Electronic Equipment
15–4 Thermal Environment
15–5 Electronics Cooling in Different Applications
15–6 Conduction Cooling
15–7 Air Cooling: Natural Convection and Radiation
15–8 Air Cooling: Forced Convection
15–9 Liquid Cooling
15–10 Immersion Cooling
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
HEATING AND COOLING OF BUILDINGS
(Online Chapter)
16–1 A Brief History
16–2 Human Body and Thermal Comfort
16–3 Heat Transfer from the Human Body
16–4 Design Conditions for Heating and Cooling
16–5 Heat Gain from People, Lights, and Appliances
16–6 Heat Transfer through Walls and Roofs
16–7 Heat Loss from Basement Walls and Floors
16–8 Heat Transfer through Windows
16–9 Solar Heat Gain through Windows
16–10 Infiltration Heat Load and Weatherizing
16–11 Annual Energy Consumption
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
REFRIGERATION AND FREEZING OF
FOODS (Online Chapter)
17–1 Control of Microorganisms in Foods
17–2 Refrigeration and Freezing of Foods
17–3 Thermal Properties of Food
17–4 Refrigeration of Fruits and Vegetables
17–5 Refrigeration of Meats, Poultry, and Fish
17–6 Refrigeration of Eggs, Milk, and Bakery
Products
17–7 Refrigeration Load of Cold Storage Rooms
17–8 Transportation of Refrigerated Foods
Summary
References and Suggested Reading
Problems
APPENDIX 1
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS
(SI UNITS)  945
Table A–1 Molar mass, gas constant, and
ideal-gas specific heats of some
substances 946
Table A–2 Boiling and freezing point
properties 947
Table A–3 Properties of solid metals  948
Table A–4 Properties of solid nonmetals  951
Table A–5 Properties of building materials  952
Table A–6 Properties of insulating
materials 954
Table A–7 Properties of common foods  955
Table A–8 Properties of miscellaneous
materials 957
Table A–9 Properties of saturated water  958
Table A–10 Properties of saturated
refrigerant-134a 959
Table A–11 Properties of saturated ammonia  960
Table A–12 Properties of saturated propane  961
Table A–13 Properties of liquids  962
Table A–14 Properties of liquid metals  963
Table A–15 Properties of air at 1 atm
pressure 964
Table A–16 Properties of gases at 1 atm
pressure 965
Table A–17 Properties of the atmosphere at high
altitude 967
Table A–18 Emissivities of surfaces  968

Table A–19 Solar radiative properties of
materials 970
FIGURE A–20 The Moody chart for the friction
­factor for fully developed flow in cir-
cular pipes  971
APPENDIX 2
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS
(ENGLISH UNITS)  973
Table A–1E Molar mass, gas constant, and ideal-gas
specific heats of some substances  974
Table A–2E Boiling and freezing point
properties 975
Table A–3E Properties of solid metals  976
Table A–4E Properties of solid nonmentals  978
Table A–5E Properties of building materials  979
Table A–6E Properties of insulating materials  981
xvii
CONTENTS
Table A–7E Properties of common foods  982
Table A–8E Properties of miscellaneous
materials 984
Table A–9E Properties of saturated water  985
Table A–10E Properties of saturated
refrigerant-134a 986
Table A–11E Properties of saturated ammonia  987
Table A–12E Properties of saturated propane  988
Table A–13E Properties of liquids  989
Table A–14E Properties of liquid metals  990
Table A–15E Properties of air at 1 atm pressure  991
Table A–16E Properties of gases at 1 atm
pressure 992
Table A–17E Properties of the atmosphere at high
altitude 994
Index 995
Nomenclature 1015
Conversion Factors  1017