Q&A

A SN T

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

BOOK

Third Edition

Radiographic
Testing Method
Levels I, II and III Review Questions
Book A
 Q&
QUE
A S NETSTIONS & ANSWERS
E S

Third Edition
BOOK

Radiographic
Te
esting Method
Le
evels I, II and III Review Questions - Book A

The American So eettyy for

ocie
Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
Copyright © 2014 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing.

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information
herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised
or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by means electronic or mechanical including photo-
copying, recording or otherwise, without the expressed prior written permission of The American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, Inc.

IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive
Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Third Edition
first printing 12/14
e-book 12/14

Errata, if available for this printing, may be obtained from ASNT’s website, www.asnt.org. E-books contain all corrections and
updates, including the latest errata.

ISBN: 978-1-57117-335-5 (print)

ISBN: 978-1-57117-336-2 (e-book)

Printed in the United States of America

Published by:
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
www.asnt.org

Edited by: Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor

Assisted by: Bob Conklin, Educational Materials Editor
Joy Grimm, Production Manager

Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications

ASNT Mission Statement:

ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.

ii
Contents

Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................ iv
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. v
References .............................................................................................................................................................. vi
Level I: Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Answers ...................................................................................................................................................................10
Level II: Review Questions ................................................................................................................................... 11
Answers ...................................................................................................................................................................25
Level III: Review Questions .................................................................................................................................. 27
Answers ...................................................................................................................................................................54
Figure Sources ....................................................................................................................................................... 55

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. is grateful for the volunteer contributions, technical expertise,
knowledge and dedication of the following individuals who have helped make this work possible.

Technical Reviewers
Edward J. Briggs – FMC Technologies
Galip Buyukyildirim – Kuzguncuk Mah Icadiye Cad
Chinam Dwarikanath Patra – PSL Limited
Claudia Kropas-Hughes – Air Force
Trey Gordon – Boeing
Scott McClain – US Army, Picatinny Arsenal
David Savoy – Versa Integrity Group
Bahman Zoofan – Amerapex Corporation

Publication Review Committee

Glenn M. Light, Chair – Southwest Research Institute
Martin T. Anderson – Alaska Technical Training
Joseph L. Mackin – Reel Group

iv
introduction

Purpose
This book was previously published as Supplement to Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A (Q&A Book): Radiographic Testing.
This is an update of previous editions prepared by members of ASNT’s Penetrating Radiation Committee.
As with other books in the ASNT Questions & Answers series, this book is intended to provide candidates studying for
qualifying examinations with sample Level I, II, and III questions. The questions are similar to the types of questions one
might encounter on a certification examination and should be used for review and for practice examinations only.
Though this book is intended to cover the body of knowledge in ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for
Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (2011), it is not intended to comprehensively cover all possible technical
issues that may appear on a certification exam.
What Is New
The main changes between the second and third editions are that the references have been updated, many questions have
been updated, and every question is multiple choice with four unique answers to more closely match the ASNT exam format.
Additional Information
Because ASNT is an International System of Units (SI) publisher, throughout the text both SI and imperial units are used.
Level I and Level II questions use imperial units first. Level III questions use SI units first. For simplicity, many equations in
this book use 25 mm equals 1 in. Where SI units are not used in the original text of a standard or code, conversions to SI
units were not made.
All figures are from ASNT sources unless otherwise indicated.

v
References
Recommended References
The following references were used in formulating the ques-
tions contained in this book.
Reference A
Bossi, R.H., F.A. Iddings, and G.C. Wheeler, tech. eds., P.O.
Moore, ed., Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition:
Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2002.
Reference B
Staton, J. Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book
(PTP Series). Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2005.
Reference C
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method.
Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, Inc. 2014.
Reference D
McCain, D., ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography
Radiation Safety. Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2009.
Reference E
Radiography in Modern Industry, fourth edition. Rochester,
NY: Eastman Kodak Co. http://www.kodak.com/eknec/
documents/87/0900688a802b3c87/Radiography-in-
Modern-Industry.pdf. 1980.
Reference F
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.03,
Nondestructive Testing. “Standard Guide for Radiographic
Examination,” Standard ASTM E 94, and “Standard Practice
for Design, Manufacture, and Material Grouping
Classification of Hole-Type Image Quality Indicators (IQI)
Used for Radiology,” Standard ASTM E 1025. Philadelphia,
PA: American Society for Testing and Materials. Latest
edition. (Reference numbers after the questions contain
the standard number. Example: F.E94.)
vi
Reference G
Becker, W.T. and R.J. Shipley. Metals Handbook, ninth edi-
tion, Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control, Volume
11. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals. 2002.
Additional References
The following references are listed in CP-105-2011 as
recommended references but were not used in building this
book. These references may be useful for additional study of
the radiographic testing method.
Materials and Processes for NDT Technology. Columbus,
OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1981.
McGuire, S.A. and C.A. Peabody. Working Safely in
Radiography. Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2004.
Mix, P.E. Introduction to Nondestructive Testing: A Training
Guide, second edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 2005.
Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control: ASM
Handbook, Volume 17. Metals Park, OH: ASM
International. 1989.
Schneeman, J.G. Industrial X-ray Interpretation. Evanston,
IL: Intex Publishing Co. 1985.
Taylor, J.L., ed., Basic Metallurgy for Non-Destructive Testing,
revised edition. Essex, England: W.H. Houldershaw, Ltd.
(British Institute of Nondestructive Testing). 1988.
Thielsch, H. Defects and Failures in Pressure Vessels and
Piping. New York: R.E. Krieger Publishing. 1977.
Welding Inspection Handbook. Miami, FL: American
Welding Society. Latest edition.
Reference Codes
Reference C Total = 33
Each question in this book is followed by letter(s) and page Level I (5)
number(s) indicating the specific recommended reference Level II (5)
where the answer may be found. For example: Level III (23)

7. Co-60 used in nondestructive testing emits: Reference D Total = 11

Level I (5)
a. alpha particles. Level II (0)
b. neutrons. Level III (6)
c. gamma rays.
d. X-rays. Reference E Total = 168
A.44, 74-75 Level I (38)
Level II (34)
Level III (96)
In this example, the letter “A” refers to Reference A in the
list above and 44, 74-75 are the specific pages in Reference Reference F Total = 15
A where the answer to the question is located. Level I (3)
Level II (3)
Reference Usage Level III (9)

Reference A Total = 210 Reference G Total = 5

Level I (48) Level I (0)
Level II (80) Level II (5)
Level III (82) Level III (0)

Reference B Total = 27
Level I (6)
Level II (8)
Level III (13)

vii
Level I
Review Questions

1. Although there may be other reasons for using 5. When radiographing to the 2-2T quality level,
calcium tungstate screens in industrial radiography, an ASTM IQI for 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) thick
they are most often used to: 2024 aluminum alloy has a thickness of:

a. improve definition and resolution in radiographic a. 0.5 in. (12.7 mm)

images. b. 0.002 in. (0.051 mm)
b. improve contrast in radiographic images. c. 0.005 in. (0.127 mm)
c. decrease exposure time. d. 0.010 in. (0.254 mm)
d. make films respond to multimillion volt F.E1025
radiation. 6. The penetrating ability of an X-ray beam is
E.9 governed by:
2. An excellent radiograph is obtained under given a. kilovoltage.
conditions of exposure with the film located at a b. time.
distance of 36 in. (914.4 mm) from the target of the c. milliamperage.
X-ray tube. If the film is now placed only 18 in. d. source-to-film distance.
(457.2 mm) from the target, and all exposure
A.142
conditions except time are held constant, the new
exposure time will be: 7. Co-60 used in nondestructive testing emits:

a. unchanged. a. alpha particles.

b. longer by approximately 80%. b. neutrons.
c. shorter by approximately 55%. c. gamma rays.
d. only about 25% as long as the original exposure d. X-rays.
time. A.44, 74-75
E.47 8. A densitometer is an instrument for measuring:
3. An excellent radiograph is obtained under given a. X-ray intensity.
exposure conditions with a tube current of 5 mA and b. film density.
an exposure time of 12 min. If other conditions are c. density of a material.
not changed, what exposure time would be required d. tube current.
if the X-ray tube current could be raised to 10 mA?
A.165
a. 24 min 9. Three liquids which are essential to process an
b. 12 min exposed film properly are:
c. 6 min
d. 3 min a. stop bath, acetic acid, and water.
b. developer, stop bath, and H2O2.
E.49 c. developer, fixer, and water.
4. In film radiography, image quality indicators (IQIs) d. acetic acid, fixer, and stop bath.
are usually placed:
A.230
a. between the intensifying screen and the film.
b. on the source side of the test object. 10. The two most common causes for excessively
c. on the film side of the test object. high-density radiographs are:
d. between the operator and the radiation source.
A.458 a. insufficient washing and overdevelopment.
b. contaminated fixer and insufficient washing.
c. overexposure and contaminated fixer.
d. overexposure and overdevelopment.
A.141, 242

1
Radiographic Testing Method l Level i

11. The time required for one-half of the atoms in a 17. Which dose would be most dangerous, if not fatal, if
particular sample of radioactive material to applied to the entire body in a short period of time?
disintegrate is called:
a. 0-25 R (0-250 mSv).
a. the inverse square law. b. 25-100 R (250-1000 mSv).
b. a curie. c. 400-600 R (4000-6000 mSv).
c. a half-life. d. 600 R or more (6000 mSv or more).
d. the exposure time. C.23; D.18
A.42 18. When doing gamma-ray radiography with
12. What does R/h refer to? high-intensity emitters, the sources are best handled:
a. Radiation limits for humans. a. directly by personnel equipped with special
b. Roentgen per hour. protective clothing.
c. X-rays per hour. b. by remote handling equipment.
d. Radiation in hydrogen. c. directly by personnel with special protective
D.83 clothing except when radiographs are being
13. The ability to detect a small detail is called made.
radiographic: d. by the same methods used for low-intensity
emitters.
a. contrast. A.80
b. sensitivity. 19. If a film is placed in a developer solution and allowed
c. density. to develop without any agitation:
d. resolution.
A.151, 170 a. the radiograph may not show proper contrast.
14. The term used to express the number of curies b. it will be impossible to fix the radiograph
(becquerels) of radioactivity per ounce or gram of permanently.
source weight is: c. there will be a general fogging condition over the
entire radiograph.
a. decay. d. uneven development or streaking could occur.
b. emissivity. E.81, 108
c. specific activity. 20. The selection of the proper type of film to be used for
d. source output. the X-ray examination of a particular part depends
A.455 on:
15. The unit of measurement used for the output of a
gamma-ray source is the: a. the thickness of the part.
b. the material of the specimen.
a. curie (becquerel). c. the voltage range of the available X-ray machine.
b. roentgen (sievert). d. quality of radiograph or exposure time.
c. half-life. E.72
d. MeV. 21. A Co-60 source has a half-life of:
A. 1, 42
16. Exposure to X-rays or gamma rays: a. 1.2 years.
b. 6 months.
a. may have a cumulative effect which must be c. 5.27 years.
considered. d. 74.3 days.
b. will be beneficial since they build up an A.74
immunity to radiation poisoning.
c. will have no effect on human beings. 22. X-ray tube current is controlled by the:
d. will have only a short-term effect on human
tissues. a. current passing through the filament.
D.1 b. distance from the cathode to the anode.
c. type of material used in the target.
d. voltage and waveform applied to the X-ray tube.
A. 1; C.13

2
 Review Questions

23. Lead foil in direct contact with X-ray film: 28. Primary radiation that strikes a film holder or
cassette through a thin portion of the specimen
a. intensifies the scatter radiation more than the causes scattering into the shadows of the adjacent
primary radiation. thicker portions, producing an effect called:
b. decreases the contrast of the radiographic image.
c. intensifies the primary radiation more than the a. radiation imaging.
scatter radiation. b. spotting.
d. should not be used when gamma rays are emitted c. undercut.
by the source of radiation. d. unsharpness.
E.30 E.50

24. Lead intensifying screens are usually mounted in 29. Scattered radiation caused by any material, such as a
pairs in rigid holders called: wall or floor, on the film side of the specimen is
referred to as:
a. film racks.
b. cassettes. a. primary scattering.
c. emulsifiers. b. undercut.
d. diaphragms. c. reflected scattering.
E.39 d. backscattered radiation.
E.50-51
25. In order to decrease geometric unsharpness:
30. Which of the following materials is suitable for use in
a. radiation should proceed from as small a focal containers used to mix processing solutions?
spot as other considerations will allow.
b. radiation should proceed from as large a focal a. Stainless steel.
spot as other considerations will allow. b. Aluminum.
c. the film should be as far as possible from the c. Galvanized iron.
object being radiographed. d. Tin.
d. the distance from the anode to the material E.104
examined should be as small as is practical.
A.60, 144 31. Of the following, which would be especially sensitive
to injury by excessive exposure to X-rays or gamma
26. As the kilovoltage applied to the X-ray tube is raised: rays?

a. X-rays of longer wavelength and more a. White blood cells.

penetrating power are produced. b. Blood vessel cells.
b. X-rays of shorter wavelength and more c. Immature red blood cells.
penetrating power are produced. d. Digestive system lining cells.
c. X-rays of shorter wavelength and less penetrating D.16
power are produced.
d. X-rays of longer wavelength and less penetrating 32. Film overexposure from X-ray radiography may be
power are produced. caused by:
A.141
a. lower kilovoltage radiations in the direct beam
27. In order to increase the intensity of X-radiation: from the X-ray tube target.
b. scatter radiation arising from objects in the direct
a. the tube current should be increased. beam.
b. the tube current should be decreased. c. residual radiation that exists for the first few
c. the test specimen should be moved farther from minutes after the X-ray machine has been
the film. returned to the “off ” position.
d. a lower kilovoltage should be applied to the tube. d. high-speed films.
A.141-142 E.195-196, 209

3
Radiographic Testing Method l Level i

33. A general rule often employed for determining the 38. If an exposure time of 60 s was necessary using a
kilovoltage to be used when radiographing a part is 4 ft (1.2 m) source-to-film distance for a particular
that: exposure, what time would be necessary if a 2 ft
(0.6 m) source-to-film distance is used and all other
a. the kilovoltage should be as high as other factors variables remain the same?
will permit.
b. the kilovoltage should be as low as other factors a. 120 s
will permit. b. 30 s
c. the kilovoltage is always a fixed value and cannot c. 15 s
be changed. d. 240 s
d. the kilovoltage is not an important variable and E.31
can be changed over a wide range without
affecting the radiograph. 39. One of the general rules concerning the application
E.34 of geometric principles of shadow formation to
radiography is:
34. If a piece of lead 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) thick is placed in
the path of a beam of radiation emanating from a. the X-rays should proceed from as large a focal
Co-60, it will reduce the dose rate at a given location spot as other considerations will allow.
by: b. the film should be as far as possible from the
object being radiographed.
a. one-third. c. the distance between the anode and the material
b. one-quarter. examined should always be as great as possible.
c. one-half. d. as far as the shape of the specimen will allow, the
d. three-quarters. plane of the maximum interest should be
A.132 perpendicular to the plane of the film.
E.22-23
35. Excessive exposure of film to light prior to
development of the film will most likely result in: 40. As a check on the adequacy of the radiographic
technique, it is customary to place a standard test
a. a foggy film. piece on the source side of the specimen. This
b. improved definition. standard test piece is called:
c. streaks.
d. yellow stain. a. a reference plate.
E.132-133 b. a lead screen.
c. an image quality indicator (IQI).
36. Reticulation resulting in a puckered or net-like film d. an illuminator.
surface is probably caused by: A.172, 187

a. crimping film after exposure. 41. An IQI is used to indicate the:

b. sudden extreme temperature change while
processing in the developer. a. size of discontinuities in a part.
c. water or developer on unprocessed film. b. density of the film.
d. excessive object-to-film distance. c. amount of film contrast.
A.244 d. sensitivity of the radiographic technique.
E.90
37. Frilling or loosening of the emulsion from the base of
the film is most likely caused by: 42. A fluorescent intensifying screen will:

a. water or developer on unprocessed film. a. emit light that may lessen the necessary exposure.
b. low temperature of processing solutions. b. result in reticulation.
c. developer solution contamination. c. decrease the graininess of the image when using
d. warm or exhausted fixer solution. gamma rays.
E.107 d. increase the definition in a radiograph.
E.33, 45

4
 Review Questions

43. The three main steps in processing a radiograph are: 48. When manually processing films, the purpose for
abruptly tapping the hangers against the side of the
a. developing, frilling, and fixation. tank after the films have been lowered into the
b. developing, fixation, and washing. developer is to:
c. exposure, developing, and fixation.
d. developing, reticulating, and fixation. a. disperse unexposed silver grains on the film
A.230 surface.
b. prevent frilling.
44. Kilovoltage, exposure time, and source-to-film c. dislodge any air bubbles clinging to the emulsion.
distance are three of the most important X-ray d. secure uniformity of development over the whole
exposure factors that can be controlled. A fourth such area of the film.
exposure factor is: A.205

a. focal point size. 49. The activity of the developer solution is stabilized by:
b. temperature.
c. filament-to-focal spot distance. a. constantly agitating it.
d. milliamperage. b. heating processing solutions.
A.150 c. avoiding contamination from the wash bath.
d. adding replenisher.
45. When the minute silver grains on which the X-ray A.242
film image is formed group together in relatively
large masses, they produce a visual impression called: 50. The purpose of fixation is:

a. air bells. a. to carry away and diffuse fixer from the film.
b. graininess. b. to leave the developed silver as a permanent
c. reticulation. image.
d. frilling. c. to deactivate the development.
E.60 d. to transform the exposed silver halide crystal to
metallic crystal.
46. Static marks, which are black tree-like or circular A.230
marks on a radiograph, are often caused by:
51. Water spots on films can be minimized by:
a. film being bent when inserted in a cassette or
holder. a. the rapid drying of wet film.
b. foreign material or dirt embedded in screens. b. using a wetting agent solution.
c. scratches on lead foil screens. c. using a fresh fixer solution.
d. improper film handling techniques. d. cascading water during the rinse cycle.
E.98 A.205

47. The purpose of agitating an X-ray film during 52. The small area in the X-ray tube from which the
development is to: radiation emanates is called the:

a. protect the film from excessive pressure. a. diaphragm.

b. renew the developer at the surface of the film. b. focal spot.
c. disperse unexposed silver grains on the film c. focusing cup.
surface. d. cathode.
d. prevent reticulation. A.60
A.233

5
Radiographic Testing Method l Level i

53. The radiation quality of a gamma-ray source is: 58. The exposure of personnel to X-radiation and
gamma radiation can be measured by means of:
a. determined by the size of the focal spot.
b. determined by the isotope involved. a. geiger-müller counters.
c. varied by the operator. b. radiation detectors.
d. greater in Ir-192 than in Co-60. c. ionization chambers.
E.14 d. thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs).
C.28
54. The radiation intensity of a radioisotope:
59. Assuming that a good radiograph is obtained at a
a. increases with time. setting of 10 mA in 40 s, how much time would be
b. decreases with time. necessary to obtain one equivalent radiograph if the
c. is not affected as time elapses. milliamperage is changed to 5 mA (all other
d. increases with tube current mA. conditions remaining constant)?
A.42, 456
a. 20 s
55. A curie is the equivalent of: b. 10 s
c. 80 s
a. 37 Bq d. 160 s
b. 37 GBq E.47
c. 37 000 000 TBq
d. 3 700 000 60. A graph showing the relation between material
A.30, 31 thickness, kilovoltage, and exposure is called:

56. With a given exposure time and kilovoltage, a. a bar chart.

a properly exposed radiograph is obtained with b. an exposure chart.
a 6 mA min exposure at the distance of c. a characteristic curve.
20 in. (508 mm). It is desired to increase the d. a logarithmic chart.
sharpness of detail in the image by increasing the E.51
source-to-film distance to 40 in. (1016 mm). The
correct exposure to obtain the desired radiographic 61. A graph that expresses the relationship between the
density at the increased distance is: logarithm of the exposure applied to a photographic
material and the resulting photographic density is
a. 12 mA-min called:
b. 24 mA-min
c. 3 mA-min a. a bar chart.
d. 1.7 mA-min b. an exposure chart.
E.47 c. a characteristic curve.
d. a logarithmic chart.
57. Very short wavelength electromagnetic radiation E.53
produced when electrons travelling at high speeds
collide with matter is called: 62. Short wavelength electromagnetic radiation produced
during the disintegration of nuclei of radioactive
a. X-radiation. substances is called:
b. beta radiation.
c. gamma radiation. a. X-radiation.
d. alpha radiation. b. gamma radiation.
E.10 c. scatter radiation.
d. backscatter radiation.
E.14

6
 Review Questions

63. A photographic image recorded by the passage of 68. Fluoroscopy differs from radiography in that:
X-rays or gamma rays through a specimen onto a
film is called a(n): a. fluoroscopy uses a much lower kilovoltage than
radiography.
a. fluoroscopic image. b. fluoroscopy is much more sensitive than
b. radiograph. radiography.
c. isotopic reproduction. c. the X-ray image is observed visually on a
d. photofluorograph. fluorescent screen rather than recorded on a film.
E.7 d. fluoroscopy permits examination of thicker parts
than does radiography.
64. In order to achieve uniformity of development over E.161
the area of an X-ray film during manual processing:
69. An advantage of the pocket dosimeter type of
a. the film should be placed in a dryer after being ionization chamber used to monitor radiation
developed. received by personnel is:
b. the developer should be agitated by using
mechanical stirrers or circulating pumps. a. it provides a permanent record of accumulated
c. the film should be agitated while in the developer. dosage.
d. the film should be transferred directly from the b. it provides an immediate indication of dosage.
developer to the fixer. c. it is the most sensitive detector available.
E.109 d. it should be charged and set to zero prior to the
beginning of the shift.
65. When referring to a 2T or 4T hole in the ASTM IQI, D.26
the T refers to the:
70. The density difference between two selected portions
a. part thickness. of a radiograph is known as:
b. plaque thickness.
c. time of exposure. a. unsharpness.
d. time for developing. b. radiographic contrast.
A.458, 485 c. specific activity.
d. subject density.
66. A sheet of lead with an opening cut in the shape of A.150
the part to be radiographed may be used to decrease
the effect of scattered radiation, which undercuts the 71. X-rays, gamma rays, and alpha particles all have one
specimen. Such a device is called a: thing in common; they are all:

a. mask. a. particulate radiations.

b. filter. b. electromagnetic radiations.
c. backscatter absorber. c. microwave radiations.
d. lead foil screen. d. ionizing radiations.
E.52 A.90, 664

67. Two X-ray machines operating at the same nominal 72. When producing radiographs, if the kilovoltage is
kilovoltage and milliamperage settings: increased, the:

a. will produce the same intensities and qualities of a. subject contrast decreases.
radiation. b. film contrast decreases.
b. will produce the same intensities but may c. subject contrast increases.
produce different qualities of radiation. d. film contrast increases.
c. will produce the same qualities but may produce A.131, 170
different intensities of radiation.
d. may give not only different intensities but also
different qualities of radiation.
A.166

7
Radiographic Testing Method l Level i

73. The accidental movement of the specimen or film 78. Beta particles are:
during exposure or the use of a focus-film distance
that is too small will: a. neutrons.
b. electrons.
a. produce a radiograph with poor contrast. c. positrons.
b. make it impossible to detect large discontinuities. d. protons.
c. result in unsharpness of the radiograph. A.43
d. result in a fogged radiograph.
E.142 79. The velocity of all electromagnetic radiation is:

74. Lead screens in intimate contact with the film during a. 186 000 miles per second
exposure: (299 338 km per second).
b. 18 600 miles per second
a. reduce exposure time and improve radiographic (29 934 km per second).
quality. c. 186 000 miles per minute
b. absorb the shorter wavelength scattered radiation (299 338 km per minute).
more than the long wavelength primary radiation. d. 1860 miles per second
c. intensify the photographic effect of the scatter (2993 km per second).
radiation more than that of the primary radiation. A.671
d. cause film overexposure.
A.159 80. Unexposed boxes of X-ray film should be stored:

75. The sharpness of the outline in the image of the a. flat.

radiograph is a measure of: b. on edge or end.
c. in a pile.
a. subject contrast. d. in any arrangement.
b. radiographic definition. E.79
c. radiographic contrast.
d. film contrast. 81. The lead symbol B is attached to the back of the film
A.170 holder to determine:

76. An unshielded isotope source gives a dosage rate of a. sensitivity.

900 mR/h at 10 ft (9000 μSv/h at 3 m). What would b. whether excessive backscatter is present.
the unshielded dosage rate be at 30 ft (9 m)? c. radiographic contrast.
d. density.
a. 300 mR/h (3000 μSv/h) F.E94
b. 600 mR/h (6000 μSv/h)
c. 100 mR/h (1000 μSv/h) 82. Image quality indicators for are considered
d. 2700 mR/h (27 000 μSv/h) Group I Materials and do not need to have an
A.44 identification notch.

77. Which has the shortest wavelength? a. high-temperature nickel-chromium alloy

b. nickel
a. Visible light. c. stainless steel
b. Microwaves. d. aluminum bronze
c. 100 kV peak X-rays. F.E1025
d. Infrared radiation.
E.7

8
 Review Questions

83. The purpose of a dated decay curve is to: 88. The reason a shim is used in a radiographic setup is
to:
a. determine the source size at any time.
b. calculate shielding requirements. a. improve the IQI image.
c. determine the source strength (activity) at any b. reduce diffraction.
time. c. simulate weld thickness.
d. mark the date and length of time for each d. intensify the image.
exposure. A.488
B.97
89. The density of a radiograph image refers to the:
84. Why is Co-60 used as a radiation source for
medium-weight metals of thickness ranges from a. thickness of the film.
1.5 to 9 in. (38.1 to 228.6 mm)? b. thickness of the specimen.
c. weight of the film.
a. Because of its short half-life. d. degree of film blackening.
b. Because of the limited amount of shielding A.164
required.
c. Because of its penetrating ability. 90. Which of the following is not a common method of
d. Because of its weight and ease of handling. absorption of X-radiation and gamma radiation
A.75; B.13-14, 48 during their interaction with matter?

85. The cause for poor image definition could be: a. Photoelectric absorption.
b. Compton effect.
a. too short source-to-film distance. c. Pair production.
b. screens and film in close contact. d. Rayleigh scattering.
c. fine-grain film. A.91
d. smaller source size/effective focal spot.
A.170 91. The image of the appropriate IQI and hole on the
radiograph indicates that the radiograph has the
86. During manual film processing, the purpose of the required:
stop bath is to:
a. contrast.
a. change the exposed silver salts to black metallic b. definition.
silver. c. sensitivity.
b. neutralize the developer and stop the developing d. latitude.
process. B.87
c. eliminate most water spots and streaks.
d. remove all of the undeveloped silver salt of the 92. The primary parts of an atom are:
emulsion.
E.85 a. proton, neutrino, and electron.
b. proton, electron, and gamma ray.
87. A thin, metallic sheet (brass, copper, lead, etc.) placed c. photon, electron, and neutron.
at the source to reduce the effects of softer radiation d. proton, electron, and neutron.
is known as: C.1

a. an intensifying screen. 93. X-rays and gamma rays travel in:

b. a filter.
c. an electron inducer. a. pairs.
d. a focusing cup. b. orbital spheres.
A.155-156 c. straight lines.
d. curved lines.
B.15

9
Radiographic Testing Method l Level i

94. A large source size can be compensated for by: 98. What is sometimes used to change the alternating
current from a high-voltage transformer to direct
a. increasing the source-to-specimen distance. current for the purpose of increasing the X-ray
b. adding lead screens. machine output?
c. increasing the specimen-to-film distance.
d. increasing the penumbra. a. Rectifier.
B.14, 99-100; C.39-40 b. Cathode X-ray tubes.
c. Gas X-ray tube.
95. Radiation arising directly from the target of an X-ray d. Vacuum X-ray tube.
tube or an accelerator, or from a radioactive source, is E.12-13
usually referred to as:
99. In X-radiography, the ability to penetrate the test
a. secondary radiation. object is governed by:
b. primary radiation.
c. backscatter. a. source-to-film distance.
d. inherent radiation. b. time.
A.668 c. kilovoltage.
d. milliamperage.
96. To produce X-rays, electrons are accelerated to a high E.36
velocity by an electrical field and then suddenly
stopped by a collision with a solid body. This body is 100. Which of the following types of radiation is emitted
called a: by Co-60 and used in nondestructive testing?

a. cathode. a. Neutrons.
b. filament. b. Gamma rays.
c. target. c. X-rays.
d. generator. d. Alpha particles.
A. 6, 59 A.44

97. The best X-ray efficiency is produced when the target 101. The term used to describe the loss of excess energy
material has a: by the nucleus of radioactive atoms is called:

a. low atomic number. a. decay (disintegration).

b. high atomic number. b. ionization.
c. low hardness. c. scintillation.
d. high hardness. d. activation.
E.11 A.42

Answers
1c 2d 3c 4b 5d 6a 7c 8b 9c 10d 11c 12b 13b 14c
15a 16a 17d 18b 19d 20d 21c 22a 23c 24b 25a 26b 27a 28c
29d 30a 31d 32d 33b 34c 35a 36b 37d 38c 39c 40c 41d 42a
43b 44d 45b 46d 47b 48c 49d 50d 51b 52b 53b 54b 55b 56b
57a 58d 59c 60b 61c 62b 63b 64c 65b 66a 67d 68c 69b 70b
71d 72a 73c 74a 75b 76c 77c 78b 79a 80b 81b 82c 83c 84c
85a 86b 87b 88c 89d 90d 91c 92d 93c 94a 95b 96c 97b 98a
99c 100b 101a

10
LEVEL II
Review Questions

1. Low-voltage X-ray tubes are generally fitted with 5. A Co-60 gamma-ray source has an approximate
windows made of: practical thickness limit of:

a. plastic. a. 2.5 in. (63.5 mm) of steel or its equivalent.

b. beryllium. b. 4 in. (101.6 mm) of steel or its equivalent.
c. glass. c. 8 in. (203.2 mm) of steel or its equivalent.
d. lead. d. 11 in. (279.4 mm) of steel or its equivalent.
A.62-63; G.306 A.75

2. The projected area of the target of an X-ray tube is 6. The absorption of gamma rays from a given source
called the: when passing through matter depends on:

a. focal spot. a. the atomic number, density, and thickness of the

b. focus. matter.
c. effective focal spot. b. Young’s modulus value of the matter.
d. geometric unsharpness. c. Poisson’s ratio value of the matter.
E.8 d. the specific activity value of the source.
A.48-51, 57
3. The general method of producing X-rays involves the
sudden deceleration of high-velocity electrons in a 7. The fact that gases, when bombarded by radiation,
solid body called a: ionize and become electrically conductive makes
them useful in:
a. focus cup.
b. filament. a. X-ray transformers.
c. target. b. X-ray tubes.
d. cathode. c. masks.
A.62 d. radiation detection equipment.
A.90
4. If it were necessary to radiograph a 7 in.
(177.8 mm) thick steel product, which of the 8. The velocity of electrons striking the target in an
following gamma-ray sources would most likely be X-ray tube is a function of the:
used?
a. atomic number of the cathode material.
a. Co-60 b. atomic number of the filament material.
b. Tm-170 c. voltage difference between the cathode and
c. Ir-192 anode.
d. Cs-137 d. current flow in the rectifier circuit.
A.74-75 E.11

11
Radiographic Testing Method l level ii

9. The uneven distribution of developed grains within 13. The gamma ray intensity at 1 ft (300 mm) from
the emulsion of a processed X-ray film causes the a 1 Ci (37 GBq) source of radioactive Co-60
subjective impression of: is nearest to:

a. graininess. a. 15 R per hour (150 mSv per hour).

b. streaks. b. 1000 R per hour (10 000 mSv per hour).
c. spots. c. 1 R per min (10 mSv per min).
d. white scum. d. 10 mR per day (100 μSv per day).
A.172 A.42-45

Note: If questions similar to 10 or 11 are used on a test, 14. The focal spot in an X-ray tube:
the examinee should be furnished with semilogarithmic
coordinate paper. a. is inclined at an angle of 30° from normal to the
tube axis.
10. Co-60 is reported to have a half-life of 5.3 years. By b. is maintained at a high negative voltage during
how much should exposure time be increased (over operations.
that used initially to produce excellent radiographs c. should be as large as possible to ensure a narrow
when the Co-60 source was new) when the source is beam of primary radiation.
2 years old? d. should be as small as possible without unduly
shortening the life of the tube.
a. No change in exposure time is needed. C.13-14
b. Exposure time should be about 11% longer.
c. Exposure time should be about 37% longer. 15. In an X-ray tube, the filament and focusing cup are
d. Exposure time should be about 62% to 100% the two essential parts of the:
longer.
A.74 a. anode.
b. cathode.
11. A source of Ir-192, whose half-life is 75 days, c. rectifier.
provides an optimum exposure of a given test object d. X-ray transformer.
today in a period of 20 min. Five months from now, A.60
what exposure time would be required for the same
radiographic density, under similar exposure 16. The quantity of radiation that will produce, by means
conditions? of ionization, 1 electrostatic unit of electricity in
0.001293 g of dry air is known as a:
a. 10 min
b. 20 min a. millicurie.
c. 1 h and 20 min b. gamma.
d. 6h c. roentgen.
A.74 d. curie.
A.31-32
12. Of the following, the source providing the most
penetrating radiation is: 17. The specific activity of an isotopic source is usually
measured in:
a. Co-60.
b. 220 kVp X-ray tube. a. million electronvolts (MeV).
c. 15 MeV X-ray betatron. b. curies per gram (Ci/g) [becquerel per gram
d electrons from Ir-192. (Bq/g)].
A.74-76; G.307 c. roentgen per hour (R/h) [coulomb per kilogram
(C/kg)].
d. counts per minute (cpm).
A.455; B.27; C.21

12
 Review Questions

18. Which of the following isotopes has the longest 23. An X-ray tube with a small focal spot is considered
half-life? better than one with a large focal spot when it is
desired to obtain:
a. Tm-170
b. Co-60 a. greater penetrating power.
c. Ir-192 b. better definition.
d. Cs-137 c. less contrast.
A.74-77 d. greater film density.
E.17
19. The primary form of energy conversion when
electrons strike a target in an X-ray tube results in the 24. One method of reducing radiographic contrast is to:
production of:
a. increase the distance between the radiation
a. primary X-rays. source and the object.
b. secondary X-rays. b. decrease the distance between the object and the
c. short wavelength X-rays. film.
d. heat. c. decrease the wavelength of the radiation used.
A. 5; C.17 d. increase development time within manufacturer’s
recommendations.
20. The slope of a straight line joining two points of E.28
specified densities on a characteristic curve of a film
is known as the: 25. Thin sheets of lead foil in intimate contact with X-ray
film during exposure increase film density because
a. speed of the curve. they:
b. latitude.
c. average gradient. a. fluoresce and emit visible light, which helps
d. density. expose the film.
E.138 b. absorb the scattered radiation.
c. prevent backscattered radiation from fogging the
21. An X-ray film having wide latitude also has: film.
d. emit electrons when exposed to X-radiation and
a. poor definition. gamma radiation, which help darken the film.
b. low contrast. A.154
c. high speed.
d. high average gradient. 26. X-ray tubes are often enclosed in a shockproof casing
E.35 in order to:

22. The purpose for circulating oil in some types of a. dissipate heat.
X-ray tubes is to: b. protect the operator from high-voltage shock.
c. shield the tube from secondary radiation.
a. lubricate moving parts. d. increase the efficiency of the rectifier.
b. absorb secondary radiation. A.63
c. decrease the need for high current.
d. dissipate heat. 27. The slope of the characteristic curve of a
A.63 radiographic film is called:

a. speed.
b. latitude.
c. gradient.
d. density.
A.224

13
Radiographic Testing Method l level ii

28. In X-ray radiography, alternating current must be 32. The adjustment of tube current in conventional X-ray
changed to pulsating direct current in order to satisfy tube circuits is made by:
the need for unidirectional current. This change may
be accomplished by: a. adjusting the current supplied to the filament.
b. adjusting the target-to-cathode distance.
a. transformers. c. inserting resistance in the anode lead.
b. rectifiers. d. opening the shutter on the X-ray tube port.
c. anodes. E.10
d. cathodes.
E.12 33. In comparison with lower-voltage radiographs,
high-energy radiographs show:
29. When radiographing to the 2-2T quality level,
an ASTM IQI for 2.5 in. (63.5 mm) steel has a a. greater contrast.
thickness of: b. greater latitude.
c. greater amounts of scatter radiation relative to
a. 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) primary beam intensity.
b. 0.0025 in. (0.064 mm) d. greater gradient.
c. 0.005 in. (0.127 mm) A.151, 170
d. 0.05 in. (1.27 mm)
F.E94 34. Filters used at the port of the X-ray tube:

30. A good Co-60 radiograph is made on a 3 in. a. intensify the X-ray beam by contributing
(76.2 mm) steel casting using an exposure time secondary radiation.
of 10 min and a source-to-film distance of 36 in. b. filter short wavelength X-ray beams to provide
(914.4 mm). If it is necessary to change the softer radiation.
source-to-film distance to 24 in. (609.6 mm), what c. provide the most readily adjusted means of
exposure time would produce a similar radiograph if modifying X-ray intensity.
all other conditions remain the same? d. filter out soft radiation to provide a more
homogeneous X-ray beam.
a. 1.6 min E.55
b. 4.4 min
c. 6.4 min 35. An ASTM IQI for use when inspecting a 0.5 in.
d. 8.8 min (12.7 mm) thick steel plate to the 2-2T quality level
E.30 using a 16 in. (406.4 mm) source-to-film distance
would be made of:
31. When sharp, black, bird-foot shaped marks,
which are known not to correspond with any a. 0.005 in. (0.127 mm) thick aluminum.
discontinuities, appear at random on radiographs, b. 0.05 in. (1.27 mm) thick aluminum or steel.
they are probably caused by: c. 0.01 in. (0.254 mm) thick steel.
d. 0.002 in. (0.051 mm) strip of any metallic
a. prolonged development in old developer. material.
b. exposure of the film by natural cosmic ray F.E94, E1025
showers during storage.
c. static charges caused by friction.
d. inadequate rinsing after fixing.
E.98

14
 Review Questions

36. Filters placed between the X-ray tube and specimen 40. The amount of unsharpness or blurring of a
tend to reduce scatter radiation, undercutting the radiograph is:
specimen by:
a. directly proportional to the object-to-film
a. absorbing the longer wavelength components of distance and inversely proportional to the size of
the primary beam. the focal spot.
b. absorbing the shorter wavelength components of b. directly proportional to the size of the focal spot
the primary beam. and inversely proportional to the source-to-object
c. absorbing backscatter radiation. distance.
d. decreasing the intensity of the beam. c. inversely proportional to the object-to-film
F.E94-3 distance and directly proportional to the
source-to-object distance.
37. Besides serving as a filter, screens of high atomic d. inversely proportional to the size of the focal spot
numbers, such as lead and lead antimony, also: and the object-to-film distance.
A.142-146; C.40; G.311-313
a. decrease the source-to-film distance needed for a
proper radiograph. 41. Images of discontinuities close to the source side of
b. provide some image intensifying action. the specimen become less clearly defined as:
c. permit the use of higher speed film.
d. decrease the graininess in a radiograph. a. source-to-object distance increases.
E.33 b. the thickness of the specimen increases.
c. the size of the focal spot decreases.
38. The range of thickness over which densities are d. the thickness of the specimen decreases.
obtained that are satisfactory for interpretation is a A.142-146
measure of the:
42. X-ray films with large grain size:
a. subject contrast of a radiograph.
b. sensitivity of a radiograph. a. produce radiographs with better definition than
c. latitude of a radiograph. film with small grain size.
d. definition of a radiograph. b. have slower speeds than those with a relatively
A.150-151 small grain size.
c. have higher speeds than those with a relatively
39. Almost all gamma radiography is performed with: small grain size.
d. take longer to expose properly than film with
a. natural isotopes. relatively small grain size.
b. Ir-192, Co-60, or Cs-137. A.171-172
c. radium.
d. Tm-170. 43. As the effective energy of the radiation increases:
A.74-78
a. film graininess increases.
b. film graininess decreases.
c. radiographic definition increases.
d. film speed decreases.
A.172

44. The half-life of radioactive Cs-137 is nearest to:

a. 36 days.
b. 6 years.
c. 30 years.
d. 526 days.
A.74

15
Radiographic Testing Method l level ii

45. The most commonly used target material in an X-ray 49. A gas-filled region located in an electrical field
tube is: created by electrodes across which a potential
difference is applied forms the major portion of:
a. copper.
b. carbon. a. a low-voltage X-ray tube.
c. carbide. b. a megger.
d. tungsten. c. a hot cathode X-ray tube.
A.62 d. an ionization chamber.
A.91
46. The purpose for including a disk-shaped target that
rotates rapidly during operation in some X-ray tubes 50. Two serious obstacles to high-intensity fluoroscopy
is to: are:

a. increase the intensity of X-radiation. a. the inability to reproduce results and the need for
b. decrease the voltage needed for a specific quality periodic replacement of screens.
of radiation. b. the limited brightness and large grain size of
c. increase the permissible load. fluoroscopic screens.
d. decrease the intensity of X-radiation. c. cost and slow speed.
A.61 d. the need for using long wavelength X-rays and
the lack of X-ray intensity associated with this
47. A device that is basically a combination of magnet method.
and transformer designed to guide and accelerate E.161
electrons in a circular orbit to very high energies is
called: 51. In general, the quality of fluoroscopic equipment is
best determined by:
a. an electrostatic belt generator.
b. a linear accelerator. a. densitometer readings.
c. a betatron. b. IQI sensitivity measurements.
d. a toroidal electromagnetic type X-ray tube. c. discontinuity area measurements.
A.68 d. reference standards.
A.277
48. Two isotropic sources of a given strength have two
different specific activity values. The source with the 52. In fluoroscopic testing, a fundamental difficulty is
higher specific activity value will: the relative low brightness level of the images. One
method for increasing brightness uses
a. have a smaller physical size than the source with a that converts light energy from the initial phosphor
lower specific activity. surface to electrons, which are in turn accelerated
b. have a shorter half-life than the source with a and focused onto a smaller fluorescent screen.
lower specific activity.
c. produce harder gamma rays than the source with a. a betatron
a lower specific activity. b. an electron amplifier
d. have a larger physical size than the source with c. an image amplifier or intensifier
the lower specific activity. d. an electrostatic belt generator
E.17 A.254

16
 Review Questions

53. A general rule governing the application of the 58. X-ray exposure holders and cassettes often
geometric principles of shadow formation states that incorporate a sheet of lead foil in the back, which is
the: not in intimate contact with the film. The purpose of
this sheet of lead foil is:
a. X-rays should proceed from as large a focal spot
as other considerations will allow. a. to act as an intensifying screen.
b. distance between the radiation source and the b. to protect the film from backscatter radiation.
material examined should be as small as practical. c. to support the holders and cassettes.
c. film should be as far as possible from the object d. not for specific use.
being radiographed. A.155
d. central ray should be as nearly perpendicular to
the film as possible to preserve spatial 59. A lead sheet containing a pinhole may be placed
relationships. halfway between the X-ray tube and the film in
A.143 order to:

54. The developer solution is: a. determine the approximate size of the focal spot.
b. measure the intensity of the central ray.
a. acidic. c. filter scatter radiation.
b. alkaline. d. soften the X-radiation.
c. saline. E.26
d. colloidal.
A.232 60. In certain cases, it may be advantageous to pack lead
shot around a specimen. The purpose for doing this
55. The radiographic absorption of a material will tend is to:
to become less dependent upon the composition of
the material when: a. prevent movement of the specimen.
b. increase the subject contrast.
a. the kilovoltage is increased. c. generate smaller wavelength X-radiation.
b. the source-to-film distance is decreased. d. decrease the effect of scattered radiation
c. the kilovoltage is decreased. undercutting the specimen.
d. a filter is used. A.155
A.152
61. When performing radiography on steel with a
56. The formula (milliamperes × time) ÷ distance2 is: thickness less than 1 in. (25.4 mm):

a. used to calculate film gradient. a. Co-60 would give greater radiographic sensitivity
b. the reciprocity law. than a 250 kV X-ray machine.
c. used to determine radiographic contrast. b. a 250 kV X-ray machine would give greater
d. the exposure factor. radiographic sensitivity than Co-60.
A.143 c. the use of fluorescent screens would result in a
radiograph of better quality than would lead foil
57. The capacity that can be handled by an X-ray tube screens.
focal spot is governed by: d. the use of lead foil screens will require a shorter
exposure time than will fluorescent screens.
a. the composition of the cathode. A.75
b. the size of the focal spot and the efficiency of the
cooling system of the anode.
c. the distance from the anode to the cathode.
d. the high-voltage waveform.
A.61; G.302

17
Radiographic Testing Method l level ii

62. A radiograph made with an exposure of 12 mA 66. For practical purposes, the shape of the characteristic
minutes has a density of 0.8 in the region of curve of an X-ray film is:
maximum interest. It is desired to increase the
density to 2.0 in this area. By reference to a a. independent of the type of film used.
characteristic curve of the film, it is found that the b. independent of the quality of X-radiation or
difference in log E, between a density of 0.8 and 2.0, gamma radiation.
is 0.76. The antilogarithm of log 0.76 is 5.8. What c. drastically changed when the quality of X-ray
must the new exposure time be to produce a radiation is changed.
radiograph with a density of 2.0? d. primarily determined by the subject contrast.
E.69
a. 9.12 mA minutes
b. 21.12 mA minutes 67. The interval between the time a film is placed in a
c. 69.6 mA minutes fixer solution and the time when the original diffuse,
d. 16 mA minutes yellow milkiness disappears is known as:
A.168-169
a. clearing time.
63. The absorption of radiation by a material varies: b. fixing time.
c. hardening time.
a. directly with the square of the distance from the d. oxidation time.
source. E.111
b. with the thickness of the material.
c. inversely with the amount of scattering in the 68. Improper geometric factors, poor contact between
material. film and lead foil screens, and graininess of film are
d. in an approximately exponential manner with the possible causes of:
thickness of the material.
A.57, 152 a. high film density.
b. poor definition.
64. The photoelectric effect involves: c. fogged film.
d. low film density.
a. the visible electromagnetic spectrum. A.143, 159-160, 170-171
b. an electric camera.
c. complete absorption of a photon. 69. A radiograph of a steel weldment is made using a
d. photodisintegration. 15 MeV betatron. When the radiograph is developed,
A.48 there is an overall film mottling. A possible cause for
such mottling is:
65. In order for a radiograph to have an IQI sensitivity of
2-2T or better: a. incorrect exposure time.
b. excessive object-to-film distance.
a. the radiographic procedure has to be able to c. failure to use a lead screen during exposure.
differentiate a 2% difference in specimen d. excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays.
thickness. A.158
b. the radiographic procedure must be able to define
the 2T hole in an IQI that is 2% of the thickness 70. A basic difference between a radiograph and a
of the specimen. fluoroscopic image is:
c. the radiograph must be able to distinguish a
discontinuity with a length equivalent to 2% of a. the fluoroscopic image is more sensitive.
the specimen thickness. b. the fluoroscopic image is a positive whereas the
d. all the holes on the IQI must be seen on the radiograph is a negative transparency.
radiograph. c. the fluoroscopic image is brighter.
A.172 d. negligible.
E.161

18
 Review Questions

71. A 1000 kVp X-ray machine used in conjunction with 75. The most important factor for determining the
a lead foil screen has an approximate practical amount of X-ray absorption of a specimen is the:
thickness limit of:
a. thickness of the specimen.
a. 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) of steel or its equivalent. b. density of the specimen.
b. 3 in. (76.2 mm) of steel or its equivalent. c. atomic nature of the material.
c. 5 in. (127 mm) of steel or its equivalent. d. Young’s modulus of the material.
d. 16 in. (406.4 mm) of steel or its equivalent. E.31
E.15
76. The approximate radiographic equivalent factors for
72. Because of geometric factors such as source size, steel and copper at 220 kV are 1.0 and 1.4
source-to-specimen distance, and specimen-to-film respectively. If it is desirable to radiograph a 0.5 in.
distance, there can be a lack of perfect sharpness at (12.7 mm) plate of copper, what thickness of steel
the edges of indications. The unsharpness caused by would require about the same exposure
geometrical factors may be referred to as the: characteristics?

a. astigmatic effect. a. 0.7 in. (17.8 mm) of steel.

b. penumbral shadow. b. 0.35 in. (8.9 mm) of steel.
c. focus variation. c. 1.4 in. (35.6 mm) of steel.
d. geometrical noise. d. 1.0 in. (25.4 mm) of steel.
B.13, 14, 99, 173 A.152-153

73. Two factors which greatly affect the suitability of the 77. Which of the following technique variables is most
target material in an X-ray tube are: commonly used to adjust subject contrast?

a. tensile strength and yield strength. a. Source-to-film distance.

b. melting point and magnetic strength. b. Milliamperage.
c. electrical resistance and tensile strength. c. Kilovoltage.
d. atomic number and melting point. d. Focal point size.
E.10 A.151

74. The reason the exposure time must be increased by a 78. Films that are left between lead screens too long in a
factor of four when the source-to-film distance is high-temperature and high-humidity atmosphere
doubled is that: may:

a. the intensity of radiation decreases at an a. show increased speed but decreased quality
exponential rate when the source-to-film characteristics.
distance is increased. b. become fogged.
b. the quality of radiation is inversely proportional c. become mottled.
to the square root of the distance from the source d. show tree-shaped light areas in the finished
to the film. radiograph.
c. the intensity of radiation is inversely proportional A.161
to the square of the distance from the source to
the film. 79. The quantitative measure of film blackening is
d. the scattered radiation effect is greater as the referred to as:
source-to-film distance increases.
A.146-147; B.18; C.5 a. definition.
b. photographic density.
c. film contrast.
d. radiographic contrast.
A.164

19
Radiographic Testing Method l level ii

80. A curve that relates density with the logarithm of 85. The slope (steepness) of a characteristic curve is a
exposure or of relative exposure is called: measure of:

a. a sensitivity curve. a. subject contrast.

b. a density-exposure curve. b. radiographic definition.
c. a characteristic curve. c. radiographic contrast.
d. an X-ray intensity curve. d. film contrast.
A.167 E.89

81. Subject contrast is not affected by: 86. A special radiographic method requiring two
radiographs taken during separate exposures from
a. thickness differences in the specimen. two different positions to give the visual impression
b. radiation quality. of a three-dimensional display when viewed in an
c. scattered radiation. optical device simultaneously is called:
d. film size.
A.170-171 a. fluoroscopy.
b. xeroradiography.
82. Which of the following instruments would exhibit c. stereo radiography.
the best sensitivity and most likely be used to detect d. parallel radiography.
small leaks in a radiation barrier? A.421, 425

a. A film badge. 87. The depth of a discontinuity can be estimated by

b. A fountain-pen-type ionization chamber. making two exposures on a single film from two
c. A geiger counter. different positions of the X-ray tube. The depth of the
d. A dosimeter. discontinuity is computed from the shift in the
A.98 shadow of the discontinuity with respect to the
images of fixed markers on the front and back of the
83. At voltages above 400 kV, the use of lead to provide specimen. The method is called:
protection may present serious problems. If this is a
serious problem, which of the following materials a. stereo radiography.
would most likely be used as a substitute? b. xeroradiography.
c. fluoroscopy.
a. Aluminum. d. the parallax method of depth location.
b. Concrete. A.419, 421
c. Steel.
d. Boron. 88. Agitation of the developer during the development
A.132 process may:

84. A qualitative term often used to indicate the size of a. speed the developing cycle.
the smallest detail that can be seen in a radiograph is: b. help replenish the developer.
c. cause undesirable, preferential flow of developer
a. radiographic sensitivity. along certain paths.
b. radiographic definition. d. cause reticulation.
c. radiographic contrast. A.233
d. subject contrast.
A.170

20
 Review Questions

89. The activity of the fixer diminishes after being used 94. A distinctive characteristic of high-voltage
for a period of time because the: radiography is that:

a. active ingredients evaporate. a. it results in comparatively high subject contrast.

b. active ingredients are absorbed by the radiograph. b. it results in comparatively high radiographic
c. fixer solution accumulates soluble silver salts. contrast.
d. active ingredients settle to the bottom of the tank. c. it is applicable to comparatively thick or highly
A.235; E.111 absorbing specimens.
d. there is no contrast in high-voltage radiography.
90. In processing radiographs, the hourly flow of water in A.150
the wash tank should be:
95. Lead screens are used for almost all exposures when
a. 2-3 times the volume of the tank. using:
b. 4-8 times the volume of the tank.
c. at least 40 gal (151.4 L) per hour. a. the fluoroscopic technique.
d. varied continuously in proportion to the number b. low-voltage radiography.
of radiographs being developed. c. high-voltage radiography.
E.112 d. xeroradiography.
A.159, 160
91. The equation for determining geometric unsharpness
Ug is Ug/F = d/Do. Which change below will decrease 96. Which of the following glasses would most likely be
the geometric unsharpness? used as an X-ray barrier window on fluoroscopic
equipment?
a. Source-to-object distance decreases.
b. Object-to-film distance increases. a. Heat-resistant glass.
c. Size of radiation source decreases. b. Lead glass.
d. Thickness of test specimen decreases. c. Optical glass.
A.145 d. Barium oxide glass.
E.161
92. Increasing the X-ray or gamma-ray energy will:
97. Radiographic undercutting is caused by:
a. significantly decrease the average gradient of a
characteristic curve. a. side scatter.
b. significantly increase the average gradient of a b. poor geometry.
characteristic curve. c. lead screens.
c. increase the slope of a characteristic curve. d. free electrons.
d. have little effect on the shape of a characteristic E.50
curve.
A.224-225 98. When other operating conditions are held constant, a
change in tube current causes a change in radiation
93. As the development time increases: intensity emitted from an X-ray tube, the intensity
being approximately proportional to tube current.
a. the characteristic curve grows steeper and moves What is the primary factor that prevents this from
to the left. being exactly proportional?
b. the characteristic curve grows steeper and moves
to the right. a. The voltage and voltage waveform of an X-ray
c. the characteristic curve remains the same in machine transformer vary with load.
shape but moves to the left. b. Wavelength changes are not exactly proportional.
d. there is little effect on the characteristic curve. c. Current cannot be changed at a linear rate.
A.226 d. Scatter radiation does not vary at a proportional
rate.
A.141

21
Radiographic Testing Method l level ii

99. When viewing a radiograph, an image of the back of 104. If a specimen is radiographed at 40 kV and again at
the cassette superimposed on the image of the 50 kV with time compensation to give the
specimen is noted. This is most likely due to: radiographs the same density, which of the following
statements would be true?
a. undercut.
b. overexposure. a. The 40 kV exposure would have a lower contrast
c. the X-ray intensity was too high. and a greater latitude than the 50 kV exposure.
d. backscatter. b. The 40 kV exposure would have a higher contrast
A.153, 154 and a greater latitude than the 50 kV exposure.
c. The 50 kV exposure would have a lower contrast
100. The half-value layer of lead for Co-60 is and a greater latitude than the 40 kV exposure.
approximately 0.5 in. (12.7 mm). If the radiation level d. The 50 kV exposure would have a higher contrast
on the source side of a 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) lead plate is and a greater latitude than the 40 kV exposure.
64 R/h (640 mSv/h), the radiation level on the E.30
opposite side is:
105. A 250 kVp X-ray machine used in conjunction with a
a. 8 R/h (80 mSv/h) lead foil screen has an approximate practical
b. 21.33 R/h (213 mSv/h) thickness limit of:
c. 10.66 R/h (106 mSv/h)
d. 32 R/h (320 mSv/h) a. 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) of steel or its equivalent.
A.51 b. 2.0 in. (50.8 mm) of steel or its equivalent.
c. 6.0 in. (152.4 mm) of steel or its equivalent.
101. Which of the following is not a factor in determining d. 7.5 in. (190 mm) of steel or its equivalent.
subject contrast? E.15

a. The nature of the specimen. 106. The degree of concentration of the radioactive
b. The radiation quality used. material in a gamma-ray source is referred to as the:
c. The type of film used.
d. Intensity and distribution of the scattered a. specific activity of the source.
radiation. b. quality of the source.
A.170 c. atomic weight of the source.
d. half-life of the source.
102. If an exposure time of 60 s and a source-to-film E.15
distance of 4 ft (1.22 m) is necessary for a particular
exposure, what exposure time would be needed for 107. In million-volt radiography, filtration at the tube:
an equivalent exposure if the source-to-film distance
is changed to 6 ft (1.83 m)? a. increases the generation of short wavelength
X-rays.
a. 27 s b. decreases the generation of short wavelength
b. 49 s X-rays.
c. 135 s c. improves the radiographic quality by decreasing
d. 400 s scatter radiation.
A.147 d. offers no improvement in radiographic quality.
E.45
103. Developer solution should be discarded when the
quantity of replenisher added equals: 108. Film selection for an X-ray exposure does not depend
on:
a. the original quantity of developer.
b. 2-3 times the original quantity of developer. a. the thickness of the part.
c. 5-6 times the original quantity of developer. b. the material of the specimen.
d. 10 times the original quantity of developer. c. the voltage range of the X-ray machine.
E.110 d. radiation absorption in the air.
A.164

22
 Review Questions

109. While using an X-ray tube for radiography, the
operator wants to increase the radiation intensity. To
do so, the:
a. kilovoltage should be lowered.
b. tube current should be increased.
c. test specimen should be moved farther from the
film.
d. tube current should be decreased.
A.28
113. With respect to quality, what three factors must be
considered in selecting a source-to-film distance?
a. Source activity, type of film, type of screens.
b. Source activity, size of film, thickness of material.
c. Source size, source activity, specimen-to-film
distance.
d. Source size, source side of object-to-film distance,
required geometric unsharpness.
A.145-146; E.22-23

110. Lead screens are put in direct contact with the 114. On a radiograph of a pipe weld, there is a very light
film to: irregularly shaped small image in the weld. This
image would most likely be due to the presence of:
a. limit the photographic action on the film.
b. absorb the shorter wavelength scattered radiation. a. porosity.
c. intensify the photographic effect of the primary b. slag inclusion.
more than the scattered radiation. c. tungsten inclusion.
d. protect the film from poor handling. d. inadequate buildup.
A.159 A.208

111. The main purpose of the X-ray generator controls on 115. A larger physical size source may produce an
the equipment is to: equivalent quality radiograph if:

a. maintain the direction and width of the X-ray a. the source-to-film distance is increased.
beam. b. more backing lead is used.
b. enable the operator to obtain the intensity, quality, c. a faster film is used.
and duration of exposure desired. d. exposure time is decreased.
c. allow the operator to adjust film focal distance B.13-14; E.20
remotely.
d. change alternating current to increase X-ray 116. A light image of a backing B on a processed
intensity. radiograph is probably caused by:
A.141
a. excessive density.
112. When X-rays, gamma rays, light, or electrons strike b. backscatter.
the photographic emulsion, a change takes place in c. kilovoltage set too low.
the silver halide crystals. This change is called: d. poor film handling.
F.E94
a. photographic density.
b. photographic sensitivity. 117. Co-59 becomes Co-60 when it is placed in a nuclear
c. latent image. reactor where it captures:
d. characteristic curve.
A.140 a. an electron.
b. a neutron.
c. a proton.
d. contamination.
A.74

23
Radiographic Testing Method l level ii

118. When a faster speed film is substituted for a slower 122. The range of specimen thicknesses that can be
one to improve the economics of the exposure, which adequately recorded on the radiograph is called:
of the following conditions occurs?
a. sensitivity of the radiograph.
a. The film must receive special processing. b. latitude of the radiograph.
b. The definition will improve. c. accuracy of the radiograph.
c. The image resolution will be reduced. d. intensity of the source.
d. It will have no effect on the radiograph. G.329
B.48
123. Approximately how long would it take for a 10 Ci
119. For a given change in the radiation exposure, film (370 GBq) Co-60 source to decay to 2.5 Ci (93 GBq)?
contrast is the inherent ability to show:
a. 5.3 years
a. a difference in density. b. 7.9 years
b. no graininess. c. 10.6 years
c. graininess. d. 15.9 years
d. no appreciable change in density. A.75
B.44
124. An exposure technique is established to obtain a 2.0
120. The ability of a material to block or partially block density using type D film and automatic processing at
the passage of X-rays and gamma rays is called: 81 °F (27 °C). In order to obtain comparable results
using manual processing at 68 °F (20 °C) and 5-min
a. penetration. development time, it would be necessary for the
b. absolution. original exposure time to be:
c. absorption.
d. latitude. a. reduced by approximately 30%.
E.31 b. increased by approximately 99%.
c. increased by approximately 30%.
121. Source size, specimen thickness, and source-to- d. reduced by approximately 99%.
specimen distance are the three factors that A.222-236
determine the:

a. density of the radiograph. Note: The two characteristic curves of Figures 1

b. exposure of the radiograph. and 2 on page 25 may be used in solving
c. film size. problem 124.
d. unsharpness recorded on the radiograph.
B.13

24
 Review Questions

NOTE: Using Figure 1, answer question 124. NOTE: Using Figure 2, answer question 124.

Exposure: 200 kVp Lead Screens Exposure: 200 kVp Lead Screens
Developer: 81 °F (27.7 °C) with 11 min Dry-to-Dry Cycle Developer: 5 min at 68 °F (-20 °C)

4.0 4.0

3.5 3.5
Manual processing
5-min development
3.0 3.0
Automatic processing

2.5 2.5

Density
Density

2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0 0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Log Relative Exposure Log Relative Exposure

Figure 1 Figure 2

Answers
1b 2c 3c 4a 5c 6a 7d 8c 9a 10c 11c 12c 13a 14d
15b 16c 17b 18d 19d 20c 21b 22d 23b 24c 25d 26b 27c 28b
29d 30b 31c 32a 33b 34d 35c 36a 37b 38c 39b 40b 41b 42c
43a 44c 45d 46c 47c 48a 49d 50b 51b 52c 53d 54b 55a 56d
57b 58b 59a 60d 61b 62c 63d 64c 65b 66b 67a 68b 69c 70b
71c 72b 73d 74c 75c 76a 77c 78b 79b 80c 81d 82c 83b 84a
85c 86c 87d 88c 89c 90b 91c 92d 93a 94c 95c 96b 97a 98a
99d 100a 101c 102c 103b 104c 105b 106a 107d 108d 109b 110c 111b 112c
113d 114c 115a 116b 117b 118c 119a 120c 121d 122b 123c 124b

25
LEVEL III
Review Questions

Nature of Penetrating Radiation Interaction Between Penetrating Radiation

1. Atoms of the same element that have different and Matter
numbers of neutrons are called of the 5. A consequence of a series of single events occurring
element. as a radiation beam passes through material is a
decrease in intensity. The process is called:
a. molecules
b. isotopes a. photoelectric effect.
c. isotones b. ionization.
d. isomers c. absorption.
C.2 d. half-value thickness.
B.9
2. The number of positive charges on the nucleus of an
atom equals the: 6. The number of ion pairs produced by particle per
unit path is called:
a. number of neutrons.
b. atomic number. a. secondary ionization.
c. number of photons. b. total ionization.
d. atomic weight. c. specific ionization.
C.2 d. roentgen.
A. 5, 91
3. Unlike beta and alpha particles, neutrons have no:
7. Pair production occurs when electromagnetic
a. charge. radiation consists of photons in what energy range?
b. mass.
c. spin. a. 0.025 to 0.1 MeV
d. half-life. b. 30 to 50 MeV
A.39 c. 1.02 MeV or greater
d. 0.1 to 1.0 MeV
4. Radiation scattering increases as: A. 0; C.4

a. the energy of the incident radiation decreases. 8. In the photoelectric interaction process:
b. the size of the radiation field decreases.
c. the angle of scatter increases. a. electrons are emitted.
d. pair production is eliminated. b. characteristic X-rays are emitted.
A.153 c. secondary photons are emitted.
d. an electron-positron pair is produced.
B. 2; C.3

27
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

9. The compton interaction process is characterized by: Film Radiography

14. According to accepted theory, the spots at which the
a. absence of secondary radiation. latent image is localized on the emulsion are local
b. no transfer of energy upon interaction. concentrations of:
c. production of an electron-positron pair.
d. partial transfer of energy upon collision. a. silver sulfide.
B.23; C.4 b. silver bromide.
c. silver iodide.
10. The major component of scatter is the low-energy d. silver nitrate.
electromagnetic radiation produced by photons E.147
weakened in the:
Imaging by Fluorescent Materials
a. photoelectric process. 15. The bunsen-roscoe reciprocity law, which states that
b. compton process. the developed film density depends only on the
c. pair production process. product of radiation intensity times exposure
d. ionization process. duration, fails for:
B.23; C.4
a. direct gamma-ray exposures.
11. The increase in radiation passing through matter due b. fluorescent screen exposures.
to scatter in the forward direction is called: c. lead screen exposures.
d. direct X-ray exposures.
a. buildup. E.48, 141
b. reduction factor.
c. backscatter. 16. In photofluorography, where a fluoroscopic screen is
d. bremsstrahlung. used for radiographic imaging, it is important to
B.24 choose a screen that has a visible light emission that
is relatively high at the X-ray wavelengths to be used
12. High-energy photons of 1.02 MeV or greater typically and that:
interact with matter by which one of the following?
a. matches the wavelength sensitivity of the human
a. Photoelectric process. eye.
b. Compton process. b. has a minimum decay time.
c. Pair production process. c. can be viewed directly without the use of leaded
d. Thermionic process. glass or mirrors.
A.50; B.23; C.4
d. matches the wavelength sensitivity of the
particular image detector being used.
13. In which of the following processes will some energy A.257
of the interacting photon be used to dislodge the
electron from the K or L shell and the remainder be
used to give the electron kinetic energy?

a. Photoelectric process.
b. Compton process.
c. Pair production process.
d. Ionization process.
A.381; C.107

28
 Review Questions

17. When comparing fluorescent intensifying screens
with lead foil screens, the primary advantage is:
a. improved image resolution.
b. markedly increased exposure times.
c. markedly decreased exposure times.
d. relative insensitivity to scattered radiation.
F.E94
18. Fluoroscopy of a specimen using a 140 kVp 10 mA
X-ray source results in an intensity of 660 mSv/min
(66 R/min) at the screen surface. Of the screen
brightness values and approximate screen colors
below (for the stated radiation level), which
represents the most desirable screen for use in direct
viewing fluoroscopy?
a. brightness – 9.8 lx (0.91 ftc);
color – green
b. brightness – 8.5 lx (0.79 ftc);
color – yellow
c. brightness – 7 lx (0.65 ftc);
color – blue
d. brightness – 4.6 lx (0.43 ftc);
color – green
A.257, 267
20. A fundamental difficulty of fluorescent imaging is the
relatively low brightness level of the images.
Electronic fluoroscopy can help to eliminate this
problem by all but which one of the following?
a. Using X-ray tubes of lower operating potential.
b. Using an image tube.
c. Using X-ray tubes of greater effective loading.
d. Using the X-ray television system.
A.254
Radiometry
21. The roentgen is defined as the amount of:
a. radiation emitted by 1 Ci of Ir-192 at a distance of
1 m (3.3 ft).
b. X- or gamma radiation of 0.1 μJ (1 erg) of energy
in 1 g of dry air at standard temperature and
pressure.
c. X- or gamma radiation that will produce
1 electrostatic unit of charge in 1 cm3 of dry air
at standard temperature and pressure.
d. X- or gamma radiation absorbed by 1 cm3
of water at 0 °C (32 °F) and 101 kPa (760 mm
of Hg).
A.32

Imaging by Electronic Devices Generators and Tubes as an Integrated System

19. Unlike other commercially available X-ray 22. X-ray generators built to provide X-rays at very low
intensification systems, the direct X-ray pickup tube: energy levels are used in special areas in
nondestructive testing. The single section X-ray tubes
a. has quantum energy losses exceeding a factor of in these low voltage units are usually built with thin
500. windows of what material to permit soft X-rays to
b. has extremely low sensitivity. emerge from the vacuum envelope?
c. converts the X-ray image directly into an
electrical signal. a. Beryllium.
d. converts X-rays to light and light to electrical b. Germanium.
signals. c. Selenium.
A.254 d. Heat-resistant glass.
A.412, 530

29
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

NOTE: Using Figure 3, answer questions 23 through 27. 26. The kilovoltage selector is shown by:

23. The meter that typically shows the beam current is: a. F
b. A
a. B c. D
b. D d. H
c. F
d. C 27. The timer is shown by:

24. The filament transformer is shown by: a. J

b. H
a. G c. F
b. I d. I
c. C
d. E 28. The focal spot should be as small as conditions
permit, in order to obtain:
25. The autotransformer is shown by:
a. the sharpest possible definition.
a. G b. the minimum size of the unit.
b. I c. the maximum energy density.
c. C d. the maximum grain size.
d. E E.22

X Y

J
E

Figure 3: Schematic of a basic X-ray circuit.

30
 Review Questions

Sources of Electrons 33. In a betatron, electrons are accelerated by which of

29. The focusing cup of the cathode in an X-ray tube the following?
determines the size of the electron beam by:
a. Field emission.
a. surrounding the emerging beam with an b. High-frequency magnetic field.
electronic field that repels the beam into a more c. High-frequency electrical wave.
localized form. d. Accelerating magnets.
b. limiting the maximum amperage of the filament D.63
current.
c. reducing the negative charge on the glass walls of 34. In a linear accelerator, the electrons are accelerated by
the tube caused by secondary electrons scattered which of the following?
by the target.
d. controlling the electric field between the anode a. High-frequency electrical wave.
and the cathode. b. Accelerating magnets.
A.60 c. Neutron bombardment.
d. Changing magnetic fields of an AC
30. Early X-ray tubes used a cold cathode from which electromagnet.
electrons were released by: E.11

a. reflection from the target in the anode of the 35. In a high-voltage generator of the electrostatic
tube. van de graaff type, by which method are the particles
b. increasing the kilovoltage. accelerated?
c. positive ion bombardment.
d. heating a filament. a. Accelerating magnets.
A.59 b. High-frequency electrical waves.
c. Static negative charges.
Electron Accelerating Methods d. High-frequency radio waves.
31. The betatron accelerates electrons by: D.63

a. radio-frequency energy. 36. Flash X-ray tubes are usually designed to produce
b. magnetic induction. electrons for acceleration by which one of the
c. use of a nonconducting charging belt. following methods?
d. resonating the high voltage to the frequency of
the AC power. a. Hot emission.
A. 8; C.14 b. Cold-cathode field emission.
c. Changing magnetic field of a transformer
32. What method is not used for generation of X-rays in primary.
the multimillion volt range? d. High-frequency electrical waves.
D.62
a. Electrostatic generator.
b. Betatron.
c. Linear accelerator.
d. Selenium target generator.
D.63

31
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

Target Materials and Characteristics 41. An important design consideration of X-ray tubes,
37. Tungsten is the preferred target material for X-ray based on the low efficiency of X-ray production, is:
tubes used in industrial X-ray machines because it
provides a double advantage. One of the advantages a. target angle.
is that: b. focal spot size.
c. accelerating voltage.
a. the efficiency of the tungsten material in the d. heat dissipation.
production of X-rays is proportional to its atomic A.61
number.
b. it has a low melting point. 42. In choosing a suitable metal for an X-ray tube target,
c. the efficiency of the tungsten material in the which of the following is not a property that is
production of X-rays is inversely proportional to normally considered?
its atomic number.
d. it has a high curie point. a. Atomic number.
E.7 b. Melting point.
c. Mass attenuation coefficient.
38. The efficiency of the target material in the d. Thermal conductivity.
production of X-rays is proportional to: D.59

a. kilovoltage. Isotope Sources

b. spacing of electrodes. 43. Of the isotopes listed below, which is a fission
c. atomic number. fragment from the induced fission of Ur-235?
d. Avogadro’s number.
E.7, 11 a. Co-60
b. Cs-137
39. In choosing a suitable metal for a target material, the c. Ir-192
principal properties to be considered are all but d. Tm-170
which one of the following? A.76

a. High atomic number. 44. Because it is frequently supplied as a water-soluble

b. High melting point. compound, which of the following is considered to
c. High thermal conductivity. have an additional radiological hazard potential
d. High vapor pressure. associated with it?
D.59
a. Co-60
Equipment Design Considerations b. Tm-170
40. Another way to alleviate the localized heating of the c. Ir-192
target is with a: d. Cs-137
B.39
a. rotating anode.
b. hot anode.
c. hooded anode.
d. line-focus anode.
A.61

32
 Review Questions

45. Which one of the following radioisotope sources 49. Co-60 emits gamma rays of:
would be the best choice for radiography of a steel
specimen 9.5 mm (0.375 in.) thick from an energy a. 1.17 and 1.33 MeV
standpoint? b. 0.66 MeV
c. 1.09 and 1.29 MeV
a. Co-60 d. 1.36 and 2.75 MeV
b. Tm-170 A.44, 75
c. Ir-192
d. Cf-252 50. The principal gamma rays emitted by Ir-192 are:
B.39
a. 0.66, 0.84, and 0.91 MeV
46. The half-life is a useful characteristic of a b. 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV
radioisotope. After 6 half-lives, the amount of c. 0.08, 0.05, and 0.66 MeV
decaying atoms is reduced to approximately what d. 0.15, 1.12, and 0.18 MeV
percent of the amount at the beginning? A.44, 75; E.13

a. 2% 51. Which of the following is true for a smaller isotope

b. 3% source of higher specific activity?
c. 6%
d. 1% a. It suffers more from self-absorption of its own
A. 2; D.12 gamma radiation.
b. There is more geometric unsharpness in the
47. Generally, sources of high specific activity are radiograph.
more desirable because they have c. It requires more safety margin.
self-absorption. d. It allows shorter source-to-film distances.
E.17
a. higher
b. the same 52. Which of the following is an advantage of
c. lower radiography with gamma rays as compared to
d. no X-rays?
E.17
a. The complexity of the apparatus.
48. Radiation output, also known as dosage rate or b. The massive size of the radiation source.
characteristic intensity, is usually expressed as c. Requires fewer safety measures.
effective output in what unit per curie? d. Independence from outside power.
E.16
a. RHM
b. Rhr
c. rms
d. mR/h
D.23-24

33
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

Film Principles and Properties 54. The agent that actually exposes a photographic grain
53. Suppose a radiograph is made using film whose (film) is:
characteristic graph is shown in Figure 4. The film is
exposed for 12 mA per minute and has a density of a. gamma and/or X-ray quantum.
0.8 in the area of interest. It is desired to increase the b. alpha particles.
density to 2.0. What milliamperage per minute would c. electrons.
produce such a change? d. photon.
A.227
a. 19
b. 62 55. Which of the following is governed by the source
c. 50 size, object-to-film distance, and source-to-object
d. It is impossible to determine from this data. distance?
E.54
a. Geometric unsharpness.
b. Inherent unsharpness.
4.0
c. Radiographic contrast.
d. Effective graininess.
A.146, 673
3.5
56. Caution should be exercised to avoid removing film
3.0 Film Z too rapidly from cartons, exposure holders, or
cassettes. This would help to eliminate objectionable
circular or tree-like black marks caused by:
2.5
Density

a. crimps.
2.0 b. reticulation.
c. static electricity.
3
1.5 d. scratches.
2 E.42, 98
1.0
1 Solid-State Detectors
57. The obtainable counting speed using a scintillation
0.5 counter is limited fundamentally by the:

a. energy level of the incident radiation.

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
b. intensity of the incident radiation.
c. delay between electron excitation and
Log Relative Exposure de-excitation.
d. spatial distribution of the incident quanta.
A.100
Figure 4: Characteristic graph.
58. The scintillations (light photons) emitted by a
radiation detection phosphor are converted to
electrical pulses by:

a. a photomultiplier tube.
b. an ionization chamber.
c. a selenium photoelectric cell.
d. a light-pulse amplifier.
A.101

34

Real-Time Imaging
59. In comparing electronic image intensifier systems
that use TV presentation with those using solid-state
screens and high-sensitivity closed-circuit TV
systems, which of the following statements is false?
a. The overall gain of an image intensifier/TV
combination usually exceeds that of the
screen/TV combinations.
b. The overall resolution of the intensifier/TV
combination usually exceeds that of the
screen/TV combination.
c. As the area of the viewed screen increases for
either, the overall system gain must also increase.
d. The single-crystal scintillating screens and the
fine-grain fluorescent screens have better
resolution than the electronic image intensifier
tubes but much lower light output.
A.270
TV and Optical Systems
60. A fluoroscopic system for the inspection of welds in
25.4 mm (1 in.) thick steel has the following features:
● X-ray source-to-image plane spacing of 431.8 mm
(17 in.);
● X-ray focal spot size of 3.8 mm (0.15 in.);
● steel (weld)-to-image plane spacing of 76.2 mm
(3 in.);
● image plane length of 228.6 mm (9 in.) in vertical
scan direction of TV system used to view image
plane; and
● TV system with 525 line scan, with image fully
focused on image tube.
During tests, it is found that this fluoroscopic system
does very poorly in resolving wire image quality
indicators (IQIs) and imperfections of less than
0.89 mm (0.035 in.) when they are oriented parallel
to the horizontal scan lines of the TV. Assuming that
the image screen, optical system, and TV frequency
response are capable of much better resolution than
this, which of the following will increase the
resolution of the system the most?
a. Increase the TV scan rate to 1029 lines, with an
appropriate increase in frequency response.
b. Increase the X-ray source-to-image plane spacing
to 508 mm (20 in.).
c. Decrease the steel weld-to-image plane spacing to
50.8 mm (2 in.).
d. Change to an X-ray source having a 7.6 mm
(0.3 in.) focal spot.
A.261-262
Review Questions
Other Nonfilm Devices
61. In the past, several companies have designed TV
cameras with large faceplates and phosphors that
directly convert the received X-rays to electron
scanning-beam variations. The thickness of the glass
faceplate is recognized to prevent use at lower
kilovoltage applications, but use at higher kilovoltages
has never gained acceptance either, compared with
other techniques. Which of the following is not
correct for this type of system?
a. The quantum energy losses associated with
converting the X-rays to electrical signals is
improved over other systems by a factor of as
much as 500 times.
b. In comparison to systems using image orthicons
with screens or with an image intensifier system,
the image presented is noisier.
c. The extreme simplicity of this system and need
for few controls or adjustments makes
maintenance easier than other types of systems
using intermediate conversion.
d. The extreme sensitivity of this system allows
display of 2% IQIs over the range of 40-300 kVp.
A.273
Gaseous Ionization Detectors
62. One desirable property for a gas to be used in an
ionization detector is a:
a. low saturation potential at which recombination
of positive ions with electrons becomes negligible.
b. low ionization potential.
c. density approximately equivalent to the density of
the chamber walls.
d. density equivalent to that of air at standard
temperature and pressure.
A.92
63. The greatest problem that arises in the routine use of
a pocket dosimeter is:
a. its relatively flat response to radiation of different
energies.
b. its inherently inconsistent sensitivity.
c. electrical leakage that tends to discharge the
electrometer and give false high readings.
d. negative drift caused by changes in atmospheric
conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.).
A.121
35
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

64. As a portable radiation survey instrument, the main Gaging and Control Processes
disadvantage of a geiger counter is its: 69. A system of X-ray thickness gaging in which X-rays
are collimated and projected through a test item and
a. nonlinear response with changes in radiation the quantity of unabsorbed radiation is measured is
energy. referred to as:
b. large size and delicate construction.
c. poor sensitivity to low radiation levels. a. fluorescence method.
d. warm-up drift during the first few minutes of b. absorption differential method.
operation. c. attenuation buildup method.
A.96, 125 d. transmission method.
A.578
65. Air-filled proportional counters are used extensively
for monitoring: 70. Generally, the sensitivity and accuracy of thickness
gaging of homogeneous materials by reflection
a. gamma-ray activity. methods is:
b. fast neutron activities.
c. slow neutron activities. a. superior to transmission gaging.
d. alpha/beta dose rates. b. superior to fluorescence methods.
A.94-95 c. inferior to transmission gaging.
d. approximately the same as with transmission
Instrumentation gaging.
66. An amplifier to be used in a survey instrument A.573
designed to measure high levels of radiation should
have the following characteristics: 71. The two types of detectors used most commonly in
X-ray thickness gages are:
a. a fast rise time and a linear response.
b. a fast rise time and an exponential response. a. fluorescent screens and ionization chambers.
c. a slow rise time and a linear response. b. proportional counters and geiger counters.
d. a slow rise time and an exponential response. c. phosphor-photomultipliers and ionization
A.123 chambers.
d. fluorescent screens and phosphor-
67. Which of the following detectors would be most photomultipliers.
suitable for use with a gamma- or X-ray energy A.574-575
spectrum analyzer?
Exposure Hazards
a. An ionization detector. 72. Sources of radioactive material used for radiography
b. A scintillation detector. are required by regulation to be leak tested at
c. A proportional detector. intervals not to exceed:
d. A geiger-müller counter.
A.574 a. 3 months.
b. 6 months.
68. Which of the following radiation measurement c. 12 months.
instruments does not employ gas detection as its d. 24 months.
operation mechanism? C.31

a. Proportional counter.
b. Semiconductor detector.
c. Ionization chamber.
d. Geiger-müller counter.
A.575

36
 Review Questions

Methods of Controlling Radiation Exposure Operational and Emergency Procedures

73. Distance is an effective means of external radiation 77. Survey instruments used to monitor gamma
protection because: radiation must be capable of measuring radiation in
the range of:
a. air absorption reduces the radiation intensity.
b. radiation intensity varies inversely as the square a. 1-2 mSv/h (100-200 mrem/h)
of the distance. b. 20-500 000 μSv/h (2-50 000 mR/h)
c. X-rays and gamma rays have a finite range. c. 0-2000 μSv/h (0-200 mR/h)
d. the wavelength of the photons is decreased by d. 0.02-10 mSv/h (2-1000 mrem/h)
their interaction with matter. C.29
C.30
78. A radiation area refers to the perimeter of any area in
74. X-ray photons differ from gamma photons of the which the radiation level exceeds:
same energy only in their:
a. 20 μSv (2 mrems)
a. biological effect. b. 1 mSv (100 mrems)
b. origin. c. 50 μSv (5 mR)
c. interaction. d. 5 mSv (500 mrems)
d. ability to produce an electron. A.128
C.2
Sensitivity
75. The half-life of a radioactive substance is equal to the: 79. Radiographic sensitivity depends on the combined
effects of two independent factors. One is
a. reciprocal of the disintegration constant. radiographic contrast; the other is:
b. average lifetime of an atom in the substance.
c. time required for half of the original atoms to a. radiation quality.
disintegrate. b. density.
d. number of atoms present divided by the rate of c. IQI image.
decay. d. definition.
C.3 E.65

76. A tenth-value thickness for a specific gamma source

is 25.4 mm (1 in.) of lead. The radiation intensity is 80. Using the equation
5000 mSv/h (500 R/h) at 609.6 mm (24 in.) from 100
the source. How many millimeters (inches) of lead  Th /2
would be required to reduce the intensity to 50 μSv/h x
(5 mR/h) at 609.6 mm (24 in.)? where

a. 50.8 mm (2 in.) α = 2% = percent equivalent IQI sensitivity

b. 127 mm (5 in.) x = 32 mm (1.25 in.) = section thickness to be
c. 254 mm (10 in.) radiographed
d. 101.6 mm (4 in.) T = IQI thickness
A.132 h = 1.6 mm (0.06 in.) = hole diameter

determine IQI thickness:

a. 41 mm (1.6 in.)
b. 0.5 mm (0.02 in.)
c. 0.4 mm (0.015 in.)
d. 0.8 mm (0.03 in.)
F.E1025

37
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

81. Radiographic sensitivity is: 86. Radiographic sensitivity is not affected by:

a. a general or qualitative term referring to the size a. subject contrast.

of the smallest detail which can be seen on a b. geometric and film graininess factors.
radiograph. c. film contrast.
b. only a measure of the contrast properties of the d. ambient temperature.
radiographic system. E.64
c. a term usually applied to the contrast properties
of the radiographic system. 87. The IQI should not be used to:
d. a term that reflects film speed and contrast
properties. a. judge the size or establish acceptance limits of
A.170 discontinuities.
b. judge the adequacy of a radiographic exposure.
82. Radiographic sensitivity is totally controlled by: c. determine the adequacy of film/screen
combinations.
a. film and screen combinations. d. judge the adequacy of part-to-film distance.
b. those factors that control radiographic contrast A.175-176
and definition.
c. kilovoltage and milliamperage. Contrast and Definition
d. kilovoltage and film processing. 88. Which of the following parameters does not directly
A.170 affect radiographic definition?

83. The visibility of a certain image quality indicator a. Focal spot or source size.
(IQI) hole on the radiograph may mean that: b. Density.
c. Type of screen.
a. a cavity of the same diameter will be visible. d. Radiation quality.
b. a cavity of half the hole diameter will be visible. A.170
c. a cavity of the same diameter may be invisible.
d. the hole and cavity will have equal detectability. 89. Using a filter at the X-ray tube, masking to lessen
A.174-175 the thickness range, and a multiple-film technique
are ways of correcting:
84. The IQI is used to:
a. low density.
a. determine the size of cracks and pores that can be b. low latitude.
detected. c. poor definition.
b. determine the crack depths that can be detected. d. low radiographic contrast.
c. determine critical discontinuity size. E.52-55
d. indicate the quality of the radiographic technique.
A.172 90. Poor definition can be improved by doing all but
which one of the following?
85. The sensitivity requirement 2-2T represents:
a. Increase source-to-film distance.
a. IQI thickness 2× the specimen thickness with the b. Use a smaller physical source size.
required IQI hole 2% of the specimen thickness. c. Change from Class II to Class I film.
b. IQI thickness 2% of specimen thickness with the d. Change from lead to fluorescent screens.
required IQI hole 2× the IQI thickness. A.144
c. IQI thickness 2% of the specimen thickness with
the required IQI hole 2% of the specimen
thickness.
d. IQI thickness 2% of the specimen thickness with
the required IQI hole 4% of the IQI thickness.
A.172

38
 Review Questions

91. Based on the characteristic curves of the films shown 94. Film contrast refers to:
in Figure 5, which film provides the highest contrast?
a. the density difference in two adjacent regions of
a. X film.
b. Y b. the steepness (slope) of the characteristic curve.
c. Z c. the ratio of X-ray or gamma-ray intensities
d. Cannot be determined from the curves. transmitted by two selected portions of a
A.168 specimen.
d. minimum perceptible density change.
A.170
4.0
95. In general, the contrast of radiographic films (except
those designed for use with fluorescent screens):
3.0
a. increases continuously with film density in the
usable density range.
b. decreases as the density is increased.
Density

2.0 c. remains practically unchanged for different

Film Y density levels.
Film X
d. is inversely proportional to film density.
1.0 A.171

Film Z 96. The graininess of all films:

0.0
0 1 2 3 a. increases as the kilovoltage is increased up to
approximately 200 kV.
Log Relative Exposure (Exposure Time) b. decreases as the kilovoltage is increased.
c. is not dependent on kilovoltage.
d. is totally controlled by Lambert’s law.
Figure 5: Characteristic curves.
A.172

97. Specimens with uniform thickness and composition

92. Subject contrast depends on: by definition have:

a. mA, source strength, distance, and film type. a. high subject contrast.
b. film-screen type. b. good definition.
c. nature of the specimen, radiation quality (kV), c. high film contrast.
and the intensity and distribution of the scattered d. low subject contrast.
radiation. E.35
d. Lambert’s law.
A.170 98. The sharpness of outline in a radiographic image is
called:
93. Which of the following is a factor in radiographic
contrast? a. definition.
b. sensitivity.
a. Film type. c. latitude.
b. Radiation quality. d. contrast.
c. Degree of film development. A.89
d. X-ray energy.
A. 1; F.E94

39
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

99. Poor radiographic definition is related to:

“d ” “F ” Pivot Line “t ” “Ug”
a. focal spot size. Distance Focal Thickness Geometrical
(in.) Spot (in.) Unsharpness
b. source-to-film distance. (mm) (mm)
c. poor film-screen contact.
d. degree of film development. 100 10 100 10 1.0
90 9 9 0.9
A.144 80 8 8 0.8
70 7 7 0.7
Geometric Factors 60 6 6 0.6
50 5 90 5 0.5
100. Which of the following is not a factor to be 40 4 0.4
4
considered to reduce geometric unsharpness?
30 3 3 0.3
80
a. Source-to-film distance.
20 2 2 0.2
b. Object-to-film distance.
c. Source strength.
d. Source size. 70
10 1.0 1.0 0.10
9 0.9 0.9 0.09
A.144 8 0.8 0.8 0.08
7 0.7 0.7 0.07
101. Using Figure 6, determine the geometrical 6 0.6 60 0.6 0.06
5 0.5 0.5 0.05
unsharpness under the following conditions.
4 0.4 0.4 0.04
Maximum specimen thickness is 38 mm (1.5 in.),
source-to-film distance is 1016 mm (40 in.), and the 3 0.3 50 0.3 0.03
focal spot size is 1 mm (0.04 in.). The geometrical
unsharpness is: 2 0.2 0.2 0.02
40
a. 0.010 mm (0.0004 in.)
0.10 0.10 0.010
b. 0.102 mm (0.004 in.) 0.09 0.09 0.009
c. 0.051 mm (0.002 in.) 0.08 30 0.08 0.008
0.07 0.07 0.007
d. 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) 0.06 0.006
0.06
A.146 0.05 0.05 0.005
0.04 20 0.04 0.004
102. In the following equation for geometric unsharpness, 0.03 0.003
0.03
what does Ug represent?
0.02 10 0.02 0.002
Ft
U 
g
d
0.01 0 0.01 0.001
a. Image size.
Ft
Figure 6: Nomogram for solving the equation Ug 
b. Penumbra. .
c. Source-to-film distance. d
d. Specimen-to-film distance.
A.60, 457
104. Deviation from the true shape of an object as
103. The size of the penumbral shadow can best be exhibited in its shadow image is called:
reduced by:
a. definition.
a. using a larger diameter source. b. latitude.
b. using a faster speed film. c. contrast.
c. increasing the source-to-film distance. d. distortion.
d. increasing the specimen-to-film distance. A.143
B.13

40
 Review Questions

105. Which of the following rules of shadow formation is 109. Geometric unsharpness (Ug) is obtainable from:
not true?

a. The effective focal spot or source size should be a. Ug  Ft where

as small as practical. d F = source size
b. The distance between the focal spot or source and d
b. Ug  d = source-to-object distance
the test object should be as great as practical. Ft t = object-to-film distance
c. The central ray should be as nearly perpendicular Fd
to the film as possible to preserve spatial c. Ug 
t
relations. t
d. The test object’s plane of maximum interest d. Ug 
should be perpendicular to the plane of the film. Fd
E.22 A.60, 457

106. Given an Ir-192 source 3 mm (0.13 in.) in diameter, a 110. Using the formula
geometrical unsharpness of 0.5 mm (0.02 in.), and a
material thickness of 63 mm (2.5 in.), determine the Ft
minimum source-to-object distance.
U g 
d
a. 320 mm (12.6 in.)
b. 620 mm (24.6 in.) if F = 3 mm (0.1 in.), t = 127 mm (5 in.), and
c. 412.7 mm (16.25 in.) d = 1090 mm (43 in.), Ug is approximately:
d. 460 mm (18.1 in.)
E.24 a. 0.5 mm (0.019 in.)
b. 0.7 mm (0.027 in.)
107. Projection magnification resulting from increased c. 0.3 mm (0.012 in.)
object-to-film distance is also useful in reducing d. 0.2 mm (0.006 in.)
scatter radiation because of: E.24

a. increasing definition. 111. Image distortion refers to:

b. reducing physical source size.
c. the air gap. a. a combination of geometric unsharpness and
d. macroradiography. magnification.
A.387 b. deviation from the true shape of the object.
c. magnification minus geometric unsharpness.
108. Magnification and geometric unsharpness: d. a combination of graininess, unsharpness, and
magnification.
a. are actually the same thing. E.20
b. can be distinguished as follows: magnification
refers to the degree of enlargement, and Intensifying Screens
unsharpness refers to the penumbra. 112. Variation in the thickness of lead screens from
c. are not directly related. 0.1 mm (0.005 in.) to 0.2 mm (0.01 in.):
d. can be combined to yield total unsharpness.
E.28 a. has very slight effect on intensification.
b. has very significant effect on intensification.
c. actually has no effect on intensification.
d. only serves to increase geometric unsharpness.
E.39

41
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

113. The bunsen-roscoe reciprocity law states that the 118. The major component of scatter is the low-energy
product of a photochemical reaction is dependent rays represented by photons weakened in what
only upon the product of the radiation intensity and process?
the duration of exposure and is independent of the
absolute values of either of these quantities separately. a. Photoelectric.
This law is invalid for which of the following? b. Pair productive.
c. Compton scattering.
a. X-rays. d. Ionization.
b. Gamma rays. B. 3; C.4
c. Fluorescent screens.
d. Lead foil screens. 119. The influence of low-energy scatter from the film
E.190 holder is most noticeable just inside the borders of
the image. This condition is called:
114. The quality of the radiation necessary to obtain an
appreciable intensification from lead screens depends a. inherent unsharpness.
upon all of the following except: b. undercut.
c. geometric unsharpness.
a. film type. d. mottling.
b. kilovoltage. E.38
c. milliamperage.
d. thickness and material of test object. 120. The difference in narrow-beam and broad-beam
E.40 conditions is that:

115. An alloy of 6% antimony and 94% lead should be a. narrow-beam conditions imply that both
used for screens instead of pure lead because it scattered and unscattered radiation reach the
provides: detector, while broad-beam conditions imply that
only the unscattered radiation reaches the
a. greater definition. detector.
b. less mottling effect. b. narrow-beam conditions imply that only the
c. better wear resistance. unscattered radiation reaches the detector, while
d. a higher intensification factor. broad-beam conditions imply that both scattered
E.41 and unscattered radiation reach the detector.
c. narrow- and broad-beam conditions relate only to
116. In comparison to radiographs made with lead source size.
screens, radiographs made using fluorescent screens d. both terms depend on a film and screen
would show: combination.
A.133
a. better contrast.
b. good definition. Source Factors
c. higher density. 121. Short wavelength photons are normally used on thick
d. poor definition. sections of steel instead of long wavelength photons
E.35 because:

Scattered Radiation a. short wavelength photons are hard rays and have
117. Which is generally the greater source of scatter greater penetrating ability.
radiation? b. short wavelength photons create a greater
secondary radiation and help improve image
a. Lead foil screens. contrast.
b. Lead backing plate. c. long wavelength photons are hard rays and have
c. Floor or wall. greater penetrating ability.
d. The specimen under examination. d. they both have equal penetrating ability.
E.38 E.11

42
 Review Questions

122. A lead sheet is usually placed behind the film cassette 126. Exposure charts are fairly adequate for determining
to: exposures in the radiography of:

a. intensify the film image and shorten the exposure a. complicated structural items.
time. b. uniform plate.
b. prevent bending and crimping of the film. c. step wedges.
c. reduce forward scatter and absorb unwanted d. IQIs.
radiation to prevent it from reaching the film. E.50
d. minimize radiation scattered from the floor, walls,
equipment, and other items from reaching the 127. A gamma-ray exposure chart differs from an X-ray
back of the film. exposure chart in that there is no variable factor
E.52 corresponding to:

123. The larger the activity (in becquerels or curies) and a. thickness.
the larger (physically) the source is, the emitted b. milliamperage.
gamma-ray intensity: c. kilovoltage.
d. film density.
a. becomes lower. E.52
b. becomes higher.
c. remains unaffected. 128. An exposure chart is a graph showing the relation
d. increases inversely to activity. between all but which one of the following?
E.17
a. Exposure.
124. When radiographing a specimen with a radiographic b. Density.
source, it is found that it is desirable to lengthen the c. Kilovoltage.
source-to-film distance. With the source at the new d. Material thickness.
location, the amount of radiation reaching the film E.50
will:
Darkroom Procedures
a. vary inversely with the square of the distance. 129. The frequency with which a developer solution needs
b. vary equally with the square of the distance. replacement is dependent on the rate and density of
c. not change. films processed, but as a rule the solution should be
d. vary inversely with the distance. replaced:
E.29
a. whenever the density of processed films is
Exposure Curves consistently too great.
125. Which one of the following is not a specific condition b. when the quantity of developer replenisher used
which applies to a given exposure chart? equals 2 to 3 times the original quantity of
developer, or every 3 months, whichever is
a. X-ray machine used. shorter.
b. Film type. c. every 6 months.
c. Processing conditions. d. whenever the processed films show streaking due
d. Radiation intensity. to uneven development.
E.51 E.82

43
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

130. In manual processing, the ideal temperature is 20 °C 135. Certain materials cause contamination and result in
(68 °F). At what temperature would the chemical fog in the radiograph. Which one of the following
action be slowed, resulting in underdevelopment? should not be used as a material for holding
processing solutions?
a. 21 °C (70 °F)
b. 16 °C (60 °F) a. AISI Type 316 stainless steel.
c. 32 °C (90 °F) b. Enamelware.
d. 30 °C (86 °F) c. Aluminum.
E.107 d. Plastic.
E.78
131. The shape of the film characteristic curve is relatively
insensitive to changes in X- or gamma-radiation 136. Processing tanks should be periodically cleaned and
quality, but is affected by changes in the: sterilized. Which of the following agents in solution
is recommended?
a. geometric factors.
b. film graininess. a. Sodium hypochlorite.
c. subject contrast. b. Acetone.
d. degree of development. c. Household detergent.
E.138-139 d. Hydrochloric acid (diluted).
E.80
132. Light crimp marks appearing on a developed
radiograph are the result of: 137. The most commonly used acid in preparing stop
baths to arrest the development process is:
a. static marks.
b. scratches on lead foil screen. a. sulfuric.
c. poor handling before exposure. b. glacial acetic.
d. poor handling after exposure. c. muriatic.
E.37 d. hydrochloric.
E.83
133. Physical damage to the film emulsion caused by
sudden extreme temperature change is called: Film Processing
138. Holding all other parameters constant, an increase in
a. reticulation. time of development of a given film will result in a
b. frilling. characteristic curve showing:
c. blisters.
d. streaks. a. increased contrast and increased speed.
E.84 b. increased contrast and decreased speed.
c. decreased contrast and increased speed.
Darkroom Equipment and Chemicals d. decreased contrast and decreased speed.
134. When using acid to make the stop bath mixture, the E.141
acid is added slowly to the water for which of the
following reasons? 139. In manual processing, if it is not possible to use a
stop bath, films should be:
a. To produce a more uniform mixture.
b. To prevent rapid oxidation resulting in a cloudy a. placed directly in the fixer solution.
stop bath. b. placed directly in the fixer solution with a 1 min
c. To prevent a rapid rise of the solution reduction in development time.
temperature. c. rinsed in running water for at least 2 min before
d. To prevent the acid from spattering. fixing.
E.83 d. rinsed in running water for at least 2 min with a
1 min reduction in development time before fixing.
E.83

44
 Review Questions

140. The primary reason why visual (under safelight 144. The most important function of the fixer is to:
conditions) development of radiographs should be
avoided is: a. neutralize alkali from developer.
b. remove undeveloped silver salt.
a. it is difficult to discern the image with the light c. increase density.
output provided by a safelight. d. harden the emulsion.
b. the appearance of a developed but unfixed E.111
radiograph will be different in the dried state.
c. removal of the film from the developer will affect 145. Wetting agents are used primarily as a deterrent for:
the development time.
d. film type and speed affect the appearance of a. reticulation.
images when exposed to a safelight. b. changes in density.
E.80 c. water spots.
d. frilling.
141. Better quality radiographs can be obtained when E.113
expertly done by manual processing rather than by
automatic processing, but most processing is 146. Ideally after processing, radiographs should be stored
performed automatically because: at a relative humidity of:

a. manual processing is time consuming and a. 10%.

automatic processing produces consistency and b. 30 to 50%.
control. c. 70 to 80%.
b. it is difficult to train and keep manual processing d. any percentage, since relative humidity is not an
personnel. important consideration.
c. automatic processors are easier to maintain. E.120
d. chemical temperatures and solutions are difficult
to maintain in darkrooms where manual 147. In manual processing, the cascade method of washing
processing is practiced. film is desirable. To be effective, the hourly flow of
F.E94 water should be:

142. The function of the developer is to: a. 1-2 times the volume of the tank.
b. any amount, since the water flow rate has no
a. stop the process. bearing on film washing.
b. harden the emulsion. c. 12-16 times the volume of the tank.
c. recover silver. d. 4-8 times the volume of the tank.
d. change exposed silver halide crystals to metallic B.53; E.112
silver.
E.106
Illuminator Requirements
148. Which of the following is not a requirement for
143. The best method of arresting the development illuminators used in the interpretation of
process is to place the film in: radiographs?

a. an acid stop bath. a. A light source of sufficient intensity to view the

b. a fixer solution. area of interest of the radiograph.
c. a water rinse. b. Sufficient masking to avoid glare from the edges
d. a wetting solution. of the radiograph.
E.110 c. A foot-operated ON-OFF switch.
d. Diffuse the light evenly over the viewing area.
E.94

45
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

149. For the routine viewing of high-density film, a 154. When reviewing film, background lighting should:
high-intensity illuminator with an adjustable light
source should be used. Such a viewer should allow a. be virtually eliminated.
viewing of densities at least up to on a b. not reflect on the film under examination.
characteristic curve: c. be carefully filtered.
d. be approximately 20 lm.
a. 1.5 E.39; F.E94
b. 2.5
c. 4.0 Optical Aids
d. 10.0 155. A stereoscope is a device that:
E.70
a. projects the contents of a pair of stereo
150. When viewing radiographs, the film viewer should radiographs on a screen, giving spatial resolution
provide light of an intensity that is evenly distributed to indications in the radiographs.
with an adjustment to vary the intensity. In addition, b. permits each eye to see only one of a pair of
the film viewer should have: stereo radiographs.
c. by exposing two film cassettes simultaneously
a. a viewing surface at a 90° angle. from different angles, enables the production of
b. fresh bulbs. radiographs.
c. a diffusing medium. d. allows accurate measurements of the shift of an
d. a light green color. image in a set of stereo radiographs made for the
A.191 purpose of parallax.
E.114
151. To prevent damage to films, which of the following
should be provided when viewing radiographs? Judging Radiographic Quality Density
156. The density of any radiographic image is primarily
a. Masks or screens. dependent upon:
b. Foot switch.
c. Heat filter. a. the kilovoltage of the source of radiation.
d. Opal glass. b. the amount of radiation absorbed by the emulsion
A.191 of the film.
c. the scintillator detector.
Background Lighting d. the automatic processing.
152. The contrast sensitivity of the human eye is greatest A.141
when the surroundings compared to the area of
interest on a radiograph have: 157. Incident light of an intensity of 2.2 klx (200 ftc) on an
area of film of 1.3 density transmits an intensity of
a. about the same brightness. 107.6 lx (10 ftc). What is the intensity transmitted in
b. a lower brightness. the area of the film measuring 2.3 density?
c. a higher brightness.
d. any brightness, since brightness is not a factor in a. 53.8 lx (5 ftc)
contrast sensitivity. b. 5.4 lx (0.5 ftc)
E.70 c. 10.8 lx (1 ftc)
d. 1.1 lx (0.1 ftc)
153. For best contrast sensitivity, the film viewing room A.164
should have lighting:

a. as dark as possible.
b. approximately 38 lm.
c. approximately 70 lm.
d. as light as the area of interest in the film being
reviewed.
E.73; F.E94

46
 Review Questions

Contrast Definition
158. Which of the following is independent, for most 163. By increasing the source-to-film distance in a given
practical purposes, of the wavelength and exposure, the image sharpness is:
distribution of the radiation reaching the film?
a. increased.
a. Subject contrast. b. decreased.
b. Radiographic contrast. c. not affected.
c. Film contrast. d. decreased by a negligible amount.
d. Definition. A.144
E.67
164. What is the effect of the sensitivity of a radiograph
159. The relationship between film exposure and the when the physical size of a gamma source is
resulting film density of any particular film is: increased without changing any other exposure
factors?
a. the unsharpness.
b. the film contrast. a. Sensitivity and geometric unsharpness are
c. the subject contrast. increased.
d. the source-to-film distance. b. Geometric sharpness and definition are increased.
B.44; C.39 c. Physical source size does not affect sensitivity.
d. Geometric sharpness is increased and sensitivity
160. As the kilovoltage is increased, the subject contrast: is decreased.
A.144
a. increases.
b. decreases. 165. The image sharpness of an object is not affected by:
c. remains the same.
d. increases directly with E2. a. the type of film.
A.170 b. the type of screen.
c. radiation quality.
161. Radiographic image quality may be adversely affected d. masking.
by poor subject contrast; this may be caused by: E.87-90

a. time. 166. When a lead screen radiograph of an object shows a

b. source strength. poorly defined image of the object, one course of
c. source distance. action to correct this may be to:
d. insufficient absorption differences in the
specimen. a. change to a coarse-grain film.
E.66; F.E94 b. use an X-ray tube of larger focal spot.
c. increase source-to-film distance.
162. The film contrast for the specimens being d. change to fluorescent screens.
radiographed may be determined from: E.87-90

a. the size of film. Artifacts

b. the radiation quality. 167. When using lead foil intensifying screens, a fuzzy
c. the slope of the characteristic curve for the film. radiographic image is a sign:
d. wavelength of the radiation.
E.67; F.E94 a. of oil or grease on the screens.
b. that tin coating was used on the screens.
c. of poor screen-to-film contact.
d. of foreign material between the screen and the
film.
E.41

47
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

168. A mottled radiograph is caused by: 172. Prolonged washing of film in water above 20 °C
(68 °F) has a tendency to:
a. removing the paper interleaving before the
exposure. a. crystallize the gelatin.
b. using tin-coated lead screens. b. soften the gelatin.
c. X-ray diffraction effects. c. cause a yellow stain.
d. exposure geometry. d. cause the image to fade.
E.52, 58; F.E94 E.112-113

169. During the loading of a film cassette, the lead foil Image Quality Indicators
screens are scratched. The resulting radiograph
would show: 100
 Th /2
Given
x
a. no change since deep scratches are related to the
film.
b. broad fuzzy light lines corresponding to the where x = material thickness (inches)
scratches. T = IQI thickness (inches)
c. defined dark lines corresponding to deep h = essential hole diamter (inches)
scratches. α = equivalent sensitivity (percent)
d. random film indications due to scatter caused by
scratches. 173. Using the formula given above, calculate the
E.42 equivalent sensitivity of an ASTM #20 IQI showing
the 2T hole on a 1.25 in. thick specimen.
170. The appearance of colored stains on a processed
radiograph could be caused by: a. 2.0%
b. 1.6%
a. neutralization of the acid in the fixer solution. c. 18%
b. neutralization of the alkaline content in the fixer d. 1.4%
solution. F.E1025
c. acidification of the fixer solution.
d. underdevelopment. 174. Using the formula given above, calculate the
E.111 specimen thickness if the equivalent sensitivity is
2.6% based on seeing the 4T hole in an ASTM #40
171. Deep scratches in lead screens result in dark lines on IQI.
the radiograph. These are due to:
a. 1.35 in.
a. the loss of absorbing characteristic of the lead b. 3.17 in.
foil, resulting in more of the X-ray source c. 2.56 in.
reaching the film. d. 2.17 in.
b. the scratch resulting in a greater surface area of F.E1025
lead, causing a larger electron emission area,
which affects the exposure of the film. 175. The DIN type IQI is which type of image quality
c. the air gap between the deep scratch and film. indicator?
d. lack of emulsification.
E.43 a. A plaque type.
b. A stepped type.
c. A wire type.
d. An indirect imaging type.
E.93

48
 Review Questions

Causes and Correction of Unsatisfactory 180. The mathematical rule of exposure that governs the
Radiographs time-distance relation of the basic exposure
176. Omission of the stop bath or rinsing of the film may calculator is:
cause:
a. the exposure time (T) required for a given
a. streaking of the film. exposure is directly proportional to the square of
b. yellow staining of the film. the source-to-film distance (D).
c. fogging of the film. b. the exposure time (T) required for a given
d. frilling of the emulsion. exposure is inversely proportional to the square of
E.110-111 the source-to-film distance (D).
c. the exposure time (T) required for a given
177. In automatic processing, poor drying of film can be exposure is inversely proportional to the
attributed to which of the following if the drying milliamperage (M).
temperature and air circulation in the drying section d. the exposure time (T) required for a given
are found to be acceptable? exposure is directly proportional to the
milliamperage (M).
a. Underreplenishment of the fixer solution. E.60-62
b. Infrequent use of the processor.
c. Roller alignment in the wash section. Blocking and Filtering
d. Overdevelopment. 181. Filtering an X-ray beam is analogous to:
E.116-117
a. decreasing the kilovoltage.
178. A milky appearing fixer solution could be caused by: b. increasing the kilovoltage.
c. decreasing the milliamperage.
a. the fixer being too warm or exhausted. d. increasing the milliamperage.
b. a sudden change in temperature. E.39
c. use of a carbonate developer.
d. use of fine-grained film. 182. The primary function of a filter is to:
E.111
a. reduce the penetrating ability of the radiation.
Exposure Calculations b. absorb longer wavelengths, which can produce
179. If an exposure time of 1 min was necessary using a increased scatter.
1.8 m (6 ft) source-to-film distance for a particular c. reduce exposure time.
exposure, what time would be necessary if a 0.9 m d. eliminate most of the undercut caused by scatter.
(3 ft) source-to-film distance is used and all other A.155-156
variables remain the same?
183. Which of the following materials are typically used
a. 2 min for filtration purposes in industrial radiography at
b. 15 s energies of 150-400 kV?
c. 4 min
d. 30 s a. Aluminum/magnesium.
E.29-30 b. Lead/copper.
c. Stainless steel/steel.
d. Cadmium/zinc.
E.43

49
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

184. A filter in the X-ray tube beam has the effect of: 188. If the thickness range of a specimen is too great for a
single exposure, a multifilm technique may be used. If
a. hardening the radiation beam. two films of different speeds are selected for this
b. softening the radiation beam. example, the log relative exposure range for these two
c. dispersing the radiation beam. films is the difference in:
d. increasing the beam intensity.
E.41 a. log exposure between the value at the
high-density end of the faster film and the
185. Scattered radiation originating in matter outside the low-density end of the slower film curve.
specimen is most serious for specimens which have b. log exposure between the value at the low-density
high absorption for X-rays. One of the most end of the faster film and the high-density end of
satisfactory arrangements for combining effectiveness the slower film.
and convenience to reduce scatter when c. log exposure between the value at the low-density
radiographing steel is to: end of the slower film and the high-density end of
the faster film.
a. cut out diaphragms from lead sheet. d. log exposure between the value at the
b. pack barium clay around the specimen. high-density end of the slower film and the
c. use a liquid absorber. low-density end of the faster film.
d. surround the object with copper or steel shot. E.29
A.155
Special Radiographic Techniques
Multifilm Techniques 189. A setup by which an arrangement of prisms or
186. The primary purpose of using two or more films of mirrors permits each eye to see but a single one of a
unequal speed in the same cassette is to: pair of radiographs is known as:

a. eliminate retakes due to incorrect exposure time. a. stroboradiography.

b. eliminate retakes due to artifacts on the film. b. parallax radiography.
c. cover a wide range of thickness in one exposure. c. stereo radiography.
d. reduce the scatter to the total image. d. autoradiography.
B.113; C.66 E.114

187. When two different films are selected for a multifilm 190. Select the one advantage stereo radiographs have over
technique, their speeds must be such that on their films produced by the parallax method.
characteristic curves there is:
a. They permit correct spatial relation.
a. some overlap on the density axis. b. They use inexpensive viewing devices.
b. no overlap on the density axis. c. They do not require special reading glasses.
c. some overlap on the log E axis. d. They use two films.
d. no overlap on the log E axis. A.419
E.29

50
 Review Questions

191. Using the parallax method for triangulation with the 195. An electron emission radiograph shows surface
film in contact with the object and shifting the source details only; in this regard, it is similar to:
an equal distance in two directions from its original
position for location of a discontinuity, it is revealed a. a macroradiograph.
that the discontinuity shift is less than half the shift of b. a microradiograph.
the source side marker. The discontinuity is: c. a photomicrograph.
d. tomography.
a. nearer the film plane. E.170
b. nearer the source side.
c. on the source-side surface. 196. The principle of electron emission radiography is
d. on the film-side surface. based on:
E.115
a. differential absorption.
192. A discontinuity was found by radiography in a b. diffraction caused by crystalline structure.
76 mm (3 in.) thick weld. The source-to-film distance c. differences in electron emission from an
was 510 mm (20 in.). A second exposure was made irradiated specimen, resulting from greater
with the source shifted 102 mm (4 in.) parallel to the emission from higher atomic number materials.
film plane. It was noted that the discontinuity image d. differences in film density caused by the
moved 16 mm (0.625 in.) as compared with the differential penetrating ability of the various
original exposure. Determine the distance of the energy electrons.
discontinuity above the film. E.170

a. 82 mm (3.24 in.) 197. Which one of the following is not a commonly

b. 32 mm (1.25 in.) accepted use of microradiography?
c. 69 mm (2.70 in.)
d. 7 mm (0.27 in.) a. Determination of segregation of constituents in
E.115 thin alloy sections.
b. Detection of minute discontinuities.
193. Radiography performed using high-intensity X-ray c. The study of biological sections.
beams to produce a single stop-motion image or a d. The study of crystalline structure.
series of sequential images of high-speed dynamic E.164
phenomena is:
198. X-ray devices used in microradiography typically
a. microradiography. operate at potentials up to:
b. autoradiography.
c. stroboradiography. a. 50 kV
d. flash radiography. b. 100 kV
A.409 c. 150 kV
d. 200 kV
194. Electron radiography is primarily used for E.164
radiography of:
Control of Diffraction Effects
a. high atomic number (Z) materials. 199. A method for distinguishing between diffraction
b. thin metallic specimens. mottling and other causes of mottling is to:
c. very thin nonmetallic specimens.
d. a combination of high and low atomic number a. re-expose the film using a much lower exposure
materials. factor.
E.168, 169 b. change the angle of incidence of the beam by 1-5°
and re-expose.
c. lower the kilovoltage and re-expose.
d. re-expose without using lead screens.
E.58

51
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

200. Filters and screens are devices used by radiographers 204. Of the following, which gaging application is most
to control diffraction effects. If spurious indications suitable for using gamma rays?
appear in the finished radiograph and diffraction is
suspect, what technique aids or corrections can be a. Cigarette density gaging.
made to the technique to eliminate suspect b. Thickness gaging of thin foils such as condenser
diffraction patterns? papers.
c. Paper thickness gage.
a. Raise the kilovoltage. d. Liquid density gage.
b. Lower the kilovoltage. A.575
c. Change the radiation center 127 mm (5 in.) from
the previous location. Image-Object Relationships
d. Change the class and type of film used from 205. Using geometric enlargement principles, determine
type 1 to type 2. the image size if the object is 150 mm (6 in.) in
E.58 diameter, the source-to-film distance is 910 mm
(36 in.), and the source-to-object distance is
201. X-ray diffraction patterns appearing in a radiograph 760 mm (30 in.).
are typically observed in the radiography of:
a. 180 mm (7.2 in.)
a. thick castings at greater than 1 MeV. b. 130 mm (5 in.)
b. thin metallic specimens with large grain size. c. 370 mm (14.4 in.)
c. thin metallic specimens with fine grain size. d. 250 mm (10 in.)
d. thick metallic specimens with low atomic E.20
number (Z).
E.58 206. The focal spot should be as small as possible, because
there is a definite relationship between the focal spot
202. The radiographic appearance of diffraction patterns size and:
is mottled and may be confused with which one of
the following sets of indications? a. radiographic contrast.
b. total radiation output.
a. Porosity or segregation. c. subject contrast.
b. Oxidation or burn-through. d. radiographic definition.
c. Porosity or burst. E.20
d. Misruns or porosity.
E.58
Material Processing
207. A consequence of insufficient heat, or the presence of
Gaging scale on the fusion face of the weld bevel, may be:
203. In routine thickness gaging setups using gamma-ray
sources, which one of the following radiation a. incomplete penetration.
detectors is most commonly used? b. root concavity.
c. excessive root reinforcement.
a. Anthracene crystal. d. lack of fusion.
b. Ionization chamber. A.497-498
c. Sodium iodide crystal.
d. Geiger-müller tube. 208. A weld made with an excessive number of passes, or
A.575 inadequate speed of travel, could result in:

a. root concavity.
b. oxidation.
c. excessive root reinforcement.
d. incomplete penetration.
A.497-498

52
 Review Questions

Discontinuities: Their Causes and Effects 214. An oval or circular dark spot with smooth edges
209. A definite discontinuity that exists because of appearing on the radiograph would most probably be
imperfect fusion of two streams of metal that have indicative of:
converged is:
a. burn-through.
a. a misrun. b. crater crack.
b. a cold shut. c. porosity.
c. rat tails. d. lack of fusion.
d. buckles. C.106
C.106
215. An intermittent or continuous dark line found at the
210. A discontinuity in welds caused by gas entrapment in edge of the weld groove or bevel would probably be
the molten metal, moisture, improper cleaning, or classified as:
lack of preheat is called:
a. aligned porosity.
a. dross. b. slag line.
b. lack of penetration. c. root concavity.
c. porosity. d. crater cracking.
d. slag inclusion. A.479
C.106
216. A narrow, dark line traveling in irregular directions
211. A discontinuity consisting of one or several parallel would generally indicate the presence of:
fissures caused by the internal rupture or fracture of
material while in the hot semiplastic state is called: a. a crack.
b. slag line.
a. lack of fusion. c. aligned porosity.
b. tear. d. lack of fusion.
c. unfused chaplet. A.480
d. hot tear.
C.106 217. A very thin, straight, dark line, either continuous or
intermittent, located parallel to and normally on one
Radiographic Appearance of Discontinuities side of a weld would be indicative of:
212. A term used to describe the oxides and other solids,
which are shown radiographically as elongated or a. slag inclusion.
rounded inclusions, is: b. suck-up.
c. aligned porosity.
a. slag. d. lack of fusion.
b. porosity. A.209
c. suck-up.
d. wormholes. 218. The term used to describe a groove or depression
C.106 located at the junction of the weld and base material
on the weld surface is:
213. An indication appearing on a radiograph as a dark,
elongated area of varying length or width located at a. convexity.
the center of a weld would probably be classified as: b. undercut.
c. lack of fusion.
a. aligned porosity. d. concavity.
b. slag line. A.210
c. wagon tracks.
d. lack of penetration.
C.106

53
Radiographic Testing Method l level iii

Answers
1b 2b 3a 4a 5c 6c 7c 8a 9d 10b 11a 12c 13a 14a
15b 16d 17c 18b 19c 20a 21c 22a 23b 24c 25b 26d 27c 28a
29a 30c 31b 32d 33b 34a 35c 36b 37a 38c 39d 40a 41d 42c
43b 44d 45b 46a 47c 48d 49a 50b 51d 52d 53c 54d 55a 56c
57c 58a 59b 60d 61d 62a 63c 64c 65d 66a 67b 68b 69d 70c
71c 72b 73b 74b 75c 76b 77d 78c 79d 80b 81a 82b 83c 84d
85b 86d 87a 88b 89b 90d 91b 92c 93d 94b 95a 96a 97d 98a
99d 100c 101c 102b 103c 104d 105d 106c 107c 108b 109a 110c 111b 112a
113c 114c 115c 116d 117d 118c 119b 120b 121a 122d 123a 124a 125d 126b
127c 128b 129b 130b 131d 132c 133a 134d 135c 136a 137b 138a 139c 140b
141a 142d 143a 144b 145c 146b 147d 148c 149c 150c 151c 152a 153d 154b
155b 156b 157c 158c 159b 160b 161d 162c 163a 164d 165d 166c 167c 168d
169c 170a 171b 172b 173b 174d 175c 176b 177a 178a 179b 180a 181b 182d
183b 184a 185d 186c 187c 188d 189c 190a 191a 192c 193d 194c 195c 196c
197d 198a 199b 200a 201b 202a 203b 204d 205a 206d 207d 208c 209b 210c
211d 212a 213d 214c 215b 216a 217d 218b

54
Figure SourceS

Level II
Figures 1 & 2 Eastman Kodak Co.
Level III
Figure 3 General Dynamics Co.

55
The American Society for Catalog Number: 2026
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ISBN: 978-1-57117-335-5