Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Introduction of a simple diagram-based method

for analyzing evaporative cooling
Renato M. Lazzarin *

Department of Management and Engineering, University of Padova, Padova, Italy

Dipartimento di Tecnica e Gestione dei Sistemi industriali, Università di Padova, Stradella S. Nicola, 3, 36100 Vicenza, Italy

Received 28 November 2006; accepted 8 December 2006

Available online 8 January 2007

Abstract

Direct evaporative cooling can be profitable in hot arid climates, whereas favourable situations are not frequent in temperate zones.
First the climate limits to direct operation are set on the psychrometric diagram. Then an alternative process is considered that can pro-
vide free cooling via evaporation for a lot of climatic conditions not particularly dry and very common in temperate climate: indirect
evaporative cooling. Air is cooled in an adiabatic humidification process, and then in turn the same air is used to reduce – via a heat
exchanger – the temperature of a second stream of air, whose moisture content consequently remains unchanged. The cooling effect
is particularly strong when the air to be humidified is the ambient air being discharged.
The potential of indirect evaporative cooling in analysed in every climatic condition, dividing the Mollier psychrometric diagram in
different zones where the use of this free cooling techniques is advisable or not.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Free cooling; Evaporative cooling

1. Introduction increases, while the sensible portion decreases. For an essen-

The more and more urgent requirement of energy saving
in air-conditioning demands a careful consideration of all
the free-cooling techniques [1,2]. Among them evaporative
cooling can play an important role, a technique known
since ancient times. In fact the cooling effect produced by
the evaporation of water from containers with permeable
walls, such as the wineskins or unglazed terracotta vases,
has always been exploited: the small quantity of water that
perspires through the porous barrier when evaporating
maintains the rest of the container at a temperature that
when stable is near the wet bulb temperature of the outside
air.
As it is well known, all humidification systems that use
liquids involve an exchange between the latent heat and
the sensible heat in the air stream: the latent portion
*
Tel.: +39 0444998733; fax: +39 0444998888.
E-mail address: renato@gest.unipd.it
tially unvaried enthalpy, the specific humidity increases and
the temperature decreases. The extent of this exchange obvi-
ously depends on the starting temperature and humidity: if
already near saturation, this being the upper limit for the
humidification process, there will only be a slight lowering
of the temperature, whereas the temperature reduction
can be really appreciable if the starting point is very dry
and hot air. Here is the strong influence of the climate on
the possible advantages of evaporative cooling.
Starting from pre-defined conditions 1 (enthalpy h1,
temperature t1, specific humidity x1, etc.) the air is humid-
ified adiabatically (obviously, only liquid humidification
will produce a cooling effect); the conditions that can be
achieved are limited by the saturation curve, while also
considering that the saturation efficiency of the humidifier
further limits the attainable values.
Indicating the point achieved after humidification as 2
(enthalpy h2, temperature t2, specific humidity x2, etc.),
the specific cooling energy, that is, the effect attainable for

1359-4311/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2006.12.011
2012 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025

Nomenclature

cpa specific heat at constant pressure – kJ/(kg K) db dry bulb

COP thermal efficiency – non-dim. dp relating to the dew point
G mass flow – kg/s, kg/h E relating to the flow-rate of outside air
p pressure – Pa F relating to the flow-rate of outside air after di-
Patm atmospheric pressure – bar, Pa rect evaporative cooling
q heating capacity – kJ/s, kW fc relating to freecooling
r heat of vaporisation – kJ/kg I relating to the flow-rate of air introduced into
t temperature – C the room
W volumetric flow-rate – m3/h i relating to the inlet
x specific humidity – kgv/kga, gv/kga lat latent
a ratio between flow-rate of discharged air and lim limit value
flow-rate of outside air – non-dim. max maximum
/ relative humidity – non-dim. min minimum
g saturation efficiency of the adiabatic humidifier – O relating to the flow-rate of air discharged from
non-dim. the exhaust outlet
q density – kg/m3 o relating to the outlet
n efficiency of the heat exchanger – non-dim. sens sensible
sp specific
Suffixes tot total
1 relating to state 1 U relating to the conditions of the air after humid-
2 relating to state 2 ification
a relating to air v relating to vapour
A ambient or relating to the flow-rate of air taken vent relating to ventilation, that is, the minimum
in from the environment flow-rate of outside air (required for renewal)
C relating to the flow-rate of air discharged after wb relating to wet bulb conditions
adiabatic humidification X relating to the flow-rate of outside air down-
cool relating to cooling stream of the heat exchanger

each kg of treated air, is calculated simply using the
formula:
qsp ¼ g  rv  ðx2  x1 Þ  g  cpa  ðt2  t1 Þ ð1Þ
where g is the saturation efficiency, rv is the heat of vapori-
sation of the water and cpa is the specific heat of the dry air;
note that the value of qsp is negative, indicating a subtrac-
tion of energy.
Fig. 1 shows a diagram for the specific cooling energy
and the lowering of the temperature of a stream of adiabat-
ically humidified air according to the starting temperature
and relative humidity, assuming an efficiency g = 100%;
otherwise, simply multiply the resulting values by the
actual efficiency.
This cooling effect may be useful in the context of room
air-conditioning through both the direct humidification of
the air introduced in the room, possible in very dry cli-
mates, and indirect cooling.
The latter occurs by cooling air in an adiabatic humidi-
fication process, and then in turn using the same air to
reduce – via a heat exchanger – the temperature of a second
stream of air, whose moisture content consequently
remains unchanged. Let us consider first the criteria of a
convenient free cooling by direct evaporation in connection
with the parameters regarding building load and the plant.
2. Direct evaporative cooling
The evaporative cooling of the fresh air intake may be
useful if the enthalpy of the outside air is lower than the
value required in the air-conditioned environment and, at
the same time, the specific humidity is sufficiently lower
than that of the air-conditioned environment, so as to be
able to easily satisfy the indoor latent loads [3–10].
To clarify the latter point, imagine that the environment
in question has a latent load Gv (kgv/s), for example due to
the presence of a certain number of people; knowing the
mass flow of fresh air Gvent (kgair/s), the specific latent load
Dxsp (kgv/kgair) can be defined as
Gv
Dxsp ¼ ð2Þ
Gvent
According to the type of building and/or the activities car-
ried out there, the latent loads and the recommended flow-
rates of fresh air per person can be calculated. A value for
the specific latent load representative for many usual situa-
tions may be 0.0025 kgv/kgair.
A total air flow-rate of GI can be introduced into the air-
conditioned environment, made up of partly recirculated
air and partly fresh outside air GE, the flow-rate of which
 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025 2013

Fig. 1. Specific cooling energy (a) and lowering of the temperature (final temperature t2 – initial temperature t1) obtainable by adiabatically humidifying
air, with a saturation efficiency g = 100%, according to the initial temperature (t1) and relative humidity (/1).

must be at least equal to the minimum air renewal flow-rate If, on the other hand
Gvent required based on the needs of the environment.
xA  xE < Dxsp ð5Þ
In free cooling systems such as the one described here,
the flow-rate of outside air GE may increase until reaching it will be of profit to progressively increase the flow-rate of
the value of the entire introduced flow-rate GI. This can be fresh air GE from the minimum value Gvent, obviously
done not only with variable volume systems, but also with reaching the maximum limit at the total flow-rate GI. If
constant volume systems, by modifying the amount of the obtained value is less than the indoor latent load Gv,
recirculated air using motor-driven dampers (Fig. 2). These dehumidification will be necessary; if, on the other hand,
can increase the amount of outdoor air from a minimum it is higher, the flow-rate of fresh air may be modulated
renewal flow-rate to the maximum total inlet flow-rate. so as to ensure equilibrium [11]:
Assuming that the specific humidity xE of the outside air
GE  ðxA  xE Þ ¼ Gv ð6Þ
is lower than the ambient specific humidity xA, the flow-
rate GE introduces a negative latent load, with an absolute this, applying (2), occurs when the flow-rate of outside air
value of is equal to
Dxsp
GE  ðxA  xE Þ ð3Þ GE ¼ Gvent  ð7Þ
xA  xE
If the difference (xA  xE) between the inside and the out-
side specific humidity is greater than the specific latent load 3. Comparison of temperatures
Dxsp, the minimum air renewal flow-rate Gvent will be more
than sufficient to compensate for the indoor latent load Gv At a first glance, freecooling seems advantageous only
as for outside air temperatures lower than the ambient tem-
perature: tE < tA using the maximum flow-rate for small
Gvent  ðxA  xE Þ > Gvent  Dxsp ¼ Gv ð4Þ differences in temperature, reducing it when the outside

Fig. 2. System diagram with motor-driven dampers to adjust the recirculation of air in favour of renewal air.
2014 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025
Fig. 3. Sub-division of the psychrometric chart according to the comparison between the outside temperature tE, the ambient temperature tA and the
delivery temperature tI considering the limit tE,lim beyond which heating is required.
air temperature is lower than the envisaged delivery tem-
perature tI, and then gradually reducing it further to avoid
having to heat the room.
Indoor thermal loads are often such as to require cool-
ing even when the outside temperature is lower than the
desired indoor temperature due to the presence of impor-
tant gains from people to electric appliances, and so on.
These exploit the possibility to reduce the energy required
from the refrigeration system by letting in a suitable quan-
tity of outside air, varying from a minimum value, equal to
the required renewal flow-rate to a maximum value equal
to the total inlet flow-rate.
The required flow-rate is calculated based on the
enthalpy contribution, equal to the sensible value required
by the load:
GI cpa ðtA  tI Þ
Therefore,
ðtA  tI Þ
GE ¼ GI 
ðtA  tE Þ
if tE < tI
In fact, if tE = tI, delivering the entire flow-rate GI of
outside air would satisfy the loads completely, for free.
For lower outside air temperatures, the flow-rate is gradu-
ally reduced until reaching the lower limit, equal to the
minimum air renewal requirements.
When the temperature of the outside air is at a certain
value, defined as tE,lim, the ambient thermal load is com-
pensated by taking in a flow-rate of outside air equal to
Gvent, that is, the minimum required to refresh the room;
the value of this temperature is calculated using the
formula:
GI
tE;lim ¼ tA   ðtA  tI Þ ð9Þ
Gvent
When the outside air temperature is lower than this value,
the desired indoor temperature cannot be maintained with-
out heating (Fig. 3).
4. Comparison of enthalpies
Operating only on a temperature basis does not consider
the aspects relating to humidity, and therefore it may be
tempting to introduce large quantities of outside air simply
because its temperature is lower than the room tempera-
ture; however, when the specific humidity of the outside
air is higher than the indoor specific humidity, as in the
zone indicated as V in Fig. 4, this increases the latent loads.
It should be said, however, that often the simplicity in
measuring the temperature values prevails over these prob-
lems, and free cooling systems are developed based simply
ð8Þ
on the comparison of the dry bulb temperatures and the
sensible load. Precise control of the indoor temperature
and humidity conditions means that the free cooling cycle
must on one hand compare the enthalpy of the outside
air with the typical values of the installation (respectively
the air-conditioned room and the delivery values) and, on
the other, the specific humidity, as described previously.
As an example, the choice of a delivery temperature of
19 C and a specific load of 2.5 gv/kgair allows the delivery
conditions to be identified, once the ratio between the
renewal and delivery flow-rates has been defined:
Gvent
xI ¼ xA   Dxsp ð10Þ
GI
 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025
Fig. 4. Introduction into the subdivision in Fig. 3 of the limit related to a specific humidity higher than that of the air-conditioned environment.
The identification of this point allows the immediate calcu-
lation of the enthalpy hI. In fact, knowing the delivery tem-
perature (19 C) and the specific load Dxsp, the formula
(10) can be used, starting from the ratio between the renew-
al and delivery flow-rates, to identify the specific humidity
of the air delivered into the room: the two co-ordinates tI
and xI are used to find the required enthalpy hI. This, to-
gether with the ambient enthalpy hA, is used to divide the
psychrometric chart into four parts (Fig. 5).
I. When the outside air enthalpy value is higher than
the ambient enthalpy, no energy savings are possible,
as the introduction of outside air increases the ambi-
ent loads.The air flow-rate must remain at the mini-
mum air renewal value.
II. For intermediate values between the delivery and
ambient enthalpy, the outside air makes a useful con-
tribution to the reduction of the inside loads, and
therefore fresh air should be introduced at the maxi-
mum value, so as to reduce the load as follows:
GI  ðhA  hE Þ
III. In the third zone, the flow-rate of outside air should
be modulated from the maximum value, that is, when
hE = hI, to the minimum value, when
GI
hE;min ¼ hA   ðhA  hI Þ
Gvent
IV. In the last zone, when the minimum is reached, the
intake of fresh air implies a heating requirement.
The humidity must also be considered, however, as in
the previous zones the maintenance of the specified humid-
ity could be not guaranteed without humidifying or dehu-
midifying as required.
The discriminator of the delivery humidity, expressed in
the formula (10), increases the number of zones that the
psychrometric field is divided into based on the enthalpy
observations, as shown in Fig. 6, referring to an ambient
2015
dry bulb temperature of 26 C and a relative humidity of
50%, with a delivery temperature of 19 C and a specific
humidity of 9.25 gv/kgair (hypothesis already established
whereby the specific latent load is 2.5 gv/kgair and the ratio
between renewal and delivery is 50%).
A horizontal line passing through the delivery point sub-
divides the previous four partitions into seven zones.
Above the line, dehumidification is required (zone D1 and
D2), while below the line humidification is required.
A short description follows for each of the seven zones.
Zone D1. The enthalpy of the outside air is greater than
the enthalpy of the ambient air (hE > hA). Fresh air always
represents an additional load, and therefore should be
maintained at the minimum level. The humidity is also
higher than the required delivery value, meaning a certain
measure of dehumidification is required. If the specific
humidity of the outside air is higher than that of the ambi-
ent air, the fresh air will also create a latent load. Therefore
there is no potential for free-cooling energy savings.
Zone D2. Some energy savings are possible as the
enthalpy hE of the outside air is lower than that of the
ð11Þ
ambient air, even if it is higher than the delivery value hI.
Maximising the delivery flow-rate, maximises the savings,
nonetheless a certain measure of dehumidification must
be considered. The humidity due to the fresh air increases
the latent loads when xE > xA.
ð12Þ Zone D3. There is a small triangle below D2, where the
enthalpy of the outside air is less than the delivery value:
the importance of this zone is minimal, due to the low
probability of the outside conditions being in the zone. In
the case the renewal flow-rate should be modulated accord-
ing to the following formula:
ðhA  hI Þ
GE ¼ GI  ð13Þ
ðhA  hE Þ
A small amount of dehumidification should be provided if
a close humidity control is requested.
Zone U1. The outside enthalpy is higher than the inside
enthalpy (hE > hA), therefore the renewal flow-rate should
2016 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025

Fig. 5. Sub-division of the psychrometric chart into four zones base on the comparison of the enthalpy of the outside air with the typical values of the
installation.

be at the minimum value allowed. Adiabatic humidification Case A tE ¼ 30  C /E ¼ 50% ðhot; humidÞ
of the air is required to reach the delivery conditions from Case B tE ¼ 14 C 
/E ¼ 30% ðtemperate; dryÞ
the mixing point. This gives rise to an evaporative cooling 
Case C tE ¼ 22 C /E ¼ 60% ðtemperate; humidÞ
effect.
Zone U2. The outside enthalpy is between the ambient Case D tE ¼ 28  C /E ¼ 30% ðhot; dryÞ
and delivery values (hI < hE < hA). The more outside air is
First of all, convert the volume flow-rates into mass flow-
introduced, the greater the benefits. The air should be
rates:
humidified adiabatically until reaching the delivery value.
These are the classic conditions of a dry climate, where Gvent ¼ 2000  1:2 ¼ 2400 kgair =h ¼ 0:667 kgair =s
evaporative cooling is possible.
GI ¼ 4000  1:2 ¼ 4800 kgair =h ¼ 1:333 kgair =s
Zone U3. The enthalpy of the air is lower than the deliv-
ery value (hE < hI), making free cooling possible; the flow- The specific latent load (see formula (2)) is equal to
rate of the outside air must be modulated according to
(13) from the maximum value, when hE = hI, to the mini- 0:001667
Dxsp ¼ ¼ 0:0025 kgv =kgair ¼ 2:5 gv =kgair
mum value, when hE = hE,min. 0:667
Adiabatic humidification is required, if possible between
two heating phases, as in the case of air-conditioning in Note that the ambient specific humidity xA = 0.0105 kgv/
winter. kgair (10.5 gv/kgair), and the delivery specific humidity
Zone U4. The minimum fresh air flow-rate must be used, (see (5)) is equal to
as the air introduced involves a heating load. Humidifica- 0:667
tion is obviously required in this zone too. xI ¼ 0:0105   0:0025 ¼ 0:00925 kgv =kgair
1:333
The following numerical example better clarify the
¼ 9:25 gv =kgair
extent of these effects.
This corresponds to the conditions shown in the graph in
4.1. Numerical example Fig. 6.
The enthalpy of the room air is equal to hA = 53.0 kJ/
Consider a room in which the required air renewal is
kg, while the enthalpy of the air delivered into the environ-
2000 m3/h. The maximum delivery flow-rate is 4000 m3/h ment is hI = 42.5 kJ/kg.
with a delivery temperature of 19 C. The room must be
kept at a temperature of 26 C with a relative humidity Case A tE ¼ 30  C /E ¼ 50% ðhot; humidÞ
of 50% against a sensible heat load of 10.0 kW and a latent
load of 4.15 kW equivalent to 6.0 kgv/h = 0.001667 kgv/s It is immediately clear that the temperature, specific
of water vapour. humidity and enthalpy are all higher than the values
Evaluate whether free cooling is useful for the following required for the air-conditioned environment. There is no
outside air conditions: doubt that this corresponds to zone D1 and therefore no
 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025 2017

Fig. 6. Sub-division of the psychrometric chart into seven zones based on observations involving enthalpy and specific humidity.

energy savings are possible. The classic cooling and dehu- which is much higher than required. To maintain the inside
midification transformations of the summer air-condition- humidity, the following humidification rate would be
ing cycle are required. required:
Case B tE ¼ 14  C /E ¼ 30% ðtemperate; dryÞ 14:59  4:15
¼ 0:00417 kgv =s ð¼ 15 kgv =hÞ
The outside air temperature is lower than both the ambi- 2501
ent temperature and the delivery temperature. If all outside
This implies an additional load that can be estimated as the
air were introduced, the following sensible cooling effect
difference between the thermal energy required to vaporise
would occur:
this flow-rate of moisture, and the indoor latent load:
1:333  1:006  ð26  14Þ ¼ 16:1 kW
14:59  4:15 ¼ 10:44 kW
well beyond requirements.
By introducing the minimum air renewal flow-rate only, This can also be seen directly by examining Fig. 6. In fact,
the inside heat load would not be satisfied: the enthalpy of the outside air is equal to 21.6 kJ/kg and is
0:667  1:006  ð26  14Þ ¼ 8:05 kW lower than the delivery value (42.5 kJ/kg): this therefore
corresponds to zone U3.
In fact, the outside temperature limit is described in (4): In conclusion: a comparative consideration of the tem-
1:333 perature alone would suggest a higher renewal flow-rate
tE;min ¼ 26   ð26  19Þ ¼ 12  C
0:667 than strictly necessary (0.778 kg/s = 2800 kg/h, rather than
0.667 kg/s = 2400 kg/h), while when considering both the
and so the required flow-rate should be equal to
enthalpy and the humidity, the minimum renewal flow-rate
ðtA  tI Þ 26  19 would be chosen (0.667 kg/s = 2400 kg/h). In these terms,
GE ¼ GI  ¼ 1:333 
ðtA  tE Þ 26  14 then, the heating load is equal to
¼ 0:778 kgair =s ¼ 2800 kgair =h
0:667  ð53:0  21:6Þ ¼ 20:94 kW
It is easy to see how this flow-rate would completely
satisfy the sensible load. The same is not true for the latent which exceeds the cooling requirement by
load. The outside specific humidity is in fact xE =
20:94  10:0  4:15 ¼ 6:79 kW
0.003 kgv/kgair (3 gv/kgair). Using the flow-rate calculated
above, there is a potential reduction in the latent load equal
The outside air should therefore be heated and humidified.
to
0:778  2501  ð0:0105  0:003Þ ¼ 14:59 kW Case C tE ¼ 22  C /E ¼ 60% ðtemperate; humidÞ
2018 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025
The outside air temperature is higher than the delivery tem-
perature. The maximum renewal flow-rate is chosen, with a
reduction in the ambient load of
1:333  1:006  ð26  22Þ ¼ 5:36 kW
In terms of the latent loads, the outside specific humidity is
equal to 0.0099 kgv/kgair (=9.9 gv/kgair). This implies a
reduction in the latent loads equal to
1:333  2501  ð0:0105  0:0099Þ ¼ 2:0 kW
that does not satisfy requirements. The air delivered would
thus need to be dehumidified to account for the difference:
4:15  2:0
¼ 0:0010 kgv =s ð¼ 3:6 kgv =hÞ
2501
This in fact corresponds to zone D2. The enthalpy of the
outside air (47.4 kJ/kg) is lower than the ambient enthalpy
and higher than the delivery enthalpy: the maximum flow-
rate of outside air is therefore introduced.
Case D tE ¼ 28  C /E ¼ 30% ðhot; dryÞ
The enthalpy of the outside air is equal to 46.2 kJ/kg,
and therefore lower than the ambient enthalpy, conse-
quently free cooling is possible, with the exception that,
as the outside temperature is higher than the ambient
temperature, humidification is required. The outside spe-
cific humidity is equal to xE = 0.007 kgv/kgair (=7 gv/kgair),
and therefore lower than the delivery requirement. This in
fact corresponds to zone U2.
Outside air should be introduced at the maximum rate,
while controlling the humidification.
In fact, humidifying with a saturation efficiency of 90%
would mean a specific humidity of the air delivered into the
room of 0.0113 kgv/kgair (=11.3 gv/kgair), rather than the
established value of 0.00925 kgv/kgair (=9.25 gv/kgair). This
would imply an increase in the inside humidity: to avoid
this, the efficiency of the humidifier should be limited to
45%. This fine control is possible for example with atomis-
ing humidifiers with pressurised water.
The free-cooling effect can be calculated as
1:333  2501  ð0:00925  0:0070Þ ¼ 7:50 kW
to account for the sensible load, and should be added to the
4.15 kW relating to the latent load, which is totally
satisfied.
5. Indirect evaporation cooling
The importance of the situations involving the free-cool-
ing cycle described here is related in various locations to the
frequency of certain meteorological conditions. As regards
evaporative cooling, the zone U2 is of special interest. The
values involved increase if the portion of sensible load
increases in reference to the latent load.
In the cases considered by the graphs on the previous
pages, the sensible/total ratio is equal to 65%.
The described free-cooling by direct evaporation is par-
ticularly important in arid zone or in period of low outside
humidity in temperate climates. For temperate climates the
possibility of free-cooling is strongly emphasised by the
technique of indirect evaporation cooling.
Air is cooled in an adiabatic humidification process, and
then in turn the same air is used to reduce – via a heat
exchanger – the temperature of a second stream of air,
whose moisture content consequently remains unchanged:
obviously, in this case the introduction of a temperature
difference for such heat exchange within the context of an
already limited differential means that the system can gen-
erally be used for pre-cooling only [12].
The renewal air may in principle always be cooled indi-
rectly, that is, using a heat exchanger and a stream of suit-
ably humidified outside air (in theory as long as it is not
saturated).
In many cases, this operation is even more effective and
predictable if the stream of cooling air is the air being
discharged.
One possible diagram is shown in Fig. 7, where we can
see that the inside air, before being expelled, is humidified:
its temperature decreases, and therefore it can be used for
heat exchange with the fresh air, which is cooled without
its moisture content changing.
In this way, a certain level of free-cooling is possible even
if the enthalpy of the outside air is higher than the inside
enthalpy. The important thing is that the enthalpy of the
air after the indirect heat exchange, also called indirect
evaporative cooling (IEC), is less than the inside enthalpy
hA [13–20]. In this case, the zone designated as D2
(Fig. 6) in which free-cooling is possible, can be further
extended by exploiting the lower enthalpy of the delivery
air. The renewal flow-rate can consequently be increased
until reaching the delivery value, so as to maximise the
free-cooling effect.
The new border between the zones D1 and D2 can be
determined by applying some simple hypotheses.
In indirect heat exchange, a stream GE of outside air
(in the conditions indicated by the subscript E) exchanges
heat with a stream GO of discharged air (in the condi-
tions indicated by the subscript O), the flow-rate of which
is usually slightly lower, so as to maintain a slightly
higher pressure in the room, generally GO = a Æ GE, where
a is 61.
Consider now the humidification of the discharged air,
from the conditions indicated by the subscript A to the
conditions indicated by the subscript C, substantially with
the same enthalpy hA, and with a saturation efficiency g.
It is convenient to refer to the efficiency of the exchanger
in terms of enthalpy, even if it would be more realistic to
work in terms of temperature. This decision makes the
sub-division of the psychrometric chart simpler, without
substantially changing the overall result.
Refer to the circuit scheme in Fig. 7, represented on the
psychrometric chart in Fig. 8.
On one hand there is the flow-rate of discharged air
GO = a Æ GE with initial enthalpy hA, and on the other the
flow-rate GE with initial enthalpy hE.
 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025 2019

Fig. 7. Possible diagram of an installation for indirect evaporative cooling.

Fig. 8. Representation of the transformations in Fig. 7 on the psychrometric chart.

Downstream of the heat exchanger, the renewal air can Indicating the actual enthalpy of the renewal air leaving
theoretically reach the same temperature as the humidified the exchanger as hX, the heat effectively exchanged is
discharged air tC, while maintaining its specific humidity q ¼ GE  ðhE  hX Þ ð15Þ
xE: these two temperature and humidity values therefore
define the lowest enthalpy value, indicated as hX,min, that and the efficiency of the exchanger is therefore
can theoretically be expected in the exchanger. q hE  hX
The maximum heat flow can be defined as n¼ ¼ ð16Þ
qmax a  ðhE  hX;min Þ
qmax ¼ GE  a  ðhE  hX;min Þ ð14Þ and then
having assumed hE > hA. hE  hX ¼ a  n  ðhE  hX;min Þ ð17Þ
2020 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025
For energy savings to be achieved by increasing the flow-
rate of outside air above the strictly required level, it is
essential that hX < hA, that is, the enthalpy of the renewal
air at the outlet of the exchanger must be lower than the
inside enthalpy. This implies that
hE  hX P hE  hA ð18Þ
therefore, applying formula (16), the following must be
true:
1 zone U3, in which cooling is counterproductive (in this case
hE 6 ðhA  a  n  hX;min Þ ð19Þ
1an
It is clear that the limit value for the enthalpy of the outside
air hE,max, above which the formula (19) is no longer valid,
is equal to
1 the summer period, this almost always exceeds 50% of
hE;max ¼ fhA  a  n  hX;min g ð20Þ
1an
and therefore, remembering that hX,min corresponds to the
minimum possible temperature tC [21]:
1 practical examples may be useful.
hE;max ¼ fhA  a  n  ½1:006  tC þ ð2501
1an
þ 1:805  tC Þ  xE g ð21Þ
The position of the border identified above depends, as well
as on the ratio a of the air flow-rates and the efficiency n of
the heat exchanger, also on the specific humidity xE of the
outside air, which affects hX,min. We can then simply attri-
bute numeric values to the various terms to have an idea of
the trends involved.
Taking a = 0.9 as the ratio between the flow-rate of dis-
charged air and the air delivered into the room, and n = 0.7
as the efficiency of the exchanger; considering the inside
conditions as before (tA = 26 C; /A = 50%; hA = 53.0
kJ/kg; xA = 0.0105 kgv/kgair), and a saturation efficiency g
of the adiabatic cooler of 90%, the final temperature is
19.3 C, applying the typical formula:
26  tC
g ¼ 0:9 ¼ ) tC ¼ 19:3  C
26  18:6
where obviously 18.6 C is the wet bulb temperature of the
inside air. Applying the formula (21) gives the limit value
for the enthalpy of the outside air:
1 Case D tE ¼ 23  C
hE;max ¼ f53  0:9  0:7  ½1:006  19:3
1  0:9  0:7
þ ð2501 þ 1:805  19:3Þ  xE g
¼ 110  4308  xE
This formula represents the straight line that separates the
zone D1 (in which no energy savings are possible) from
zone D2, in which free-cooling can be implemented (see
Fig. 9).
Comparing the psychrometric chart in Fig. 9 with the
one in Fig. 6, it can be seen how indirect evaporative cool-
ing extends zone D2 into what was previously zone D1; this
apparently increases as the following parameters increase:
• n (efficiency of the heat exchanger);
• a (ratio between the discharged air and the renewal air);
• g (saturation efficiency of the adiabatic cooler).
While in D1 any increases above the air renewal require-
ment represent an additional cost, in zone D2 it is useful to
increase the flow-rate of renewal air to the maximum value.
Zone U2 also extends into zone U1, while no changes
occur to zone D3 (this is of no practical importance) and
the enthalpy of the outside air must be increased and
humidification implemented in order to reach the desired
delivery conditions).
If the daily incidence of the conditions corresponding to
zone D2 is analysed in various temperate climates during
the total number of hours compared to values that in the
previous case, without recovery, were below 40% and in
some cases even 30%.
In addition to this generalised description, a number of
5.1. Numerical example
Consider the same room as in the previous numerical
example, again with a minimum air renewal flow-rate of
2000 m3/h and a maximum inlet flow-rate of 4000 m3/h.
The delivery temperature is 19 C. The inside is maintained
at a temperature of 26 C and a relative humidity of 50%,
with a sensible heat load of 10.0 kW and latent load of
4.15 kW, equivalent to 6.0 kgv/h = 0.001667 kgv/s of water
vapour.
The renewal air is pre-cooled by a sensible heat exchan-
ger with an efficiency of 70%, crossed by the discharged air
that has previously been humidified adiabatically, with an
efficiency of 90%.
Evaluate whether free-cooling is useful for the following
outside air conditions:
Case A tE ¼ 30  C /E ¼ 50% ðhot; humidÞ
Case B tE ¼ 30  C /E ¼ 40% ðhot; dryÞ
Case C tE ¼ 27  C /E ¼ 30% ðhot; dryÞ
/E ¼ 60% ðtemperate; humidÞ
The volume flow-rates, converted into mass flow-rates,
the specific latent load and the specific humidity of the
delivery air do not vary from the previous example.
Starting from point A (tA = 26 C, /A = 50%), the adia-
batic saturation temperature is 18.6 C, which corresponds
to a specific humidity of 0.0135 kgv/kgair (=13.5 gv/kgair).
With a saturation efficiency g of the humidifier of 90%,
the discharged air reaches point C:
26  tC
g ¼ 0:9 ¼ ) tC ¼ 19:3  C
26  18:6
 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025 2021

Fig. 9. Sub-division of the psychrometric chart into zones base on observations involving the enthalpy and the specific humidity in the case of indirect
evaporative cooling.

g ¼ 0:9 30  tX
n ¼ 0:70 ¼ ) tX ¼ 23:3  C
xc  0:00925 0:9  ð30  19:3Þ
¼ ) xc
0:0135  0:00925 Using the maximum renewal flow-rate, the following free-
¼ 0:0132 kgv =kgair ð13:2 gv =kgair Þ cooling effect can be achieved:
The psychrometric chart can now be divided by a straight qfc ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð26  23:3Þ ¼ 3:62 kW
line (see Fig. 9): which accounts for the sensible load. Vice versa, it has no
hE;lim ¼ 110  4308  xE effect on the latent load, which must be satisfied by a dehu-
midification process.
For each condition of outside air above such enthalpy, en-
ergy savings are not possible with indirect cooling, while Case C tE ¼ 27  C /E ¼ 30% ðtemperate; dryÞ
they are feasible for lower enthalpy values.
The specific humidity of the outside air is xE = 6.7 gv/kgair.
Case A tE ¼ 30  C /E ¼ 50% ðhot; humidÞ This is in zone U2, where both direct and indirect evap-
orative cooling are possible.
This point falls into zone D1.
First consider only direct evaporative cooling: the air
Energy savings are not possible, because the sensible
should be humidified to 9.25 gv/kgair so as to satisfy the
cooling of the outside air involves a final enthalpy that is
entire latent load. In adiabatic saturation conditions, the
higher than the value inside the room. There are savings
outside air temperature is 15.7 C and the specific humidity
due to the recovery of heat from the discharged air, which,
is 11.2 gv/kgair; consequently, the saturation efficiency g of
however, should be maintained at the minimum limit of
the humidifier must be
0.667 kgair/s (=2400 kgair/h) required for renewal.
9:25  6:7
Case B tE ¼ 30  C /E ¼ 40% ðhot; dryÞ g¼ ¼ 0:62
11:2  6:7
This point falls into zone D2. The delivery temperature is calculated as follows:
The specific humidity of the outside air is xE = 10.6
27  tF
g/kg. This is substantially the same specific humidity as g ¼ 0:62 ¼ ) tF ¼ 20:0  C
the air in the air-conditioned room, and therefore free- 27  15:7
cooling would seem ineffective. Thus accounting for a sensible load equal to
The heat exchanger can, however, reduce the outside air
qsens ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð26  20:0Þ ¼ 8:05 kW
temperature. In fact, the discharged air enters the exchanger
following humidification at a temperature tC = 19.3 C, and which should be added entirely to the latent load of 4.15,
therefore can cool the outside air down to tX: fully satisfied.
2022 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025

Indirect cooling is also possible, and may bring further
advantages.
The outside air can be cooled by the humidified exhaust
air in the exchanger to
27  tX
n ¼ 0:70 ¼ ) tX ¼ 22:1  C
0:9  ð27  19:3Þ
This represents a cooling effect of
qcool ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð26  22:1Þ ¼ 5:23 kW
This indirect cooling may be followed by the humidifica-
tion of the air, taking the specific humidity from the origi-
nal value xE = 6.7 gv/kgair to the design delivery value xI =
9.25 gv/kgair.
The required humidification efficiency is different from
the value calculated above because, when indirect cooling
is used, the starting temperature is now 22.1 C (the relative
humidity is around 40%): in adiabatic saturation condi-
tions, the temperature of this air is 13.9 C, with a specific
humidity of 10.0 gv/kgair.
As the required humidity value is 9.25 gv/kgair, the effi-
ciency of the humidifier must be
9:25  6:7
g¼ ¼ 0:77
10:0  6:7
The delivery temperature is therefore
22:1  tF
g ¼ 0:77 ¼ ) tF ¼ 15:8  C
22:1  13:9
This implies additional free-cooling equal to
qfc ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð22:1  15:8Þ ¼ 8:45 kW
which is added to the amount that satisfies the latent load.
In total, the system is therefore able to provide sensible
cooling of
qsens ¼ 5:23 þ 8:45 ¼ 13:68 kW
which is in excess of requirement (10 kW).
This excess can be reduced by limiting the humidifica-
tion of the discharged air: setting the efficiency of the
humidifier to 30%, tC would be 23.8 C:
26  tC
g ¼ 0:30 ¼ ) tC ¼ 23:8  C
26  18:6
From this, the exchanger outlet temperature would be
27  tX
n ¼ 0:70 ¼ ) tX ¼ 25:0  C
0:9  ð27  23:8Þ
The sensible cooling is therefore
qsens ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð26  25:0Þ ¼ 1:34 kW
The air cooled in this way, with a dry bulb temperature of
25.0 C and a specific humidity of 6.7 gv/kgair, reaches adi-
abatic saturation conditions at a temperature of 15.0 C
and a specific humidity of 10.7 gv/kgair.
As the required specific humidity of the delivery air is
9.25 gv/kgair, the efficiency of the humidifier must be
9:25  6:7
g¼ ¼ 0:64
10:7  6:7
The delivery temperature is therefore
25  tF
g ¼ 0:64 ¼ ) tF ¼ 18:6  C
25:0  15:0
This implies additional free-cooling equal to
qfc ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð25:0  18:6Þ ¼ 8:58 kW
which is added to amount that satisfies the latent load.
In total, the system can therefore provide
qsens ¼ 1:34 þ 8:58 ¼ 9:92 kW
of sensible cooling and 4.15 kW of latent cooling.
In substance, the entire load is accounted for free.
Case D tE ¼ 23  C /E ¼ 60%
This is again in zone D2, with the same specific humidity as
in the air-conditioned room. This case is similar to B, with
the outside air temperature lower than the ambient temper-
ature, therefore allowing direct cooling. However the indi-
rect evaporative cooling gives better results. In fact the
outlet temperature after the heat exchanger is
23  tX
n ¼ 0:70 ¼ ) tX ¼ 20:7  C
0:9  ð23  19:3Þ
The free-cooling effect is therefore equal to
qfc ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð26:0  20:7Þ ¼ 7:11 kW
which reduces the sensible load. Direct cooling would give
instead:
qfc ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð26:0  23Þ ¼ 4:02 kW
The latent load must be satisfied by a dehumidification pro-
cess, as in Case B.
6. Energy savings evaluations
The knowledge of the climatic data of a particular site
allows to evaluate the possible energy savings deriving
from free-cooling by evaporation. Every climatic condition
represented on the partitioned Mollier diagram suggests
the most suitable treatment of the air. The sum during a
day or a season of the obtained savings gives the result
looked for. The following example illustrates the calcula-
tion method.
6.1. Numerical example
Consider the same inside conditions as in the previous
examples, in which there is a minimum renewal of air
Gvent = 2400 kg/h (0.667 kg/s).
The maximum delivery flow-rate is always GI =
4800 kg/h (1.333 kg/s) at a temperature tI = 19 C.
The following conditions are maintained inside, in the
period from 8:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m.: temperature tA =
26 C relative humidity /A = 50% (xA = 10.5 gv/kgair;
hA = 53.0 kJ/kgair; qA = 1.16 kgair/m3).
 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025 2023

Table 1 Table 2
Temperature tE, specific humidity xE and enthalpy hE of the outside air, Latent loads as power or flow-rates, specific latent load Dxsp and inlet
sensible qsens and latent loads qlat for an average day in the month humidity xi as a function of the time of the day
Time of day Outside climatic conditions Loads Time of day Latent loads Dxsp (gv/kgair) xi (gv/kgair)
tE (C) xE hE qsens (kW) qlat (kW) qlat (kW) (gv/s) (kgv/h)
(gv/kgair) (kJ/kgair) 8.00–9.00 2.5 1.00 3.6 1.50 9.75
8.00–9.00 23.0 10.5 49.8 12 2.5 9.00–10.00 3.5 1.39 5.0 2.09 9.46
9.00–10.00 24.6 11.1 53.0 7 3.5 10.00–11.00 4.0 1.59 5.7 2.39 9.31
10.00–11.00 25.4 11.6 55.1 10 4 11.00–12.00 4.5 1.79 6.4 2.69 9.16
11.00–12.00 26.3 11.2 55.0 12 4.5 12.00–13.00 4.0 1.59 5.7 2.39 9.31
12.00–13.00 27.2 11.3 56.2 12 4 13.00–14.00 3.0 1.19 4.3 1.79 9.61
13.00–14.00 27.3 11.0 55.5 14 3 14.00–15.00 4.0 1.59 5.7 2.39 9.31
14.00–15.00 27.4 10.8 55.1 15 4 15.00–16.00 4.0 1.59 5.7 2.39 9.31
15.00–16.00 27.5 10.4 54.2 13 4 16.00–17.00 5.0 1.99 7.2 2.99 9.01
16.00–17.00 27.1 11.2 55.8 11 5 17.00–18.00 4.0 1.59 5.7 2.39 9.31
17.00–18.00 26.7 11.3 55.7 9 4 18.00–19.00 3.0 1.19 4.3 1.79 9.61
18.00–19.00 26.1 11.1 54.5 8 3

Assuming that the site is located in Milan (Northern The limit value for the enthalpy of the outside air below
Italy), calculate, for the month of July, the possibility of which free-cooling is possible can then be calculated. This
free-cooling by indirect pre-cooling of the inlet air by the is done using relationship (21).
air discharged, which has been previously humidified adia- Confirming an efficiency n = 70% for the pre-cooling
batically with an efficiency of 90%. exchange and a ratio a = 0.9 between the flow-rate of air
Table 1 describes, for an average day in the month, the discharged and air introduced, Table 3 can be constructed,
temperature tE and specific humidity xE of the outside air which provides, for each hour on an average day, the limit
(the enthalpy hE of the outside air can also be calculated value hE,max for the enthalpy of the outside air above which
based on these two values), as well as the sensible qsens free-cooling is no longer convenient.
and latent loads qlat. It can be seen that in this example, the outside air has, at
First calculate, for each hour of operation, the specific all of the times considered, an enthalpy hE lower than
latent load (referring to one kg of air) and the specific that limit hE,max, and therefore free-cooling is always
humidity of the air delivered into the room: convenient.
In particular, the conditions are always in zone D2 (see
Gv Fig. 9), meaning that the dehumidification of the renewal
Dxsp ¼
Gvent air is required, as, except for in the periods from 8:00 to
Gvent 9:00 a.m. and from 3:00 to 4:00 p.m., the humidity xE of
xI ¼ xA   Dxsp
GI the outside air is always higher than the desired inside level
(xA = 10.5 gv/kgair).
The latent load expressed as capacity then needs to be con-
First of all, calculate the temperature of the pre-cooled
verted into the quantity of water vapour produced, remem-
fresh air before the subsequent processes:
bering that the latent heat of vaporisation is equal to
around 2.5 kJ/gv (=2500 kJ/kgv).
tE  tX
The calculation is summarised for the various hours of n ¼ 0:70 ¼ ) tX
0:9  ðtE  19:3Þ
the day in Table 2 which accounts for different people
attendance as in a trading centre. ¼ tE  0:63  ðtE  19:3Þ
The conditions maintained inside (tA = 26 C; /A =
50%) give an adiabatic saturation temperature of 18.6 C,
Table 3
which corresponds to a specific humidity of 13.5 g/kg. Outside specific humidity, limit value and value of the outside enthalpy as
Allowing for a saturation efficiency g = 90%, the dis- a function of the time of the day
charged air reaches point C, whose corresponding tem- Time of day xE (gv/kgair) hE,max (kJ/kgair) hE (kJ/kgair)
perature–humidity properties are identified using the
8.00–9.00 10.5 64.85 49.8
calculations already performed in the previous numerical 9.00–10.00 11.1 62.26 53.0
example: 10.00–11.00 11.6 60.10 55.1
11.00–12.00 11.2 61.82 55.0
26  tC
g ¼ 0:9 ¼ ) tC ¼ 19:3  C 12.00–13.00 11.3 61.39 56.2
26  18:6 13.00–14.00 11.0 62.69 55.5
g ¼ 0:9 14.00–15.00 10.8 63.55 55.1
15.00–16.00 10.4 65.28 54.2
xc  0:00925
¼ ) xc 16.00–17.00 11.2 61.82 55.8
0:0135  0:00925 17.00–18.00 11.3 61.39 55.7
¼ 0:0132 kgv =kgair ð13:2 gv =kgair Þ 18.00–19.00 11.1 62.26 54.5
2024 R.M. Lazzarin / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2011–2025

Table 4 of temperature and humidity when they can be profitable.

Temperature after the heat exchanger, free cooling effect, outside specific These are a function of inside set conditions and load dis-
humidity, additional dehumidification load and hourly energy savings as a
function of the time of the day
tribution between sensible and latent. A method is
described that can be implemented in the control system
Time of day tX qfc xE qdehum Hourly saving
(C) (kW) (gv/kgair) (kW) (kW h)
to exploit whenever is possible this free cooling effect.
The suggested method takes profit of new atomising
8.00–9.00 20.4 7.5 10.5 0.0 7.5
9.00–10.00 20.9 6.8 11.1 1.0 5.8
humidifiers with pressurised water that allow a fine control
10.00–11.00 21.1 6.6 11.6 1.8 4.8 of the final humidity. Numerical examples illustrate
11.00–12.00 21.4 6.2 11.2 1.2 5.0 the evaluation procedure, pointing out that the cooling
12.00–13.00 21.7 5.8 11.3 1.3 4.5 demand can often be completely satisfied particularly com-
13.00–14.00 21.7 5.8 11.0 0.8 5.0 bining direct and indirect evaporative cooling.
14.00–15.00 21.7 5.8 10.8 0.5 5.3
15.00–16.00 21.8 5.6 10.4 0.0 5.6
The evaluation of possible energy savings at different
16.00–17.00 21.6 5.9 11.2 1.2 4.7 times of the day month after month is the basis for an eco-
17.00–18.00 21.5 6.0 11.3 1.3 4.7 nomical analysis of the described system.
18.00–19.00 21.3 6.3 11.1 1.0 5.3
Daily energy saving, 58.2 kW h. References

[1] M. Scofield, K. Dunnavant, Evaporative cooling and TES after

Using the maximum renewal flow-rate (4800 kg/h), the
free-cooling effect highlighted in Table 4 is achieved, to-
gether with the temperature of the pre-cooled air and the
energy cost for the dehumidification of the extra fresh air
introduced above the strict renewal requirements.
The sensible cooling qfc (free-cooling effect) that can be
achieved via indirect heat exchange is calculated using the
following relationship:
qfc ¼ 1:333  1:006  ð26:0  tX Þ ðkWÞ
The energy cost for the dehumidification of the extra re-
newal air is calculated as follows:
qdehum ¼ 0:667  ðxE  0:0105Þ  2500 ðkWÞ
Table 4 analytically and globally summarises the energy
savings achieved with the free-cooling process, correspond-
ing to the difference between the useful effect of the free-
cooling qfc and the enthalpy cost qdehum relating to the
dehumidification of the renewal air.
The effective savings in economic terms can only be cal-
culated if the cost of electricity and the operating condi-
tions of the installation are known, the latter which affect
the efficiency of the refrigerating cycle of the air handling
unit.
As the specific humidity xE of the outside air is quite
close to the value that is required inside (xA = 10.5 gv/
kgair), it is preferable to choose the maximum flow-rate
of outside air, thereby allowing a considerable reduction
in the sensible load.
Also note that, due the proximity between the outside
air temperature tE and the temperature maintained inside
(tA = 26 C), the indirect heat exchange between the two
air streams, discharge and inlet, would be practically use-
less without the humidification of the former.
7. Conclusions
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