Journal of Sports Sciences

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Fuelling the passion: Psychological needs and

behavioural regulations as antecedents of passion
for football

José L. Chamorro, Saul Alcaraz, David Sánchez-Oliva, Tomás García-Calvo &

Miquel Torregrossa

To cite this article: José L. Chamorro, Saul Alcaraz, David Sánchez-Oliva, Tomás García-
Calvo & Miquel Torregrossa (2021) Fuelling the passion: Psychological needs and behavioural
regulations as antecedents of passion for football, Journal of Sports Sciences, 39:6, 653-662, DOI:
10.1080/02640414.2020.1840056

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1840056

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JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES
2021, VOL. 39, NO. 6, 653–662
https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1840056

SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Fuelling the passion: Psychological needs and behavioural regulations as

antecedents of passion for football
a b,c d,e d b,c
José L. Chamorro , Saul Alcaraz , David Sánchez-Oliva , Tomás García-Calvo and Miquel Torregrossa
a
Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea, Madrid, Spain; bDepartment of Basic, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Universitat
Autònoma De Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; cSport Research Institute UAB, Universitat Autònoma De Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; dDepartment of
Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, Caceres, Spain; eDepartment of Physical Education, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Cádiz,
Puerto Real, Spain

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The purpose of the present study was to examine the motivational antecedents of passion for sport by Accepted 18 October 2020
testing a model where players’ satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs was expected to
KEYWORDS
predict their harmonious and obsessive passions through the mediation of autonomous and controlled Motivation; mediation; need
motivations. Four-hundred eighty-seven elite U18 male football players (Mage = 17.43, SD = 0.71) com­ satisfaction; passion; sport
pleted measures of psychological need satisfaction, behavioural regulations and passion for sport.
Measurement models were defined using exploratory structural equation models. The results support
the model where autonomous and controlled regulations partially mediate the relationship between
psychological needs and passion. In this model, the need for relatedness positively and directly predicts
harmonious passion and indirectly predicts obsessive passion, which supports its key role in discriminat­
ing between the two types of passion. Moreover, autonomy and competence satisfaction present direct
and indirect effects on both types of passions. Finally, autonomous regulations positively predict
obsessive and harmonious passion, although the strength of the relationship was stronger for the latter.
In sum, our results highlight that (a) satisfaction of each need is crucial to promote harmonious passion
and (b) both autonomous and controlled regulations contribute to the understanding of how passion is
developed in football.

Our passions influence who we are and how we understand life
(Bouizegarene et al., 2017). Sport is a universal social activity,
followed and practised by millions of people worldwide regard­
less of their ethnicity, age or sports level. It has also the poten­
tial to become a central activity in people’s life (Vallerand,
2015). Thus, sport is an exceptional context to examine how
people experience passion. According to the Dualistic Model of
Passion (DMP; Vallerand, 2010, 2015; Vallerand et al., 2003;
Vallerand, 2015, for review), passion is “a strong inclination
toward an activity that people like, that they find important,
and in which they invest time and energy” (Vallerand et al.,
2003, p. 757). Despite the increasing interest of researchers in
studying passion (Curran et al., 2015; Vallerand, 2015), there is
still a lack of studies exploring the variables that influence the
development and ongoing of passion for an activity
(Bouizegarene et al., 2017; Lalande et al., 2017). Therefore, the
current study examines psychological needs and behavioural
regulations as antecedents of passion for football among
young elite football players.
This study is contextualized in elite U18 male football
players. This category could be considered as the last step
before jumping to professional football (Chamorro et al.,
2016). According to the studies of the process of transition
from junior-to-senior in sport, motivational variables play a
key role in successful transitions to professional sport (Drew
et al., 2019). Exploring the relationships between motivational
variables (i.e., basic psychological needs, behavioural regula­
tions and passion) in this context could help to understand how
motivational factors can improve athletes’ experiences in order
to cope with this process of transition.
Dualistic model of passion
Vallerand et al. (2003; Vallerand, 2008, 2015, for review) pro­
posed a model of passion concerned with the motivational
process underlying heavy and sustained activity involvement.
Vallerand et al. (2003) distinguish two types of passion, obses­
sive and harmonious, in terms of how the passionate activity is
regulated and integrated with other life domains (i.e., aca­
demic, vocational, social, sport). Obsessive passion (OP) refers
to a strong and uncontrollable urge to partake in the activity. In
this type of passion, the process of internalization of the activity
into the identity of an individual occurs in a controlled manner,
originating from intrapersonal and/or interpersonal pressure
caused by contingencies associated with the activity (e.g., feel­
ings of social acceptance or self-esteem). This kind of engage­
ment leads to a rigid (rather than flexible) approach to the
activity, and consequently, the activity becomes difficult to
regulate and integrate with other life spheres (Vallerand et al.,
2003). Harmonious passion (HP) also prompts a strong desire to

CONTACT Saul Alcaraz saul.alcaraz@uab.cat Department of Basic, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology (Building B),
Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08193, Spain
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1840056.
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
654 J. L. CHAMORRO ET AL.
engage in the activity, as OP. However, HP refers to a strong
desire to freely engage in the activity without any type of
contingency, wherein the person regards the activity as a sig­
nificant (but not overwhelming) part of his/her identity. With
HP, the person is in control of the activity and freely decides
whether to engage in it under given circumstances. Because of
the sense of control over the activity, harmonious passionate
activity is experienced as coherent and well-integrated (rather
than in conflict) with other life domains (Séguin-Levesque et al.,
2006; Vallerand et al., 2003). According to the meta-analytical
review by Curran et al. (2015), HP is positively related with
positive intrapersonal outcomes (e.g., life satisfaction, flow, or
vitality), and OP shows positive relationships with positive and
negative intrapersonal outcomes (e.g., mastery approach goal,
burnout, rumination, or negative affect).
Basic psychological needs as antecedents of passion
DMP proposes three important stages in the development of
both types of passion (Mageau et al., 2009; Vallerand, 2015).
Firstly, among all activities available to an individual, he or she
selects one of them to engage in. Secondly, the person must
come to value the chosen activity. Finally, the valued activity
becomes internalized in one’s identity in one of two ways. This
stage is the most important as it determines the type of passion
that will be predominant for the individual in a controlled
manner (e.g., OP) or autonomous manner (e.g., HP).
One stage before the internalization of the activity towards
the identity of individuals (and thus the development of pas­
sion) is the evaluation of that activity. According to Vallerand et
al. (2003), an individual will better value an activity in which he
has committed himself/herself, especially if he/she perceives
his/her basic psychological needs (BPNs) as satisfied. According
to self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan &
Deci, 2000, 2017), people engage in various activities through­
out life in hope of satisfying the need for autonomy (i.e., the
need to experience volition, self-direction, and choice), compe­
tence (i.e., the need to feel a sense of efficacy), and relatedness
(i.e., the need to feel loved, valued, and connected with sig­
nificant others).
SDT proposes that when individuals perceive their BPNs as
satisfied, they should experience optimal levels of physical and
psychological health. In the field of physical activity and sport,
research has shown that BPN satisfaction is associated with a
wide range of positive outcomes (i.e., positive affect, subjective
vitality, engagement, task orientation, persistence, mental
toughness) whereas thwarting or non-satisfaction of BPNs has
been linked to negative outcomes (i.e., burnout, perceived
stress, negative affect, ego orientation; Alcaraz et al., 2015;
Curran et al., 2016; Gjesdal et al., 2019; Jõesaar et al., 2011; Li
et al., 2017). Although the association between BPN and pas­
sion has already been investigated (Curran et al., 2013; Forest et
al., 2011; Verner-Filion & Vallerand, 2018; Verner-Filion et al.,
2017), only a few studies have tested the role of BPN satisfac­
tion as an antecedent of passion (Alcaraz-Ibañez et al., 2016;
Lalande et al., 2017; Tóth-Király et al., 2019). Specifically,
Lalande et al. (2017) suggested that the satisfaction of BPNs
determines the type of passion that an individual experience
towards an activity (i.e., music, basketball as a hobby,
recreational activities, and work), even when he or she is
already passionate about it. Their findings revealed that low
levels of BPN satisfaction outside the passionate activity posi­
tively predicted OP (but not HP), whereas BPN satisfaction
inside the passionate the activity prompted both forms of
passion. In the same way, Alcaraz-Ibañez et al. (2016) found
that BPN satisfaction was a significant predictor of both types of
passion for exercise, and again the effect was stronger for HP. In
the study of Tóth-Király et al. (2019) with screen-based leisure
activities, they assessed BPN satisfaction in life in general (not
inside of the passionate activity) and showed that general need
satisfaction negatively predicted OP but HP. It should be noted
that these previous studies did not address the antecedent role
of BPNs satisfaction as three separate factors. Thus, although
BPN satisfaction as a whole has been correlated with both types
of passion in other studies (Parastatidou et al., 2012), the influ­
ence of each BPN satisfaction on passion remains unclear.
The mediating role of the types of motivation
Furthermore, SDT proposes three different types of motivation
(i.e., intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation), which fall along a
continuum anchored by control and autonomous regulations.
The more self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., intrinsic
motivation, integrated and identified regulations) are labelled
as autonomous motivation and, the non-self-determined types
of extrinsic motivation (i.e., introjected and external regula­
tions) are labelled as controlled motivation. Ryan and Deci
(2017) argued that autonomous motivation is a self-regulated
process implicated in behaviours that are completely voluntary
and self-chosen (characteristic of HP). Thus, individuals put the
effort into their sports because they enjoy it and they find it
interesting. On the other hand, controlled motivation repre­
sents a commitment to an activity because of instrumental
contingencies and external pressure and control (characteristic
of OP) – for instance, individuals that put the effort in their
sports to obtain money or because they would feel guilty if they
did not do so. Finally, amotivation is defined as an absence of
motivation. According to Ryan and Moller (2017), amotivation
sometimes results from a lack of interest or value attributed to
an activity.
According to SDT, the satisfaction of BPNs is essential to
develop these types of motivation. Numerous studies have
identified BPN satisfaction as a determinant of self-determined
motivation in a sport and physical activity context (Amado et
al., 2015; Haerens et al., 2015; Sánchez-Oliva et al., 2014; Teixeira
et al., 2018). Other investigations have examined how beha­
vioural regulations mediate between BPN satisfaction and con­
sequences, highlighting that behavioural regulations partially
mediate these relationships (Alcaraz et al., 2015; Lonsdale et al.,
2009). These studies show that behavioural regulations act as a
partial mediator in these relationships. Moreover, according to
Vallerand (2012), before an activity becomes passionate, this
activity must become a preference for the individual, usually
through enjoyment (characteristic of autonomous regulation).
Moreover, the relationship between motivation and passion
have been tested before. For example, Vallerand et al. (2006)
showed that autonomous and controlled personality orienta­
tions (which bear conceptual similarities to autonomous and

controlled motivations) influenced the development of harmo­
nious and obsessive passions, respectively. In addition, Curran
et al. (2011) found a significant relationship between high
levels of self-determination and harmonious passion. Other
studies carried out in different contexts from the sports domain
suggested that autonomous motivation prompts HP, whereas
controlled motivation prompts OP (e.g., Ahn et al., 2019).
However, there is still a lack of studies that have explored the
mediating role of motivation between psychological needs and
types of passion.
The present study
The purpose of the present study was to examine the motiva­
tional antecedents of passion for sport by testing a model
where football players’ satisfaction of the three BPNs was
expected to predict their ongoing harmonious and obsessive
passions through the mediation of autonomous and controlled
motivations. As in the previous passion research BPNs were
grouped in a single factor (e.g., Lalande et al., 2017), we tested
the independent role of satisfying each BPN. According to
previous research in SDT and DMP, positive paths would be
expected from autonomy, competence, and relatedness satis­
faction to harmonious passion through the mediation of auton­
omous regulations. However, paths from BPNs to obsessive
passion are still unclear, and accordingly, we decided not to
formulate any hypothesis involving these constructs. Finally,
positive paths would be expected from autonomous regulation
to harmonious passion and from controlled regulation to
obsessive passion.
Method
Participants
The participants in this study were 478 young male football
players (Mage = 17.43, SD = 0.71; range = 15‒19). Players were
competing with 27 different academy teams at the highest
national league of their age group (i.e., elite U18). All academy
football teams belong to clubs competing or having competed
in the First or Second Division of the Professional Football
League in Spain (i.e., Liga de Fútbol Profesional). Data from this
sample have been previously analysed elsewhere with totally
different purposes (Chamorro et al., 2016).
Instruments
In this subsection, the instruments are presented in the same
order that they will follow in the hypothesized structural mod­
els. All instruments assessed variables related to football.
Basic psychological needs satisfaction
The satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs was
measured with the Spanish versions of scales assessing auton­
omy (Standage et al., 2005; also see Alcaraz et al., 2013), com­
petence (McAuley et al., 1989; also see Balaguer et al., 2008),
and relatedness fulfilment (Richer & Vallerand, 1998; also see
Balaguer et al., 2008). All items were introduced with the stem
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 655
“In football . . . ”. Five items measured autonomy satisfaction (e.
g., “I can decide which activities I want to practice”) and relat­
edness satisfaction (e.g., “I feel understood”), and six items
assessed competence satisfaction (e.g., “I think I am pretty
good at football”). A high score on each scale indicated high
BPN satisfaction in the sport environment. In our study,
Cronbach’s alpha values were as follows: αAutonomy satisfac­
tion =.73, αCompetence satisfaction = .83, and αRelatedness
satisfaction = .90.
Behaviour regulations
Behaviour regulations to play football were measured with the
Spanish version (Viladrich et al., 2011) of the Behavioural
Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ; Lonsdale et al.,
2008). Items were introduced with the stem “I participate in
football . . . ” Four items measured each type of behaviour
regulation including intrinsic motivation (e.g., “because of the
positive feelings that I experience while playing my sport”),
identified regulation (e.g., “because it is a good way to learn
things which could be useful to me in my life”), external regula­
tion (e.g., “to satisfy people who want me to play”), and intro­
jected regulation (e.g., “because I would feel guilty if I quit”).
The higher the score in a certain behavioural regulation, the
more it describes the player’s motivation. Integrated regulation
was not included in this investigation because it is often
encountered among adults rather than adolescents, as younger
populations might be too young to have experienced a sense
of integration (Vallerand & Rousseau, 2001). Amotivation was
not assessed either because it could result from a lack of inter­
est or value attributed to an activity, and therefore it could not
be a predictor of passion (i.e., because passion involves interest
for the activity). In the present study, the alpha values for each
subscale were: αIntrinsic motivation = .68, αIdentified regulation = .71,
αIntrojected regulation = .72, αExternal regulation = .75. Consonant with
SDT and the approach used in other SDT-based studies in sport
and other physical activity settings, autonomous motivation
(intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) and controlled
motivation (introjected regulation and external regulation) fac­
tors were tested and used in subsequent analyses (Chamorro et
al., 2016; Fenton et al., 2014).
Passion
A Spanish adaptation (Chamarro et al., 2015) of the Passion
Scale (Marsh et al., 2013) was used to measure players’ passion
for football including six items measuring HP (e.g., “football
allows me to live a variety of experiences”) and six items asses­
sing OP (e.g., “I cannot live without football”). In addition, four
items were used to assess general passion criteria (e.g., “This
activity is important for me”) in order to know the general
passion for football in each participant. For all scales, a high
score indicates that players experience passion while playing
football. The Cronbach’s alpha values in our study were:
αHarmonious passion = .82, αObsessive passion = .80.
All items of the instruments described above were reported
on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Do not agree at all, 7 = Very
strongly agree). Evidence regarding the internal structure and
reliability of the instruments used in this study are presented
below (see Results, Preliminary Analysis).
656 J. L. CHAMORRO ET AL.
Procedure
First, we obtained ethical approval for the study from the
university ethics committee. Then we contacted clubs by
phone and explained the study and its objectives. When clubs
agreed to participate, dates for sessions of data collection were
arranged. All clubs were visited and surveyed within one month
towards the end of the season. All participants were informed
about the purposes of the study and were guaranteed anon­
ymity and confidentiality before they gave informed consent to
voluntarily participate in the study. Although 45.4% of the
sample were aged under 18, according to the Spanish Law
26/2015 Section 4, Article 9 (Boletín Oficial del Estado, 2015),
participants aged over 16 do not have to provide their parents’
informed consent. Therefore, players gave their own informed
consent along with the consent of their coaches but were not
requested to provide their parents’ informed consent. In addi­
tion, the only two participants aged 15 at the moment of data
collection did provide their parents’ written consent.
Data analyses
Preliminary analysis and measurement models
Preliminary analyses included the study of missing values, dis­
tribution of data, and scale internal consistency (using
McDonald, 1970 coefficient omega, ω). The data of passion
criteria were used to identify the general passion of partici­
pants. According to previous studies (e.g., Moeller et al., 2015;
Vallerand, 2015), we used the midpoint of the response scale in
the general passion criteria score to distinguish passionate
individuals (i.e., mean score 4 or higher) from non-passionate
individuals (i.e., mean score below 4). Afterwards, we estimated
all the measurement models using the Weighted Least Squares
Means and Variance Adjusted (WLSMV) estimator in Mplus 7.4
software (Muthén & Muthén, 2017), an estimator that is more
suited to the ordered-categorical nature of Likert scales. In
order to find the best representation of each measure, CFA,
Bifactor-CFA, ESEM, and Bifactor-ESEM measurement models
were estimated.1 In the CFA solution, items were allowed to
define their a priori factor, and first-order factors were per­
mitted to correlate. For the ESEM model, all the main loadings
were freely estimated, while all cross-loadings were specified to
be close to zero, but not exactly zero, with oblique target
rotation (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009). In Bifactor-CFA, all
items were specified as loading on the general factor and on
the specific factors, with no cross-loadings allowed across onto
the other specific factors. Lastly, the Bifactor-ESEM was esti­
mated following an ESEM approach and using orthogonal tar­
get rotation.
Model fit was assessed with the fit indices χ2 statistic, com­
parative fix index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI;
Tucker & Lewis, 1973), and root mean square error of approx­
imation (RMSEA; Steiger & Lind, 1980) including its 90% con­
fidence intervals (CI). A non-statistically significant χ2 value
indicates a close fit between the observed and the implied
1
Recent research on SDT has provided value for the use of bifactor ESEM and bifactor confirmatory analysis (bifactor CFA) models to test the factorial structure of basic
needs satisfaction (Garn et al., 2019; Sánchez-Oliva et al., 2017) and behavioural regulations (e.g., Howard et al., 2018; Litalien et al., 2017). Therefore, in addition to
ESEM and first-order CFA models, we also conducted bifactor ESEM and bifactor CFA analyses for these questionnaires. We did not test bifactor CFA and bifactor ESEM
models for passion. Results of these analyses are available in Tables B, C, D, E and F of the Supplementary Materials.
covariance matrices. According to Hu and Bentler (1999), CFI
and TLI values > .95 and RMSEA < .06 are considered as indica­
tors of an excellent fit. Moreover, CFI and TLI values > .90 and
RMSEA < .08 are considered as indicators of acceptable fit
(Marsh et al., 2004). However, these previous criteria have
mainly been used within a CFA (confirmatory factor analyses)
approach; for ESEM measurement models, they should be con­
sidered with caution (Appleton et al., 2016).
Structural model testing the motivational antecedents of
passion for football
The analyses of the structural model testing of the antecedents
of passion for sport were also conducted using Mplus 7.4 soft­
ware (Muthén & Muthén, 2017). We tested the correlations
between the factors (i.e., disattenuated correlations) before
measuring the structural models. Correlation coefficients were
interpreted following Safrit and Wood’s criteria (Safrit & Wood,
1995) for no correlation (0–.19), low correlation (.20–.39), mod­
erate correlation (.40–.59), moderately high correlation
(.60–.79), and high correlation (≥ .80). Next, we tested the
structural models, where autonomous (AR) and controlled reg­
ulations (CR) were expected to mediate the relationships from
the satisfaction of autonomy (A), competence (C), and related­
ness (R) to harmonious (HP) and obsessive passion (OP). In the
words of MacKinnon (2008), a mediating variable “is intermedi­
ate in the causal path from an independent variable to a
dependent variable” (p. 8). In order to test for mediation, we
specified three different models (see Alcaraz et al., 2015). The
first model (i.e., Model Partial Mediation; MPM) tested for partial
mediation and was the least parsimonious. It included both
direct (i.e., paths from basic need satisfaction to passion) and
indirect effects (i.e., paths from basic needs satisfaction to pas­
sion through behavioural regulations). In the second model (i.
e., Model Complete Mediation; MCM) we tested for complete
mediation, and therefore only indirect effects were defined. The
third model (i.e., Model Direct Effects; MDE) tested for the
absence of mediation and consequently, only direct effects
were specified. MCM and MDE were more parsimonious and
thus were compared to MPM. We hypothesized that relations
between athletes’ BPN and harmonious and obsessive passion
would be partially mediated by their behavioural regulations.
We tested all three structural equation models using the
WLSMV estimator for categorical data. Following Marsh et al.’s
(2013) guidelines, the comparison between models was based
on a chi-square difference test and on CFI, TLI, and RMSEA
differences. Specifically, the more parsimonious model should
be selected only when ΔCFI is less than .01, and TLI and RMSEA
are as good as or better than those of the less parsimonious
model. The factors included in all three structural models were
defined according to the ESEM measurement models described
in the previous step of our data analysis. Mediated effects were
obtained using the “Model Indirect” command and the “VIA
instruction” under the Delta parameterization as defined in
Mplus.
 JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 657

Results model included a correlated uniqueness between items 1 and 3

Data distribution
First, it should be noted that no missing data were observed.
Regarding the distribution of item responses (see Table A,
Supplementary Materials), the data were not normally distributed.
In fact, ceiling effects were observed in items of needs satisfaction,
autonomous motivation, and harmonious passion, and floor
effects were observed in items assessing controlled motivation.
Therefore, the data were assumed to be categorical in subsequent
analyses. Regarding the general passion of participants, only three
of them scored below 4 points. Thus, 99.4% of the participants
were considered as passionate for football. In addition, McDonald’s
(1970) coefficient omega (ω) ranged from .73 to .90 (see Table 1).
ESEM measurement models
The Goodness-of-fit statistics and factorial solution from differ­
ent measurement models are displayed in the Supplementary
materials (Tables B, C, D and E). After analysing both fit indexes
and factorial solutions, the ESEM model was selected as the
best representation for all measures.2
The 3-factor ESEM measurement model for players’ percep­
tions of basic needs satisfaction showed an excellent fit to the
data: χ2 (df) = 178.04 (74), p < .001, RMSEA (90% CI) = .054
(.044–.064), CFI = .987, TLI = .979. This factorial structure included
a correlated uniqueness between items 1 and 2 of autonomy
satisfaction, as the evaluation of the modification indices show
that its inclusion would improve the fit. Regarding the players’
behavioural regulations, the 2-factor ESEM model showed an
acceptable fit to the data: χ2 (df) = 345.450 (88), p < .001,
RMSEA (90% CI) = .078 (.070–.087), CFI = .945, TLI = .925. This
of identified regulation. Finally, the 2-factor ESEM defined to
describe players’ passion for football showed an acceptable fit
to the data: χ2 (df) = 167.90 (41), p < .001, RMSEA (90% CI) = .080
(.068–.093), CFI = .975, TLI = .959. The fit of this model benefited
from the inclusion of two correlated uniqueness: one between
HP items 1 and 6, and another between OP items 3 and 4. It
should be noted that we only considered the inclusion of corre­
lated uniquenesses when the wording of the items suggested
that its inclusion was reasonable (Marsh et al., 2013).3 The factor
loadings for these measurement models are presented in Table G
(Supplementary materials).
Structural model
Correlations between factors
Correlations were consistent with our expectations (see Table
1). First, autonomous motivation was positively and moderately
correlated with autonomy (r = .57) and relatedness (r = .47)
satisfaction. In addition, autonomous motivation showed a
moderately high correlation with HP (r = 66). In turn, HP posi­
tively and moderately correlated with basic needs for auton­
omy (r = .41), competence (r = .44), and relatedness (r = .54) as
well as with OP (r = .44). Autonomy and relatedness satisfaction
were also moderately correlated (r = 50). All these correlations
were significant at the p < .001 level (two-tailed).
Testing for the motivational antecedents of passion for
football
Both Model Partial Mediation (MPM) and Model Complete
Mediation (MCM) exhibited an excellent fit to the data (see
Table 2). However, as shown in Table 2, MPM fit slightly better

Table 1. Disattenuated Correlations and Descriptive Statistics.

M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Autonomy satisfaction 4.9 (1.1) .73
2. Competence satisfaction 5.5 (0.9) .27** .84
3. Relatedness satisfaction 5.9 (1.1) .50** .32** .90
4. Autonomous motivation 5.9 (0.8) .57** .36** .47** .75
5. Controlled motivation 2.1 (1.1) .02 .03 −.29* −.15* .79
6. Harmonious passion 5.9 (0.9) .41** .44** .54** .66** −.19* .83
7. Obsessive passion 4.4 (1.3) .02 .22** .01 .15* .23** .44** .80
The table presents correlations between factors (i.e., disattenuated correlations). Omega coefficients are listed in italics in the diagonal.
* p <.01, ** p <.001.

2
Regarding the selection of the best measurement model for each instrument, we considered different criteria, apart from the fit indexes of each model: (a) the
interpretability of the factors obtained (i.e., items significantly loading on its intended factors), (b) the absence of cross-loadings >.30 (or at least the presence of
higher loadings on the intended factors than the estimated cross-loadings on non-intended factors), (c) the discriminant validity of each factor (i.e., the absence of
high correlations between factors) and (d) the absence of problems of collinearity when the measurement model was included within the structural model.
3
The addition of correlated uniquenesses to improve measurement model fit was only considered when sufficient rationale supported their inclusion. In our case, such
rationale came from the content and wording of the items. First, we decided to include the CU involving items 1 (“I decided which activities I practiced”) and 2 (“I had
a say on what skills I worked on.”) of autonomy satisfaction. Although the meaning of these two items is not the same, they do share more information between them
than with the rest of the items of autonomy satisfaction (i.e., “It was my choice to play football”, “I felt the freedom to do some things my own way” and “I had some
choice in what I did”). From our point of view, items 1 and 2 are more specifically related to practice and the other three are more general, more related to the overall
experience of playing football. Similarly, there was strong rationale to add a correlated uniqueness in BRSQ (involving items 1 and 3 of identified regulation). The
wording of these items is “because the benefits of football are important to me” (item 1) and “because I value the benefits of football” (item 3). Previous studies (e.g.,
Viladrich et al., 2013) included in the former some examples (e.g., “developing as a player, getting fit, playing with my teammates”), but it was not the case in our
study. We believed the meaning and wording of these two items was very similar, which was also supported by the modification indices. Finally, as in previous
studies (e.g., Marsh et al., 2013), we included two correlated uniqueness in the measurement model of passion: one between HP items 1 (“Football is in harmony with
the other activities in my life”) and 6 (“Football is in harmony with other things that are part of me”), and another between OP items 3 (“Football is the only thing that
really turns me on”) and 4 (“If I could, I would only play football”).
658 J. L. CHAMORRO ET AL.

Table 2. Fit Statistics and Standardized Coefficient Estimates for Mediation Structural Models.
Model χ2 (df) RMSEA (CI 90) CFI TLI Δχ 2 (Δdf) ΔRMSEA ΔCFI ΔTLI
1. Model Partial Mediation (MPM) 1376.99* (827) .037 (.034 –.041) .961 .956 - - - -
2. Model Complete Mediation (MCM) 1529.43* (833) .042 (.039 –.045) .951 .945 56.97* (6) .005 −.010 −.011
3. Model Direct Effects (MDE) 3552.99* (837) .082 (.080 –.085) .809 .785 396.72* (10) .045 −.152 −.171
* p <.05.

than MCM (Δχ2 [Δdf] = 56.97*[6], ΔRMSEA = .005, ΔCFI = -.010, Discussion
ΔTLI = -.011), and therefore the partial mediation role of beha­
Based on the close relationship between the SDT (Deci & Ryan,
vioural regulations in the paths from BPN satisfaction to pas­
1985, 2000) and the DMP (Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand,
sion for sport was supported. In Figure 1, we present the results
2008, 2015, for review), the purpose of the present study was
of the MPM. The amount of variance explained in MPM is R2
2 to examine the motivational antecedents of passion for the
harmonious passion = .53 and R obsessive passion = .13. Finally, as
sport by testing a model where the players’ satisfaction of the
displayed in Table 2, Model Direct Effects (MDE; i.e., the
three BPNs was expected to predict the ongoing harmonious
model that tested for the absence of mediation) did not fit
and obsessive passion through the mediation of autonomous
the data.
and controlled motivations. Specifically, we hypothesized that
Regarding the significant effects of MPM, we observed that:
BPN satisfaction would positively predict autonomous motiva­
(a) satisfaction of players’ autonomy was indirectly related to HP
tion, which in turn would be positively related to HP. Our results
(A → AR → HP [95% CI] = .20 [.12, .29]) and OP (A → AR → OP
provide evidence supporting a model where the satisfaction of
[95% CI] = .09 [.02, .16]) both positively through autonomous
each psychological need, along with behavioural regulations,
motivation, indirectly and positively related to OP through con­
predict passion for football (i.e., Model Partial Mediation). In
trolled motivation (A → CR → OP [95% CI] = .05 [.00, .09]) and
addition, the need for relatedness plays a key role in distin­
directly and negatively related to OP (A → OP = [-.16]); (b)
guishing between obsessive and harmonious passions.
satisfaction of need for competence presented indirect positive
Therefore, our results support the role of motivational con­
effects on HP (C → AR → HP [95% CI] = .09 [.04, .14]) and OP (C →
structs (i.e., basic psychological and behavioural regulations)
AR → OP [95% CI] = .04 [.00, .08]) via autonomous motivation,
to understand the passion for football.
and positive direct effects on HP (C → HP = .20) and OP (C →
Lalande et al. (2017) showed that BPN satisfaction (as a
OP = .17); and (c) satisfaction of players’ relatedness showed
single factor) has a positive influence on HP and OP inside the
positive indirect effects on HP (R → AR → HP [95% CI] = .09
passionate activity, although it is stronger for HP than OP. The
[.02, .16]) and OP (R → AR → OP [95% CI] = .04 [.00, .08]) through
present study strengthens those findings because it suggests
autonomous motivation, a negative indirect effect on OP
that the satisfaction of each of the three needs is crucial to
through controlled motivation (R → CR → OP [95% CI] = -.11
promote HP for football. Moreover, the model testing for partial
[-.17, -.05]) and a positive direct effect on HP (R → HP = .25). In
mediation highlights relatedness satisfaction as the unique BPN
short, satisfaction of players’ basic needs was positively asso­
that has a negative effect on the ongoing of OP through the
ciated with HP, and both negatively and positively related to
mediation of controlled motivation. Thus, the need for related­
OP, both via direct effects and mediated effects through beha­
ness plays a key role in distinguishing between obsessive and
vioural regulations.

Figure 1. Structural equation model MPM presenting the partial mediation of players’ autonomous regulations in the relationship between satisfaction of psychological
needs and passion for football Only standardized statistically significant paths (p <.05) are presented in this figure.

harmonious passions. This is an important finding because to
the best of our knowledge, the specific role of relatedness
satisfaction as a determinant of passion has not been pre­
viously studied. Vallerand (2015) showed how HP leads to
high-quality relationships within the passionate activity
(through positive affect) and OP negatively influences the qual­
ity of relationships developed within the passionate activity
(through negative affect). In this sense, and also according to
our results, to feel loved, valued, and connected with significant
others in the passionate activity has a positive impact on HP
and protects from the development and ongoing of OP. In this
sense, the importance of relatedness satisfaction as a strong
predictor of autonomous motivation and positive intrapersonal
outcomes (i.e., positive affect, subjective vitality) has been sta­
ted in past research (Alcaraz et al., 2015; Perez-Rivases et al.,
2017).
Furthermore, Lalande et al. (2017) suggested that a lack of
need satisfaction in other individual life spheres might be
associated with compensatory behaviours (OP) through need
satisfaction in the passionate activity. Inside the passionate
activity, our results show that autonomy satisfaction prompts
OP negatively and directly, and prompts HP positively and
indirectly (i.e. through autonomous motivation). Thus, the
experience of volition and the self-endorsement of one’s activ­
ity required by autonomy satisfaction (Vallerand et al., 2006)
would be positively related to the activity internalization of HP
(i.e., individuals freely accept the activity as important for them
without any contingencies attached to it) and negatively to the
activity internalization of OP (i.e., individuals feel a relative lack
of control over the activity, pressures and contingencies
attached to it). Meanwhile, competence satisfaction prompts
OP directly and indirectly (i.e. through controlled motivation)
and has a positive influence on HP both in direct and indirect
ways (i.e. through autonomous motivation). Unlike the studies
of Alcaraz-Ibañez et al. (2016), Lalande et al. (2017), and Tóth-
Király et al. (2019), the context of this work is a high-competi­
tive environment. Thus, the positive influence of competence
satisfaction on OP could be partially explained by the compe­
titive context of the participants in our study. According to
Ryan and Moller (2017), in competitive environments, people
must face opponents who are sometimes much more skilled,
and this could be unlikely to provide an optimal challenge
(more characteristic of HP than OP), although their BPNs were
satisfied. In accordance with our findings, autonomy and com­
petence satisfaction, along with controlled regulations, could
prompt OP in competitive contexts, but future research is
needed to reinforce the understanding of these relationships.
Finally, our study also shows that autonomous and con­
trolled motivations partially mediate between BPN and passion.
The role of behavioural regulations as consequences of BPN
and antecedents of passion is largely in coherence with DMP
and SDT (Ahn et al., 2019; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000;
Vallerand, 2010, 2012, 2015; Vallerand et al., 2003). Specifically,
our results suggest that the process of internalization of foot­
ball into the identity of an individual in a controlled manner
prompts exclusively OP, as we expected. However, if the pro­
cess of internalization occurs in an autonomous manner, it
prompts both types of passion, although the effect is stronger
towards harmonious passion. These findings suggest that the
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 659
variance explained in OP depends on both autonomous and
controlled motivations. However, the study of Ahn et al. (2019)
with resort customers found that intrinsic motives stimulate HP,
but only extrinsic motives prompt OP. Thus, it could be possible
that in some contexts or situations (e.g., competitive contexts),
a process of internalization in an autonomous manner could
contribute to the development of OP, although it would be
weaker than the HP.
Limitations, future research, and implications
Although the present study yields important findings, certain
limitations and avenues for future research need to be consid­
ered. First, only elite U18 male football players were studied in
our research. Future investigations should test the motivational
model proposed in this study in other sport categories and
competition levels to explore whether the specifics of the
model change or not (e.g., the role of each BPN) – specifically,
it would be interesting to test this model on female players.
Second, from an analytic point of view, it should be noted that
the use of the WLSMV estimator could have had consequences
in the assessment of model fit (e.g., reducing RMSEA values).
Third, it would be interesting to test a model that includes the
role of basic BPN thwarting and its relationships with types of
behavioural regulations and passions (Tóth-Király et al., 2019).
In this sense, it is possible that controlled regulation would
have a stronger influence from BPN thwarting than from BPN
satisfaction (D. J. Mills et al., 2018). Fourth, it is highly recom­
mended to carry out longitudinal research to analyse the devel­
opment and ongoing of both types of passion (Verner-Filion &
Vallerand, 2018). Finally, it would be interesting to include
intrapersonal outcomes as a consequence of both types of
passion – for example, emotional and cognitive variables
(Curran et al., 2015).
The present study also has important practical implications.
This research is contextualized in elite U18 male football
players, considered as the last step before jumping to profes­
sional football (Chamorro et al., 2016). Drew et al. (2019) high­
lighted that intrinsic motivation and competence facilitate the
process of transitioning to professional sport. Chamorro et al.
(2016) also showed that those elite young football players with
higher scores in BPNs satisfaction, autonomous motivation and
HP appear to be more resourceful during this transition. In this
line, our findings inform practitioners, coaches, and athletes
that satisfying each of the players’ BPNs will not only fuel
players’ autonomous motivation but also their HP for football.
Promoting an environment based on strategies to support each
BPN (Hancox et al., 2018; Hook & Newland, 2018) would help to
develop and support a greater HP than OP and thus to provide
more positive consequences for the wellbeing, motivation,
cognitive and behavioural variables, and performance of
young athletes (Curran et al., 2015; A. Mills et al., 2012).
Conclusion
According to previous research (Lalande et al., 2017; Vallerand,
2015), there was a lack of studies exploring the antecedents of
passion for an activity. To fill this gap, the present study pre­
sents a model in which the satisfaction of each psychological
660 J. L. CHAMORRO ET AL.
need predicts passion for football through the partial media­
tion of behavioural regulations. An important finding is that
relatedness satisfaction plays a key role in distinguishing
between obsessive and harmonious passions. In addition,
autonomy and competence satisfaction along with autono­
mous motivation are positively related to both obsessive and
harmonious passions, although the strength of the paths is
stronger for the latter. In sum, our study highlights that satisfy­
ing each psychological need (i.e., autonomy, competence, and
relatedness) and promoting autonomous motivation is crucial
to fuel HP for football.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
José L. Chamorro http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2834-2654
Saul Alcaraz http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5720-8801
David Sánchez-Oliva http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9678-963X
Tomás García-Calvo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2550-418X
Miquel Torregrossa http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1117-9977
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