Handbook on Spray

Drying Applications for

Food Industries
 Handbook on Spray
Drying Applications for
Food Industries

Edited by
M. Selvamuthukumaran
CRC Press
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 I profoundly thank
God
My Family
My Friends
and
Everyone
Who has inspired, supported, and wholeheartedly
encouraged me to complete this book
 CONTENTS
Preface ix
Editor xi
List of Contributors xiii

1 Spraying Drying: Concept, Application and Its Recent Advances in

Food Processing 1
M. Selvamuthukumaran, Carole Tranchant, and John Shi

2 Drying of Acid and Sugar Rich Foods 31

Vikas Nanda, Ishrat Majid, and Mamta Thakur

3 Spray Drying of Dairy and Cereal Food Products 69

M. Selvamuthukumaran

4 Spray Drying of Antioxidant Rich Foods 87

Anna Michalska Wrocław, Krzysztof Lech

5 Spray Drying of Herbs 113

R. Shalini, S. Induja, and M. Selvamuthukumaran

6 Spray Drying for Production of Food Colors from Natural Sources 133
Mehmet Koç, Feyza Elmas, Ulaş Baysan, Hilal Şahin Nadeem,
Figen Kaymak Ertekin

7 Encapsulation of Flavors by Spray-Drying Techniques 181

Mohebbat Mohebbi and Afshin Faridi

vii
Contents

8 Technical Advancement in Retention of Nutrients during the

Spray-Drying Process 207
Ismail Tontul

9 Technical Advancement for Retention of Probiotic Count during

Spray-Drying Process 249
Sultan Arslan-Tontul

10 Recent Techniques for Packing and Storage of Spray-Dried Food

Products 271
Hilal Şahin Nadeem, Mehmet Koç, Dilara Konuk Takma, Mustafa Duran

11 Quality and Safety Aspects of Spray-Dried Foods 307

Anna Michalska Wrocław, Krzysztof Lech

Index343

viii
 PREFACE
Spray drying is the mechanical process by which materials in liquid form
can be converted into solid form, i.e., powder. This process efficiently
removes moisture present in the solution/slurry. Spray drying is highly
utilized in industry for the production of powdered foods and microcap-
sules, because it is fast, continuous, economical, and easily applicable. It
can be used in the drying of heat sensitive materials. However, the yield
of drying for sugar rich products, such as fruit juice, syrup etc., is low
and it requires careful selection of additives and processing conditions for
effective drying. Spray drying can also be used for microencapsulation of
bioactive food components, volatiles, colorants, and probiotics for several
purposes, such as protecting, controlled release, and increasing efficiency.
Chapter 1 deals with the principle behind the spray-drying process,
the components of a spray dryer, its mode of operation with its advan-
tages and its limitations, classification of spray dryers, and recent tech-
niques adopted in spray-drying systems for drying several different
types of food products. Chapter 2 elaborates on the spray drying of acid
and sugar rich foods for which the drying parameters like inlet/outlet
air temperature, relative humidity of air, and atomizer pressure must be
optimized for better recovery and quality. Several recent approaches in
spray dryer design are also described in this chapter. Chapter 3 deals with
the various spray-drying conditions adopted for preparing spray-dried
food products from dairy sources, such as ice cream powder, milk protein
concentrate ­powder, whey powder, and cheese powder. Cereal sources
also require specialized conditions for spray-drying preparation includ-
ing malt extract powder and malt-based milk food products, which are
widely used in various food processing industries.
In Chapter 4, novel and emerging tools used for spray drying of anti-
oxidant rich products are listed providing insight into the quality changes
that may result from processing and recommendations for better tools
and their future practical applications are indicated. Chapter 5 discusses
the optimal conditions used for the extraction and production of herbal
powders through the use of spray-drying techniques and the problems
encountered during spray drying various herbal powders.
Chapter 6 covers the subjects of the natural colorants from which nat-
ural sources are obtained, the extraction stages of these natural sources,

ix
Preface

the necessity of drying these natural color extracts which have low stabil-
ity, why the most effective drying method is found to be spray drying for
natural colorants, the effect of spray-drying process parameters on the
chemical and physical properties of the powder, the necessity of spray-
drying variable optimization, and related studies are discussed.
In Chapter 7, the encapsulation of flavors through the use of the spray-
drying process is discussed and compared with other encapsulation tech-
niques. The effect of encapsulation efficiency of flavors is discussed with
reference to the use of different carrier agents.
In Chapter 8, the retention of bioactive compounds and the effect of
different parameters on bioactive compounds during spray drying of
juice is reviewed. Retention of bioactive nutrients during microencapsu-
lation by spray drying is also summarized. Moreover, the effect of novel
approaches in spray drying of nutrients is discussed.
Chapter 9 discusses the strategy adopted for retention of nutrients and
survival of probiotic bacteria during the spray-drying process. Chapter 10
focuses on packaging material identification for enhanced product sta-
bility. The safety and quality aspects of manufacturing spray-dried food
products are discussed in Chapter 11.
In a nutshell, this book will benefit entrepreneurs, food scientists,
academicians, and students by providing in-depth knowledge about the
spray drying of foods for quality retention and also for efficient consumer
acceptability.

x
 EDITOR
M. Selvamuthukumaran, PhD is Associate Professor, School of Food
Science & Post Harvest Technology, Institute of Technology, Haramaya
University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. He earned his PhD in Food Science from
the University of Mysore, and his master’s in Food Science & Technology
from the Jawaharlal Nehru Agricultural University. His areas of research
include antioxidant rich functional foods, probiotic and prebiotic foods
advanced food processing and preservation techniques.

xi
 CONTRIBUTORS
Sultan Arslan-Tontul
Faculty of Agriculture,
Department of Food
Engineering
Selcuk University
Konya, Turkey
Ulaş Baysan
Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Food
Engineering
Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
Mustafa Duran
Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Food
Engineering
Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
Feyza Elmas
Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Food
Engineering
Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
Figen Kaymak Ertekin
Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Food
Engineering
Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
xiii
Afshin Faridi
Department of Food Science and
Technology
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
(FUM)
Mashhad, Iran
S. Induja
Department of Chemistry
Hindustan Institute of Technology
& Science
Chennai, India
Mehmet Koç
Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Food
Engineering
Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
Krzysztof Lech
The Faculty of Life Sciences
and Technology, Institute of
Agricultural Engineering
Wrocław University of Life and
Environmental Sciences
Wrocław, Poland
Ishrat Majid
Department of Food Technology &
Nutrition
School of Agriculture
Lovely Professional University
Punjab, India
Contributors

Mohebbat Mohebbi Dilara Konuk Takma

Department of Food Science and Faculty of Engineering,
Technology Department of Food
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Engineering
(FUM) Adnan Menderes University
Mashhad, Iran Aydın, Turkey

Hilal Şahin Nadeem Mamta Thakur

Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering
Department of Food and Tech
Engineering SLIET
Adnan Menderes University Punjab, India
Aydın, Turkey
Ismail Tontul
Vikas Nanda Faculty of Engineering and
Department of Food Engineering Architecture, Department of
and Tech Food Engineering
SLIET Erbakan University
Punjab, India Konya, Turkey

R. Shalini Carole Tranchant

Department of Food Technology Faculty of Health Sciences and
Hindustan Institute of Technology Community Services
& Science Universit de Moncton
Tamilnadu, India Moncton, Canada

John Shi Anna Michalska Wrocław

Guelph Research and Development The Faculty of Biotechnology and
Center Food Science
Agriculture and Agri-Food Department of Fruit, Vegetable and
Canada Plant Nutraceutical Technology
and University of Life and
University of Guelph Environmental Sciences
Ontario, Canada Wrocław, Poland

xiv
 1
Spraying Drying
Concept, Application and Its Recent
Advances in Food Processing
M. Selvamuthukumaran, Carole Tranchant, and John Shi

Contents
1.0 Introduction to Spray Drying 2
1.1 Principles of Spray Drying 3
1.2 Advantages of Spray Drying 4
1.3 Limitations and Challenges of Spray Drying 5
1.4 Main Components and Operation Principles of the Spray Dryer 8
1.4.1 Atomizer 8
1.4.1.1 Centrifugal (or Rotary) Atomizers 9
1.4.1.2 Pressure (or Hydraulic) Nozzle Atomizers 10
1.4.1.3 Pneumatic (or Twin-Fluid) Nozzle Atomizer 11
1.4.2 Air Heating System 12
1.4.3 Spray-Drying Chamber 12
1.4.4 Separation System 14
1.5 Classification of Spray Dryers 14
1.5.1 Flow Type 15
1.5.1.1 Co-Current Spray Dryers 15
1.5.1.2 Counter-Current Spray Dryers 16
1.5.1.3 Mixed Flow Spray Dryers 16

1
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

1.5.2 Stage Number 16

1.5.3 Cycle Type 17
1.5.3.1 Open Cycle Spray Dryers 17
1.5.3.2 Closed Cycle Spray Dryers 17
1.5.3.3 Semi-Closed Cycle Spray Dryers 17
1.5.4 Spray-Drying Chamber Dimensions 18
1.6 Applications of Spray Drying 18
1.7 Recent Advances in Spray-Drying Processes 19
1.7.1 Ultrasound-Assisted Spray Drying 19
1.7.2 Vacuum Spray Drying 20
1.7.3 Dehumidified Air Spray Drying 21
1.8 Optimization of Conditions for Spray-Drying Processes 21
1.9 Conclusions 25
References 26

1.0  INTRODUCTION TO SPRAY DRYING

Spray drying is a relatively recent, highly versatile drying technology
enabling the transformation of a liquid feed into a dry powder. The cor-
responding transformations take place as the feed is sprayed in a hot-air
stream acting as a drying agent. Over the years, spray drying has evolved
as an industry-friendly drying technology with a wide range of applica-
tions in several sectors, including the food and pharmaceutical industries.
In the food industries, spray drying is commonly used for producing vari-
ous foods and ingredients, such as milk powder, whey/casein powder,
cheese powder, ice cream mix powder, egg powder, cereal powder, dried
infant foods, instant coffee/tea powder, juice powder, instant soup pow-
der, fish powder, as well as flavor and color ingredients (Karel et al., 1995;
Schuck et al., 2016; Shishir and Chen, 2017). An emerging application is the
encapsulation of food ingredients by spray drying (Anandharamkrishnan
and Padma, 2015). Depending on the nature (e.g., solution, suspension, or
emulsion) and properties of the feed, and on spray-drying conditions, an
ever-expanding range of spray-dried products can be obtained.
Spray drying results in high-quality products with well-controlled
characteristics closely associated with the product functionality and overall
performance. One of the key features of the spray-drying process is that it
produces spherically shaped and porous powder particles that have superior
dispersibility and instantization properties (wetting, dispersibility, and solu-
bility). The end products have a low moisture content and high bulk density,
which helps increase the product shelf life and reduce packaging and storage

2
 Spraying Drying

costs. The quality of the end-product depends on the spray-drying condi-

tions, including feed composition, feed flow rate, and type of atomizer used,
as well as inlet and outlet air temperature (Fazaeli et al., 2012). The high qual-
ity and functionality of spray-dried products is largely due to the combined
effects of short drying time and protection of the suspended particles during
the evaporative cooling process (Filkova et al., 2014). These important features
help protect heat sensitive food constituents (e.g., nutrients and non-nutrient
bioactive compounds and probiotics), leading to high retention of their bio-
activity and other functional properties in the spray-dried product. The fact
that high-value thermolabile constituents can be preserved to a greater extent
compared to other drying processes makes spray drying an attractive pro-
cess to develop health-promoting products, including functional foods and
nutraceuticals (Estevinho et al., 2013; Murugesan and Orsat, 2012).
Spray drying is one of the most commercially and economically fea-
sible drying techniques (Shishir and Chen, 2017). In industrial applica-
tions, it is generally used to produce large quantities of powder which is
made possible by using large drying chambers also referred to as drying
towers (Zbicinski, 2017). High productivity can be achieved as the process
is continuous and large volumes can be handled.
The following sections provide an overview of spray drying, its prin-
ciples, advantages, and limitations, the components and configurations of
spray dryers, the applications of spray drying in the food industry, as well
as recent advances in spray-drying processes and optimization which
stimulate the development of novel foods and ingredients.

1.1  PRINCIPLES OF SPRAY DRYING

Spray drying consists of four main steps, namely, atomization of the liq-
uid feed into the drying chamber, contact between the spray and a stream
of hot air, evaporation of moisture from the droplets, and separation of the
dried particles (Anandharamkrishnan and Padma, 2015; Karel et al., 1995).
The corresponding components of the spray dryer are the atomizer (step
1), the spray-drying chamber (steps 2 and 3), and the cyclone separator
(step 4), as illustrated in Figure 1.1. Each of the steps constitutes a complex
and delicately balanced engineering operation (Karel et al., 1995). Thus,
the properties of the feed and the spray-drying conditions must be ade-
quately controlled to ensure consistent quality of the final dried powder.
Liquid atomization, the first step, refers to the generation of tiny droplets
from the feedstock. Immediately after their formation in the atomizer, the
droplets are radiantly thrown into a moving stream of hot air that acts as

3
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

Figure 1.1  Main steps and components of the spray drying process.

the drying medium to take away the evaporated water. Contact between the
sprayed liquid droplets and hot air causes a rapid and sudden increase in the
droplet temperature, which results in rapid evaporation of water and dry-
ing. The entire drying process is completed in a few seconds, even before the
droplets reach the wall of the drying chamber. The resulting dried particles,
suspended in the air stream, flow into the separation equipment (e.g., cyclone
and bag filter) where they are removed from the air, collected, and packaged
or subjected to further processing, such as instantizing if needed. A descrip-
tion of the theory behind each step, i.e., liquid atomization, droplet drying
by evaporation, and particle separation, is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Further details can be found in the following reviews (Anandharamkrishnan
and Padma, 2015; Karel et al., 1995; Masters, 1991; Wisniewski, 2015).

1.2  ADVANTAGES OF SPRAY DRYING

The advantages of spray drying relate to the unique characteristics of
spray-dried products and of the process itself as compared to other dry-
ing methods. Its distinctive advantages are as follows:
• Spray drying produces different types of powders, granular or
agglomerated, with well-controlled characteristics such as granu-
lometry (particle size and size distribution), morphology, density,

4
 Spraying Drying

flow properties, dispersibility, instantanization properties, and

water activity, as needed for specific applications.
• Various fluid feedstocks including solutions, suspensions, and
emulsions can be spray dried successfully.
• Heat sensitive materials and their high-value bioactive constitu-
ents can be successfully spray dried as drying temperature and
contact time can be adjusted to preserve their bioactivity.
• The quality of the dried product is enhanced by the spray-drying
process.
• Consistent and superior product quality can be obtained follow-
ing process optimization.
• The product that comes out of the spray dryer is very hygienic.
• Spray-dried products have a good level of stability and a rela-
tively long shelf life because of their low water activity; they are
easy and convenient to store and prepare.
• Spray-dried products undergo little undesirable biochemical
changes such as browning and lipid oxidation.
• The reconstituted products obtained by rehydrating spray-dried
products (e.g., milk, instant coffee or tea, and fruit juice powders)
are easy to prepare and resemble the fresh materials.
• Spray drying is a continuous process and large volumes can be
handled with excellent process control. Feed rates vary broadly
from a few kilograms per hour for small applications to over 100
tons per hour for very large applications.
• Production of several tons of powder is possible with high efficiency.
• Drying times are very short which helps protect heat sensitive
materials and reduce the energy consumption of spray drying.
• The process is short – spray drying is usually completed in less
than three minutes.
• Little labor is involved in the process and production costs are
relatively low.

1.3  LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES OF SPRAY DRYING

The main limitations of spray drying are as follows:
• Materials rich in sugars and organic acids (e.g., fruits and certain
vegetables) are difficult to spray dry because their powders tend to
stick to the walls of the drying chamber (“stickiness” problem, see
Table 1.1). Stickiness can lead to product agglomeration and caking.

5
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

Table 1.1  Main Problems Encountered during Spray Drying and Their
Remedies
Nature of
Problem Reason/Cause Remedial Actions
Stickiness • High percentage of • Modification of spray dryer
soluble sugars and design
other soluble solids in • Adopting lower drying
the feed temperature
• Low glass transition • Use of dehumidified air and/
temperature (Tg) and or addition of high molecular
low “sticky point” weight drying aids/carriers to
temperature of feed increase Tg and the sticky point
constituents • Cooling and scraping of dryer
walls
Caking and • High percentage of • Improving spray dryer design
wall low-molecular-weight • Adding high molecular
deposition sugars in the feed weight carriers such as
• Water absorption on maltodextrin
particle surfaces can • Increasing inlet air
promote liquid temperature
bridge formation and • Scraping of dryer walls
make particles sticky
Crystallization • High drying • Application of humid air to
temperature and low improve powder crystallinity
Tg increase the and yield
crystallization rate of
some constituents,
sugars in particular
Hygroscopicity • High percentage of • Increasing inlet air
low-molecular- temperature
weight sugars • Adding high molecular
weight carriers such as gum
arabic to reduce the
hygroscopicity

• Droplet size control during spray drying can be challenging,

which can lead to non-uniform drying, irregular morphology
and microstructure of the dried particles.
• High temperatures above 100º C may result in losses of thermola-
bile constituents (e.g., vitamins B1 and C, anthocyanins and other

6
 Spraying Drying

phenolic compounds, lycopene and probiotic bacteria) or reduce

their bioactivity or viability. In many cases; however, this can be
minimized by using very short drying times and other precau-
tions including adjusting the operating temperature.
• Product degradation can lead to deposits on the walls of the dry-
ing chamber.
• Spray drying is an energy intensive process.
• The process thermal efficiency is relatively low; most of the heat is
lost with discharged gases.
• Initial installation costs of the spray dryer tend to be high.
• The equipment is bulky (e.g., spray-drying tower of 8 m in
height and 5 m in diameter, and up to 30 m in height and 10 m in
diameter).
• Large equipment can be challenging to operate and cleaning can
be a cumbersome process. Specific safety precautions must be
implemented due to the elevated risk of fire and explosion associ-
ated with the production of powdered materials.

The main challenges affecting the quality of spray-dried products are

stickiness, caking and wall deposition, crystallization and hygroscopicity
(see Table 1.1). Stickiness and caking respectively refer to the tendency of
the powder to stick and to form lumps. They result in powders with poor
flow. Stickiness and wall deposition negatively affect powder recovery (or
yield). These challenges can generally be overcome by adjusting the spray-
drying parameters, which include feed composition and the possible use
of spray-drying aids, also known as carrier agents, such as polymers to
help control the drying process. Some products such as fruit and tomato
products are notoriously more challenging to spray dry than others. They
contain a high proportion of sugars and other soluble solids, yield amor-
phous gases on dehydration, and tend to adhere to the walls of the dry-
ing chamber. Various remedies have been proposed to reduce stickiness
(see Table 1.1). These include drying at a temperature lower than the tem-
perature at which the powder tends to stick (also known as the “sticky
point”) and drying with dehumidified air. The sticky point of the product
can also be increased when polymers such as polysaccharides or proteins
are added as drying aids. Other recent developments, such as, modified
spray-drying techniques (e.g., ultrasound-assisted spray drying, vacuum
spray drying, and dehumidified air spray drying) have greatly improved
the ability to successfully spray-dry fruit and vegetable juices (Shishir and
Chen, 2017).

7
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

1.4  MAIN COMPONENTS AND OPERATION

PRINCIPLES OF THE SPRAY DRYER
The main components of spray dryers that use hot air as a drying medium
are illustrated in Figure 1.1. The four major components, namely the atom-
izer, air heating system, drying chamber, and separation system, and their
operation principles are presented in this section. Each performs a key
function in the process during the steps of droplet formation, contact with
hot air, evaporative drying, and particle separation, respectively.

1.4.1 Atomizer
Atomization is often regarded as the heart of the spray-drying process as it
is closely related to the drying kinetics, the quality of the resulting powder
as well as the energy efficiency of the process (Atuonwu and Stapley, 2017).
The atomizer, i.e., the droplet generating device, is therefore a critical com-
ponent of the spray dryer. One of the main goals of atomization is to increase
the surface-to-volume ratio to enable ultra-rapid drying. The formation of
tiny droplets from a bulk liquid by atomization achieves this goal. Rapid
drying results in minimal losses of heat sensitive compounds and particles
with the desired morphology and physico-chemical properties.
Many types of spray-drying atomizers are available. Large scale
operations typically use centrifugal atomizers or high-pressure single
fluid nozzle atomizers, while smaller installations may use pneumatic
(twin-fluid) nozzle atomizers, ultrasonic atomizers, or electrostatic atom-
izers (Wisniewski, 2015). Centrifugal atomizers and nozzle atomizers
are predominant in commercial food applications as described below. A
promising and emerging technique, ultrasonic atomization, is presented
in Section 1.8.1. Electrostatic atomizers are seldom used in commercial
food applications due in part to very low feed flow rates. Atomizer selec-
tion has a major impact on the properties and quality of the final spray-
dried product (Phisut, 2012). Atomizer selection is based on production
scale, physical properties of the liquid feed (e.g., viscosity), and product
requirements. Droplet size varies depending on the type of atomizer
and on atomization parameters, which greatly influence the end-product
characteristics. Regardless of atomizer type, feed flow rate adjustment is
important to achieve optimum droplet drying before they reach the walls
of the drying chamber. Feed flow rate is associated with the speed of the
pump that feeds the liquid to the atomizer (see Figure 1.1).
For centrifugal and pressure atomizers, atomization parameters
include the wheel speed and nozzle pressure, respectively, in addition

8
 Spraying Drying

to other parameters such as feed flow rate and temperature, which also
affect droplet size. For instance, increasing atomization speed from 10,000
to 25,000 rpm was found to reduce the particle size and moisture content
of orange juice powder (Chegini and Ghobadian, 2005). Higher speeds
break down the liquid droplets into tinier droplets, which increases the
total surface area, leading to faster drying and lower moisture content in
the final product. A 40% increase in process yield was reported by increas-
ing atomizer speed from 21,000 to 24,000 rpm at constant feed flow rate
of 3.3 L/h for the spray drying of nopal mucilage (Leon-Martinez et al.,
2010). Atomization pressure has similar effects. With a fermented dairy
product, increasing the atomizer pressure from 1 to 2.5 bar reduced the
powder particle size and increased bulk density and total solid concentra-
tion (Jumah et al., 2000). Excessive pressure should be avoided; however,
as this may result in shorter contact between the droplets and the drying
air, leading to insufficient drying.

1.4.1.1  Centrifugal (or Rotary) Atomizers

In centrifugal or rotary atomization, the feed is introduced at the center
of a rotating disk or wheel. The centrifugal force carries the fluid to the
edge of the disk and throws the fluid off the edge (Zhao, 2006). The liquid
forms filaments or sheets that break into small spherical droplets (Karel et
al., 1995), as illustrated in Figure 1.2. The droplets follow a helical path as

Figure 1.2  Centrifugal (or rotary) atomizer (Adapted from Sungkhaphaitoon

et al., 2017).

9
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

a result of the centrifugal force. Mean droplet size, which is controlled by

wheel speed and flow rate, is proportional to feed rate and viscosity, and
inversely related to the wheel speed and diameter. Diameter and speed
and may range from 25 to 30 cm and 4,000 to 60,000 rpm, respectively.
Spray type can be adjusted from fine, to medium, to coarse.
The main advantages of rotary atomizers compared to other types
include high feed rates, which can be achieved using a single atomizer,
the production of uniformly sized droplets with very small droplet size
(30–120 µm), along with the fact that they are resistant to abrasion and
not susceptible to clogging and fouling (Anandharamkrishnan and
Padma, 2015). They can therefore be operated for longer times with good
performance and no need for high pressure. However, rotary atomizers
have a limited ability to handle viscous feeds. Other limitations include
the energy consumption, which can be higher than for other atomizers.
Rotary atomizers also tend to exhibit wide spray patterns, thus restrict-
ing their use to drying chambers with relatively large diameters.They are
further restricted to vertical spray dryers as they cannot be easily adapted
to horizontal spray dryers.

1.4.1.2  Pressure (or Hydraulic) Nozzle Atomizers

Pressure atomizers are also known as hydraulic atomizers or high-pres-
sure single fluid nozzle atomizers. High pressure forces the fluid feed
through a small nozzle orifice so that the feed emerges as a stream at high
speed. High friction between the fluid and the air disrupts the stream,
breaking it into fragments, then into tiny droplets.The energy source for
this type of atomization is the fluid pressure, which is converted to kinetic
energy as the fluid leaves the nozzle (Huang et al., 2006). Mean droplet
size (120–250 µm) is proportional to feed rate and viscosity, and inversely
related to the atomization pressure, which can reach several hundred
bars. Spray type is coarse.
The primary advantages of pressure atomizers include their ability to
produce powders with high bulk density and good flow characteristics,
which is related to the production of dried particles with less occluded air
than pneumatic atomizers. Pressure atomizers are relatively cheap, they
are energy efficient, simple and compact (a few cm). They produce par-
ticles with greater particle size, which is desirable in some applications
(Lee et al., 2010). Like rotary atomizers, they are limited to low viscosity
feedstocks. Additional limitations of pressure atomizers include clogging
and relatively low feed rates. However, their capacity can be increased by
using multiple pressure nozzles. At high feed rates, their spray patterns

10
 Spraying Drying

tend to be less homogenous and coarser than rotary atomizers. In addition,

their spray characteristics tend to vary over time as a result of abrasion.

1.4.1.3  Pneumatic (or Twin-Fluid) Nozzle Atomizer

Pneumatic nozzle atomizers, also known as twin-fluid nozzle atomizers, pro-
duce a fine spray of fluid with the aid of a compressed gas, generally air,
which acts as the main energy source to generate the droplets. Droplet forma-
tion occurs as the liquid impacts the high-velocity air jet. Coarse droplets are
formed first and are rapidly converted into minute droplets (Hede et al., 2008).
Different designs are available, namely external mixing and internal mixing
nozzles (see Figure 1.3), depending on where the mixing of the two fluids
takes place. Mean droplet size (30–150 µm) is proportional to feed rate and
viscosity, and inversely related to the atomization pressure. Spray type varies
from fine to medium. End-product quality is closely related to the rheologi-
cal properties of the air and feed (e.g., viscosity, surface tension, and density).
The main advantages of two-fluid nozzles include their ability to han-
dle viscous feeds and to produce powders with very small particle sizes.
They are relatively cheap, simple, and compact, although compressed air

Figure 1.3  Pneumatic (or twin-fluid) atomizer (Hede et al., 2008).

11
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

adds to the operating costs. Their main limitations are relatively low feed
rates and tendency to clog and “overspray,” which can increase the main-
tenance requirements and operating costs (Barbosa-Canovas and Vega
Mercado, 1996). Overspray refers to the undesirable production of too
small droplets/particles which easily get carried away to the atmosphere
by the air flow instead of sedimenting at the bottom of the spray-drying
chamber. This adversely affects the performance of the particle separation
system and may result in atmospheric pollution (Wisniewski, 2015).

1.4.2  Air Heating System

The hot air entering the drying chamber is generated by direct or indi-
rect air heaters. In direct air heaters, the air comes in direct contact with
a flame, while in the indirect system, it is heated with a heat exchanger.
Indirect air heaters are typically used in the food and pharmaceutical
industries. Key operating parameters regarding air include temperature,
air flow rate, and air thermophysical properties. Mass and energy bal-
ances are often used to calculate the air flow rate required in the spray
dryer (da Silva et al., 2016; Langrish, 2009).

1.4.3  Spray-Drying Chamber

Spraying of the liquid feed, contact between droplets and hot air, droplet
drying, and preliminary collection of the dried particles mixed with air
all take place in the spray-drying chamber. This chamber consists of a
large cylindrical top with a conical bottom, typically made up of com-
mon 304 stainless steel. Most industrial spray dryers use convective dry-
ing with air as the drying medium. In most configurations, the roof of the
spray-drying chamber is fitted with the atomizer, while the conical bot-
tom is connected to the separation system (see Figure 1.1). The inlet for the
entry of hot air is located at the top of the chamber, except in counter-cur-
rent spraydryers in which air enters from the lower part of the chamber.
Chamber dimensions may vary from about 8 to 30 m in height and 5 to 10
m in diameter (Zbicinski, 2017). They are related to the spray dryer capac-
ity and to droplet drying time. Finer droplets usually require shorter resi-
dence times as they dry rapidly, and thus drying chamber dimensions can
be smaller (Wisniewski, 2015). The evaporation capacity of relatively large
spray dryers may be around 1,500 to 2,000 kg of water per hour.
Evaporation and droplet drying occur when hot air contacts the
spray droplets. Drying is achieved with a very short contact time (a few

12
 Spraying Drying

seconds). The droplet center temperature rises suddenly, which results in

rapid moisture evaporation. Simultaneous heat and mass transfer take
place, whereby heat is transferred from the air to the droplets by convec-
tion, while water vapor is transported from the droplets to the air by con-
vection through the droplet boundary layer (Wisniewski, 2015). Initially,
the evaporation rate in the spray is almost constant. The air temperature
falls rapidly. This is known as the “constant rate period.” The droplet sur-
face temperature, which is almost constant, can be approximated as the
wet bulb temperature, i.e., the lowest temperature that can be achieved
by evaporative cooling, when the drying gas is saturated with vapor
(Mujumdar, 2014). Most of the water is removed during the constant rate
period. The droplets shrink as a result of evaporation.
Below a certain moisture content, a concentration gradient builds up
in the droplets. The solutes dissolved in the liquid reach a concentration
exceeding their saturation concentration and start to form a thin shell or
crust at the droplet surface, leading to reduced water activity at the surface.
Due to crust formation, moisture removal becomes a diffusion-controlled
process with the evaporation rate depending on the rate of water vapor
diffusion through the dried outer shell. This is known as the “falling rate
period”. In the late stages of drying, diffusion becomes entirely limiting.
In general, there is a critical moisture content below which the particle
surface becomes impermeable to some compounds (e.g., aroma and flavor
compounds), thus preventing flavor losses (Karel et al., 1995). During the
falling rate period, the rate of moisture removal decreases and particle
temperature rises above the wet bulb temperature. Although the particles
begin to heat, they are in a relatively cold part of the dryer where the air
has cooled down considerably and is at or near the outlet temperature of
the dryer. Therefore, they are never heated above the air outlet temperature
of the dryer, even though the inlet air temperature may be much higher.
The temperature of the final dried particles is usually about 20º C lower
than the outlet air temperature. Bubble formation inside the particles may
occur during the falling rate period, which can result in irregularly shaped
particles with low bulk density (Anandharamkrishnan and Padma, 2015).
Inlet air temperature adjustment is critical so that the droplets are fully
dried before reaching the walls of the drying chamber. In addition, the
drying process must be able to dry the largest droplets without scorching
the smallest ones. Overheating should be avoided to reduce scorching of
the smallest particles. Particle size, size distribution, and morphology of
spray-dried particles depend on many parameters, including feed compo-
sition, solid concentration and viscosity, feed rate, atomization parameters,

13
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

and drying parameters. The desired particle size and morphology vary
from product to product. Morphology varies from a regular (sphericalor
oval) shapes with a smooth surface to irregular shapes and dented struc-
ture depending on drying conditions (Phisut, 2012). Particle size may range
from about 10 to 500 µm in diameter. Rapid evaporation produces porous
microstructures. Larger particles can be produced by inducing agglom-
eration between the particles inside the spray dryer. Some degree of
agglomeration is generally beneficial in instant food products to improve
wettability and dispersibility in water (Karel, 1995). Further information
on the morphologies and microstructure of spray-dried particles can be
found in Anandharamkrishnan and Padma (2015) and Karel et al. (1995).

1.4.4  Separation System

At the bottom of the spray dryer, the dried particles are partially sepa-
rated from the air. However, because the air coming out of the drying
chamber still contains a large amount of suspended solid particles, fur-
ther separation is required (Atkins et al., 2011). Two types of systems are
used for particle separation, namely a cyclone separator for primary sepa-
ration and additional components such as a bag filter and/or an electro-
static precipitator for secondary separation (see Figure 1.1).
Cyclones operate on the principle of vortex separation, whereby the
centrifugal force and gravity allow the separation of air-particle mixtures.
The efficiency of powder separation depends on cyclone dimensions,
number, and inlet configuration. Wrap-around inlet and tangential inlet
are two commonly used configurations. With wrap-around inlets, rela-
tively high volumes of air can be processed and the air velocity is high,
leading to high separation efficiency. The number of cyclones may range
from one to four depending on the characteristics of the air-powder mix-
ture. Master (1991) reported that a 95% powder separation efficiency from
air can be achieved under optimum conditions. For maximal powder
recovery, cyclones are typically followed by self-cleaning bag filters and/
or electrostatic precipitation equipment (Wisniewski, 2015). Separation in
these devices is achieved by physical or electrostatic means, respectively.

1.5  CLASSIFICATION OF SPRAY DRYERS

Spray dryers are available in different configurations and layouts. They
can be classified based on flow type, drying stage number, air cycling
type, as well as dimensions of the spray-drying chamber.

14
 Spraying Drying

1.5.1  Flow Type

In the spray-drying chamber, the drying air and spray droplets can meet
in either co-current, counter-current, or mixed flow pattern, depending
on the direction of the air flow relative to the liquid spray (see Figure 1.4).
The type of contact between feed and air is determined by the position of
the atomizer relative to the air inlet. Most industrial spray dryers use co-
current flow or mixed flow.

1.5.1.1  Co-Current Spray Dryers

In co-current spray dryers, the air and feed pass through the drying
chamber in the same direction (see Figure 1.4, left). The atomizer is usu-
ally positioned at the top of the chamber and sprays down. This design is
preferred for heat sensitive materials because the hottest drying air (usu-
ally 150–220º C) contacts the droplets when their moisture content is the
highest. Therefore, the droplet temperature remains low due to the high
rate of evaporative cooling (Woo et al., 2012). Then, the air temperature

Figure 1.4  Co-current, counter-current, and mixed flow spray dryers (Adapted
from Wong and John, 2016).

15
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

drops rapidly so that outlet air temperatures as low as 50 to 80º C can be

achieved to enhance the retention of heat sensitive compounds with high
functionality (Murugesan and Orsat, 2012).

1.5.1.2  Counter-Current Spray Dryers

In this configuration, the air and feed pass through the drying chamber
in opposite directions (see Figure 1.4, center). The atomizer is located at
the top of the dryer, while the air enters at the bottom and moves upward.
Nozzle atomizers are generally used because the energy of the spray
can be directed against the air flow (BETE, 2005). The main advantage of
counter-current dryers is their rapid evaporation rate and greater energy
efficiency compared to co-current dryers (Ali et al., 2014). However, their
uses are restricted to heat resistant materials because the exit temperature
of the product (when its moisture content is the lowest) is close to the inlet
air temperature and higher than the outlet air temperature.

1.5.1.3  Mixed Flow Spray Dryers

Mixed flow spray dryers combine both co-current and counter-current flow.
The air enters at the top, as in co-current spray dryers, while the atomizer
is positioned at the bottom and sprays upward into the incoming air flow
(see Figure 1.4, right). Mixed flow spray dryers, like counter-current spray
dryers, expose the driest particles to the hottest air. They are therefore most
suitable for drying heat resistant materials. They can also be used when
coarse free-flowing powders are desired (Wong and John, 2016).

1.5.2  Stage Number

Spray drying can be conducted in a single-stage or two-stage design,
depending on the number of drying stages before the final dried product
is separated. In single-stage spray dryers, the most widely used design,
the moisture content is reduced to the required level (about 2% to 5% by
weight) in one pass through the dryer (BETE, 2005). Single-stage spray
dryers usually operate at an inlet air temperature of 150 to 200º C and an
outlet air temperature around 95º C or higher if a lower moisture content
is required in the dried product (Anandharamkrishnan and Padma, 2015).
Higher outlet air temperatures are less suitable for heat sensitive materi-
als. In addition, they also can cause sticking of the particles and other
problems affecting the quality of the final product.
In two-stage spray dryers, drying is accomplished in two stages. First,
the semi-dried product leaves the spray-drying chamber with a moisture
content of about 5% to 10%. Further reduction of the moisture content to 5%

16
 Spraying Drying

or less is accomplished during a second stage using a fluidized bed dryer or a

vibrating bed dryer (BETE, 2005). Compared to single-stage spray, two-stage
spray dryers use lower temperatures at each drying stage, which makes this
design particularly suitable for heat sensitive materials. Additional advan-
tages include the ability to process sticky, lipid rich, and hygroscopic mate-
rials and to produce high-quality products (free-flowing powders with
high retention of nutrients and other bioactive components and of sensory
attributes such as flavors and colors). They also have a higher evaporation
capacity and thermal efficiency, lower operation costs, and lower particulate
emissions as less dust is generated during the process (Westergaard, 2010).

1.5.3  Cycle Type

Three distinct designs (open cycle, closed, and semi-closed) are available
depending on the ability of the spray dryer to recycle and reuse the dry-
ing gas.

1.5.3.1  Open Cycle Spray Dryers

Open cycle spray dryers operate without recycling the drying air. The air
is obtained from atmosphere, heated, conveyed through the spray-drying
chamber and released back to the atmosphere after the separation stage.
These spray dryers are the most widely used industrially.

1.5.3.2  Closed Cycle Spray Dryers

Closed cycle spray dryers recycle the drying gas, which may be air or,
more commonly, an inert gas such as nitrogen. After spray drying, the
gas is cleaned, dried, and recycled into the spray-drying chamber. Closed
cycle dryers are used when the feed is mixed with flammable organic
solvents. For these applications, the closed cycle design greatly reduces
the risk of explosion, pollution, and toxicity (from vapor, odor, and/or par-
ticulate emissions) and allows a better recovery of the solvents to produce
solvent-free products. Closed cycle spray drying is also beneficial when
the product to be dried is highly susceptible to oxidation (BETE, 2005).

1.5.3.3  Semi-Closed Cycle Spray Dryers

Semi-closed spray dryers are a combination between open and closed cycle
types. They exist with many variations and are not gas tight. The main
type is the “direct heated” (or “self-inertizing”) system. In this design, a
direct air heater is used and the air entering the system is limited to that
required for combustion. The gas that is recycled through the spray dryer
consists mainly of products of combustion. It has a low oxygen content,

17
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

making it suitable for materials that should not be exposed to oxygen and
for reducing the risk of explosion (BETE, 2005; Mujumdar, 2014).

1.5.4  Spray-Drying Chamber Dimensions

Spray dryers can be further categorized based on the ratio of height to
diameter (H/D) of the spray-drying chamber. Horizontal (or short-form)
spraydryers, the most common type, are characterized by a H/D ratio of
about 2:1 or less. They are fitted with a rotary atomizer or an atomizer that
sprays horizontally. Because the drying chamber is relatively small, low
flow atomizers can be used and particle residence times are relatively short
(BETE, 2005). This makes horizontal spray dryers particularly suitable for
drying heat sensitive materials. Vertical (or tall form) spray dryers in con-
trast have a taller drying chamber (H/D ratio above 5:1). They are usually
fitted with a nozzle atomizer and particle residence times are longer than
in the horizontal type. Vertical spray dryers tend to be more susceptible to
undesirable particle deposition and drying out on the walls of the drying
chamber as a high proportion of particles impact on the chamber wall dur-
ing the drying process (Anandharamkrishnan and Padma, 2015).

1.6  APPLICATIONS OF SPRAY DRYING

The industrial applications of spray drying are numerous, ranging from
the chemical sector to the food and pharmaceutical sectors, which offer
powder formulations and dry powder aerosols produced by spray drying.
These applications rely on the distinct advantages of spray drying, specifi-
cally the generation of free-flowing powers with fine quality with respect
to particle size, flow characteristics, density, moisture content, solubility
and instantanization properties, as well as its suitability for both heat
resistant and heat sensitive materials.
For most applications in the food industries, spray drying is particu-
larly suitable as it preserves the flavors, colors, nutritional quality, and
other important functional properties. This is crucial in applications, such
as infant foods, coffee powders, flavor and color ingredients, and nutra-
ceutical ingredients. The main food applications of spray drying include:
• Skim milk powder, whole milk powder, cheese powder, whey
powder, casein/caseinate powder, and ice cream mix powder.
• Instant coffee/tea powders, instant coffee substitutes, and coffee/
tea whiteners.

18
 Spraying Drying

• Infant foods.
• Other instant food mixes, such as instant soup powder.
• Ready-to-reconstitute fruit and vegetable juice powders and pig-
ment powders from fruits and vegetables.
• Cereal-based powders for use in bakery.
• Egg-based powders.
• Other products including meat and fish products and sugar products.
• Food additives and processing aids (e.g., enzymes, flavor, and
color ingredients).
• Health food mixes, functional food ingredients, and nutraceutical
ingredients (e.g., probiotic bacteria, prebiotic powders, and vari-
ous plant extracts rich in bioactive phytochemicals such as carot-
enoids and phenolic compounds).
• Encapsulated food ingredients for which encapsulation by spray
drying helps improve the protection and solubility of the ingredi-
ent in various food matrices. The bioavailability of certain nutra-
ceuticals and other health-promoting ingredients may also be
enhanced by encapsulation.

1.7  RECENT ADVANCES IN SPRAY-DRYING PROCESSES

The latest technological developments in spray drying address the limita-
tions of conventional spray drying associated with the atomization, drying,
and separation steps. Common challenges encountered with conventional
atomizers include nozzle clogging, high electric energy consumption, and
difficulty to control droplet size, size distribution, and velocity, while the loss
of thermolabile nutrients and of other valuable functional and bioactive com-
pounds is a frequent concern during drying. In recent advances presented
in this section, spray drying is combined with other techniques, specifically
ultrasound atomization, vacuum drying, and/or drying with dehumidified
air, to improve the ability to successfully spray dry certain foods and food
materials. Some of these advances also reduce the energetic requirements of
spray drying (Atuonwu and Stapley, 2017; Dalmoro et al., 2013).

1.7.1  Ultrasound-Assisted Spray Drying

Ultrasound-assisted spray drying relies on ultrasonic atomization for gen-
erating the spray droplets. Ultrasonic nozzle atomizers are electromechan-
ical devices that vibrate at a high energy to induce droplet formation. For

19
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

many applications, they are considered a superior alternative to traditional

atomization techniques (Wisniewski, 2015). They consist of a piezoelectric
transducer with a spray producing tip, an ultrasonic generator, an external
liquid applicator, a precision liquid distribution system, and air directors.
The transducer, which is driven by the ultrasonic generator and is resonant
at a certain ultrasonic frequency (35, 45, or 60 kHz), generates high fre-
quency sound waves or vibrations. The vibration energy applied to the res-
onant atomizing surface spreads onto this surface and, as the liquid passes
through it, this leads to the formation of a thin liquid film at the tip of
the atomizer. As this film absorbs the vibrational energy, capillary waves
develop and break down into small droplets once their amplitude reaches
a critical height (Dalmoro et al., 2012). The main atomization parameters,
namely vibration frequency, vibration amplitude, and area of the vibrating
surface, are adjusted according to the characteristics of the feed material.
Ultrasonic atomization results in small droplets with uniform size
distribution, which is related to the low initial velocity of the droplets
compared to pressure atomization. Shorter drying times can therefore be
used, which limits the denaturation of heat sensitive components. Further
protection of sensitive materials is due to the relatively small mechanical
stress generated by the vibrational energy confers (Dalmoro et al., 2012;
Schmid et al., 2011). Ultrasonic nozzles are also less susceptible to clog-
ging. They are limited to low viscosity Newtonian liquids and are best
for processing liquids at relatively low flow rates (Turan et al., 2016). The
low velocity spray allows the drying chamber to be designed with small
dimensions. Ultrasonic nozzles operate at low-energy levels and their
other characteristics also contribute to reducing the energy consumption
of the overall spray-drying process (Dalmoro et al., 2013).

1.7.2  Vacuum Spray Drying

In vacuum spray drying, drying is performed under vacuum, which
enables the use of low drying temperatures (40–60ºC), a considerable
advantage for applications involving heat sensitive materials. Superheated
steam acts both as the heat source and drying medium. It is supplied at
200º C to the spray-drying chamber through a steam nozzle, while a dis-
tinct nozzle, typically a pneumatic nozzle, atomizes the liquid feed into
small droplets. Most of the superheated steam is recirculated and reheated
and the excess steam from the drying process, corresponding to the evap-
orated water, can be used elsewhere in the process or plant, thus making
an efficient energy recovery possible (van Deventer and Heijmans, 2001).

20
 Spraying Drying

Superheated steam has a higher heat capacity compared to hot air, which
increases the efficiency of the heat transfer. However, because the heat
exchange occurs under vacuum, many droplets cannot be optimally dried
as they do not reach the saturated steam temperature, which is around
40º C under vacuum conditions. Thus, for successful drying, the jacket of
the drying chamber is maintained at 50º C by supplying hot water (Islam
et al., 2016). Separation of the dried particles in a cyclone separator is also
performed under vacuum, while low-pressure dry air at 45º C is used
during powder collection. Both steps use a jacket maintained at 50º C to
reduce wall deposition of the particles inside the cyclone and collection
chamber (Islam et al., 2016).

1.7.3  Dehumidified Air Spray Drying

In this version of spray drying, dehumidified air is used as the drying
medium. Low moisture content and relative humidity of the air improve
the driving force for drying even at lower temperatures. Dehumidified
air is produced by an air dehumidifying system connected to the drying
chamber. If a pneumatic nozzle is used for atomization, the compressed
air is also dehumidified. Spray drying with dehumidified air substan-
tially alleviates the stickiness problem and improves powder recovery
compared to traditional spray drying. The powder also has a lower resid-
ual moisture content, higher bulk density, and particles with a smooth
surface. In addition, spray drying can be performed at a lower outlet air
temperature, thus reducing the thermal and oxidative losses of thermo-
labile components (Goula and Adamopoulos, 2005a, b). Combining the
dehumidified air spray dryer with a refrigeration system (double con-
denser) was also found to be beneficial for drying heat sensitive materials
without reducing the drying capacity (Kosasih et al., 2017).

1.8  OPTIMIZATION OF CONDITIONS

FOR SPRAY-DRYING PROCESSES
The effect of spray-drying conditions on the quality of food products has
been studied extensively and recently reviewed (Anandharamkrishnan
and Padma, 2015; Schuck et al., 2016; Shishir and Chen, 2017). Illustrations
for juice and plant extract powders are provided in Table 1.2. The main
factors influencing the quality of spray-dried products in general are sum-
marized in Figure 1.5. The main considerations underlying the choice of

21
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

Table 1.2  Effect of Spray-Drying Conditions on the Quality of Juice and Plant
Extract Powders
Name of the Spray-Drying
Product Conditions Findings References
Tongkat Ali Inlet air temperature A 40% efficiency of spray Harun et al.
extract 100º–220º C drying was achieved (2015)
Feed temperature under optimized
25º–100º C conditions, i.e., inlet air
Air pressure 7.5–20 temperature 160º C, feed
psi temperature 25º C, air
Feed flow rate pressure 17.91 psi, and
2.27–7.14 mL/min feed flow rate 4.86 mL/
min.
Watermelon Maltodextrin Decreased moisture Oberoi and
juice concentration content and water Sogi (2015)
3%–10% activity, increased
reducing of sugar
content and powder
dissolution, and
decreased lycopene and
total carotenoid contents
of the dried product with
increasing maltodextrin
concentration.
Jamun fruit Inlet air temperature Increase in moisture Santhalakshmy
juice 140º–160º C content, powder yield, et al. (2015)
Outlet air solubility, hygroscopicity,
temperature 80º C and particle size;
Maltodextrin decrease in water activity
concentration 25% and glass transition
Feed flow rate 10 temperature with
mL/min increasing inlet air
temperature.
(Continued)

22
 Spraying Drying

Table 1.2 (Continued)  Effect of Spray-Drying Conditions on the Quality of

Juice and Plant Extract Powders
Name of the Spray-Drying
Product Conditions Findings References
Lychee juice Different carriers Best results were Kingwatee
(maltodextrin+ obtained with et al. (2015)
gum arabic, maltodextrin
maltodextrin+ (15%) + inulin (5%) to
inulin, and gum protect L. Casei cells and
arabic+ inulin) enhance their viability.
were tested to
encapsulateL. casei
in lychee juice by
spray drying
Black carrot Different carriers Maltodextrin use Murali et al.
juice (maltodextrin, gum resulted in higher (2015)
arabic, and tapioca retention of total
starch) were tested anthocyanin content and
to encapsulate antioxidant activity
black carrot juice compared to other carrier
by spray drying at agents at inlet air
variable inlet air temperature of 150ºC.
temperature
(150º–225º C) and
constant feed rate
Carrot and Inlet air temperature Best quality was Movahhed and
celery juice 120º–170º C obtained with inlet air Mohebbi
Maltodextrin temperature 130º C, feed (2016)
0.7%–0.9% flow rate 36 mL/min,
Feed flow rate 36–53 and maltodextrin
mL/h concentration 0.87%,
resulting in minimum
values of water activity,
moisture content, bulk
density, and
hygroscopicity, and
maximum values of
β-carotene content and
color (lightness).
(Continued)

23
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

Table 1.2 (Continued)  Effect of Spray-Drying Conditions on the Quality of

Juice and Plant Extract Powders
Name of the Spray-Drying
Product Conditions Findings References
Beetroot Inlet air temperature Best quality was Bazaria and
juice 160º–180º C obtained with inlet air Kumar (2016)
Feed flow rate temperature 180º C, feed
400–600 mL/h flow rate of 400 mL/h,
Maltodextrin and maltodextrin
5%–15% concentration 15%, with
good yield, maximum
redness value, and high
retention of betalain
pigments.
Apricot fruit Inlet air temperature Gum arabic (15%) use Razzaq et al.
pulp 190º C, outlet air resulted in higher (2017)
temperature 90º C, powder yield compared
gum arabic to maltodextrin.
8%–15% or
maltodextrin
2%–5%
Hog plum Inlet air temperature Product obtained with Mishra et al.
juice 120º–175º C 4:1 juice and (2017)
Feed flow rate 8–14 maltodextrin, inlet air
mL/min temperature 171º C, and
Juice and feed rate 8 mL/min
maltodextrin exhibited lower water
concentration 2:1, activity, moisture
4:1, and 6:1 (v/w) content, and
hygroscopicity, and high
total phenolic content.
Curcumin Encapsulation of Nearly 97% of curcumin Khanji et al.
curcumin in was retained and the (2018)
micellar caseins by yellow powder exhibited
spray drying a good morphology and
a high antioxidant
activity (88% of active
curcumin).

24
 Spraying Drying

Figure 1.5  Main processing factors influencing the quality of spray-dried products.

process parameters during the drying step are as follows. They take into
account the characteristics of the feed and its heat sensitivity.
• Inlet air temperature must be as high as possible to maximize
thermal efficiency and obtain final products with a low residual
moisture content; increasing the inlet air temperature simultane-
ously increases the outlet air temperature.
• The drying air temperature should be below the glass transition
temperature (Tg) of the feed material to prevent product stickiness
and collapse of structure.
• Increasing the drying air flow rate (also known as aspirator flow
rate or speed) increases the outlet air temperature and results in
final products with a lower moisture content; it also enhances the
product separation achieved in the cyclone separator.
• Increasing the feed flow rate increases droplet size and reduces
the outlet air temperature, resulting in products with a higher
moisture content.
• Higher concentration of total soluble solids in the feed increases
particle size, outlet air temperature, and powder recovery (or yield).
• Residence time can be short (about 10–15 s) for fine spray droplets,
intermediate (25–35 s) for fine to semi-coarse droplets, or longer
for coarser droplets if low residual moisture content is required.

1.9 CONCLUSIONS
Spray drying is a rapidly evolving and versatile technology used to dehy-
drate liquid products into powders. The spray-drying process, which
consists of four main steps, stands out from other dehydration processes

25
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

in its ability to handle fluid feed stocks of different natures and ability
to produce flowing powders with well-controlled characteristics, such
as good dispersibility and instantization properties. High productivity
can be obtained as the process is continuous and large volumes can be
handled under optimal conditions, which results in spray-dried products
with fine quality and high functionality. Quality and functionality can
be optimized by adjusting process parameters, including feed composi-
tion, feed flow rate, type of atomizer, air properties, and the use of spray-
drying aids. Spray drying has a broad range of applications in the food
industries encompassing the dairy, egg, fruit and vegetable, cereal, bever-
age, meat and fish, flavor, as well as functional food ingredient sectors. It
is commonly used to process heat sensitive materials and recover high-
value bioactive and functional compounds because of the very short dry-
ing times involved and large range of operating temperatures.
The already broad range of applications of spray drying in the food
industry is continuously expanding due to the high demand for con-
venient, functional, and health-promoting foods and to the commercial
availability of different types of spray dryers well-suited for various
uses. Recent advances such as modified spray-drying techniques, which
involve ultrasound, vacuum, and/or dehumidified air, greatly improve
the feasibility of spray drying and the options available to reduce the
challenges encountered when some products are subjected to conven-
tional spray drying. Recent advances also reduce the energy consump-
tion of spray dryers. Continuous innovations and developments in this
field will undoubtedly support the development of novel foods and
ingredients, including functional foods, nutraceuticals, and encapsu-
lated ingredients. These open exciting and new venues for applications
that extend beyond traditional foods and could impact health and sus-
tainability more broadly. Examples will be presented in the following
chapters.

REFERENCES
Ali, M., Mahmud, T., Heggs, P. J., Ghadiri, M., Djurdjevic, D., Ahmadian, H., Juan,
L. M., Amador, C., and Bayly, A. 2014. A one-dimensional plug flow model
of a counter-current spray drying tower. Chemical Engineering Research and
Design 92:826–41.
Anandharamkrishnan, C., and Padma, I. S. 2015. Spray drying techniques for food
ingredient encapsulation. Oxford: IFT Press/John Wiley & Sons.

26
 Spraying Drying

Atkins, M. J., Walmsley, M. R., and Neale, J. R. 2011. Integrating heat recovery from
milk powder spray dryer exhausts in the dairy industry. Applied Thermal
Engineering 31:2101–6.
Atuonwu, J. C., and Stapley, A. G. F. 2017. Reducing energy consumption in spray
drying by monodisperse droplet generation: Modelling and simulation.
Energy Procedia 213:235–42.
Barbosa-Canovas, G. V., and Vega-Mercado, H. 1996. Dehydration of foods. New
York: Chapman & Hall.
Bazaria, B., and Kumar, P. 2016. Optimization of spray drying parameters for beet-
root juice powder using response surface methodology (RSM). Journal of the
Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 9:1–8.
BETE. 2005. BETE spray dry manual. Greenfield: BETE Fog Nozzle, Inc.
Chegini, G. R., and Ghobadian, B. 2005. Effect of spray drying conditions on phys-
ical properties of orange juice powder. Drying Technology 23:657–68.
Dalmoro, A., Barba, A. A., Lamberti, G., and Amore, M. 2012. Intensifying the micro-
encapsulation process: Ultrasonic atomization as an innovative approach.
European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 80:471–7.
Dalmoro, A., Barba, A. A., and Amore, M. 2013. Analysis of size correlations for
microdroplets produced by ultrasonic atomization. Scientific World Journal
2013:482910.
da Silva, C. R., Martins, E., Pereira Silveira, A. C., Simeao, M., Mendes, A. L.,
Perrone, I. T., Schuck, P., and de Carvalho, A. F. 2016. Thermodynamic char-
acterization of single-stage spray dryers: Mass and energy balances for milk
drying. Drying Technology 15:1791–8.
Estevinho, B. N., Rocha, F., Santos, L., and Alves, A. 2013. Microencapsulation
with chitosan by spray drying for industry applications. A review. Trends in
Food Science and Technology 31:138–55.
Fazaeli, M., Emam-Djomeh, Z., Kalbasi Ashtari, A., and Omid, M. 2012. Effect
of spray drying conditions and feed composition on the physicochemical
properties of black mulberry juice powder. Food and Bioproducts Processing
90:667–75.
Filkova, I., Huang, L. X., and Mujumdar, A. S. 2014. Industrial spray drying sys-
tems. In Handbook of industrial drying, 4th edition, ed. A. S. Mujumdar, 215–57.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Goula, A. M., and Adamopoulos, K. G. 2005a. Spray drying of tomato pulp in
dehumidified air. I: The effect on powder recovery. Journal of Food Engineering
66:25–34.
Goula, A. M., and Adamopoulos, K. G. 2005b. Spray drying of tomato pulp in
dehumidified air. II: The effect on the powder properties. Journal of Food
Engineering 66:35–42.
Harun, N. H., Abdul-Aziz, A., Wan-Zamri, W. M., Rahman, R. A., and Aziz,
R. 2015. Optimization of process parameters for spray drying of Tongkat
Ali extract. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, Special issue on
SOMCHE and RSCE 2014 Conference, 31–41.

27
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

Hede, P. D., Bach, P., and Jensen, A. D. 2008. Two-fluid spray atomisation and
pneumatic nozzles for fluid bed coating/agglomeration purposes: A review.
Chemical Engineering Science 63:3821–42.
Huang, L. X., Kumar, K., and Mujumdar, A. S. 2006. A comparative study of a
spray dryer with rotary disc atomizer and pressure nozzle using compu-
tational fluid dynamic simulations. Chemical Engineering and Processing:
Process Intensification 45:461–70.
Islam, M. Z., Kitamura, Y., Yamano, Y., and Kitamura, M. 2016. Effect of vacuum
spray drying on the physicochemical properties, water sorption and glass
transition phenomenon of orange juice powder. Journal of Food Engineering
169:131–40.
Jumah, R. Y., Tashtoush, B., Shaker, R. R., and Zraiy, A. F. 2000. Manufacturing
parameters and quality characteristics of spray dried jameed. Drying
Technology 18:967–84.
Karel, M., Fennema, O. R., and Lund, D. B. 1995. Physical principles of food preserva-
tion. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Khanji, A. N., Michaux, F., Petit, J., Salameh, D., Rizk, T., Jasniewski, J., and Banon,
S. (2018). Structure, gelation, and antioxidant properties of curcumin-doped
casein micelle powder produced by spray-drying. Food and Function 9:971–81.
Kingwatee, N., Apichartsrangkoon, A., Chaikham, P., Worametrachanon, S.,
Techarung, J., and Pankasemsuk, T. 2015. Spray drying Lactobacillus casei 01
in lychee juice varied carrier materials. LWT - Food Science and Technology
62:847–53.
Kosasih, E. A., Imansyah, I. H., and Ruhyat, N. 2017. Use of a double condenser
in a dehumidifier with a spray dryer for vitamin A extraction in tomato as
a heat-sensitive material. American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings
1855:1–6.
Langrish, U. T. 2009. Applying mass and energy balances to spray drying. Chemical
Engineering Progress 105:30–4.
Lee, E. J., Oh, S. Y., Kim, H. Y., James, S. C., Yoon, S. S. 2010. Measuring air core
characteristics of a pressure-swirl atomizer via a transparent acrylic noz-
zle at various Reynolds numbers. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science
34:1475–83.
Leon-Martinez, F. M., Mendez-Lagunas, L. L., and Rodriguez-Ramirez, J. 2010.
Spray drying of nopal mucilage (Opuntia ficus-indica): Effects on powder
properties and characterization. Carbohydrate Polymers 81:864–70.
Masters, K. 1991. Spray drying handbook, 5th edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Mishra, P., Brahma, A., and Seth, D. 2017. Physicochemical, functionality and stor-
age stability of hog plum (Spondia pinnata) juice powder produced by spray
drying. Journal of Food Science and Technology 54:1052–61.
Movahhed, M. K., and Mohebbi, M. 2016. Spray drying and process optimization
of carrot-celery juice. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 40:212–25.
Mujumdar, A. S. 2014. Principles, classification and selection of dryers. In Handbook of
industrial drying, 4th edition, ed. A. S. Mujumdar, 23–35. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

28
 Spraying Drying

Murali, S., Kar, A., Mohapatra, D., and Kalia, P. 2015. Encapsulation of black carrot
juice using spray and freeze drying. Food Science and Technology International
21:604–12.
Murugesan, R., and Orsat, V. 2012. Spray drying for the production of nutraceuti-
cal ingredients: A review. Food and Bioprocess Technology 5:3–14.
Oberoi, D. P., and Sogi, D. S. 2015. Effect of drying methods and maltodextrin con-
centration on pigment content of watermelon juice powder. Journal of Food
Engineering 165:172–78.
Phisut, N. 2012. Spray drying technique of fruit juice powder: Some factors
influencing the properties of product. International Food Research Journal
19:1297–306.
Razzaq, A., Junaid, M. A., Imtiaz, A., Qureshi, M. M., Ali, A., Malik, A., Qazi, M.
H., and Mahmood, N. 2017. Optimization of spray drying technology to pre-
vent wastage of apricot pulp. Journal of Food, Nutrition and Population Health
1:28–34.
Santhalakshmy, S., Don Bosco, S. J., Sneha, F., and Sabeena, M. 2015. Effect of inlet
temperature on physicochemical properties of spray-dried jamun fruit juice
powder. Powder Technology 274:37–43.
Schmid, K., Arpagaus, C., and Friess, W. 2011. Evaluation of the Nano Spray
Dryer B-90 for pharmaceutical applications. Pharmaceutical Development and
Technology 16:287–94.
Schuck, P., Jeantet, R., Bhandari, B., Chen, X. D., Perrone, I. T., de Carvalho, A. F.,
Fenelon, M., and Kelly, P. 2016. Recent advances in spray drying relevant to
the dairy industry. Drying Technology 15:1773–90.
Shishir, M. R. I., and Chen, W. 2017. Trends in spray drying: A critical review on
drying of fruit and vegetable juices. Trends in Food Science and Technology
65:49–67.
Sungkhaphaitoon, P., Wisutmethangoon, S., and Plookphol, T. 2017. Influence of
process parameters on zinc powder produced by centrifugal atomization.
Materials Research 20:718–24.
Turan, F. T., Cengiz, A., and Kahyaoglu, T. 2016. Evaluation of ultrasonic nozzle
with spray-drying as a novel method for the microencapsulation of blueber-
ry’s bioactive compounds. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies
32:136–45.
van Deventer, H. C., and Heijmans, R. M. 2001. Drying with superheated steam.
Drying Technology 19:2033–45.
Westergaard, V. 2010. Milk powder technology: Evaporation and spray drying.
Copenhagen: GEA-NIRO.
Wisniewski, R. 2015. Spray drying technology review. Proceedings of the 45th
International Conference on Environmental Systems ICES-2015-094, Bellevue,
Washington:1–46.
Wong, T. W., and John, P. 2016. Advances in spray drying technology for nanopar-
ticle formation. In Handbook of nanoparticles, ed. M. Aliofkhazraei, 329–46.
Cham: Springer.

29
Handbook on Spray Drying Applications

Woo, M. W., Rogers, S., Selomulya, C., and Chen, X. D. 2012. Particle drying and
crystallization characteristics in a low velocity co-current pilot scale spray
drying tower. Powder Technology 223:39–45.
Zbicinski, I. 2017. Modeling and scaling up of industrial spray dryers: A review.
Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 50:757–67.
Zhao, Y. 2006. Considerations in designing a centrifugal atomizer for metal pow-
der production. Materials and Design 27:745–50.

30
 REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1
Ali, M., Mahmud, T., Heggs, P. J., Ghadiri, M., Djurdjevic, D., Ahmadian, H., Juan,
L. M., Amador, C., and Bayly, A. 2014. A one-dimensional plug flow model
of a counter-current spray drying tower. Chemical Engineering Research and
Design 92:826–41.
Anandharamkrishnan, C., and Padma, I. S. 2015. Spray drying techniques for food
ingredient encapsulation. Oxford: IFT Press/John Wiley & Sons.
Atkins, M. J., Walmsley, M. R., and Neale, J. R. 2011. Integrating heat recovery from
milk powder spray dryer exhausts in the dairy industry. Applied Thermal
Engineering 31:2101–6.
Atuonwu, J. C., and Stapley, A. G. F. 2017. Reducing energy consumption in spray
drying by monodisperse droplet generation: Modelling and simulation.
Energy Procedia 213:235–42.
Barbosa-Canovas, G. V., and Vega-Mercado, H. 1996. Dehydration of foods. New
York: Chapman & Hall.
Bazaria, B., and Kumar, P. 2016. Optimization of spray drying parameters for beet-
root juice powder using response surface methodology (RSM). Journal of the
Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 9:1–8.
BETE. 2005. BETE spray dry manual. Greenfield: BETE Fog Nozzle, Inc.
Chegini, G. R., and Ghobadian, B. 2005. Effect of spray drying conditions on phys-
ical properties of orange juice powder. Drying Technology 23:657–68.
Dalmoro, A., Barba, A. A., Lamberti, G., and Amore, M. 2012. Intensifying the micro-
encapsulation process: Ultrasonic atomization as an innovative approach.
European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 80:471–7.
Dalmoro, A., Barba, A. A., and Amore, M. 2013. Analysis of size correlations for
microdroplets produced by ultrasonic atomization. Scientific World Journal
2013:482910.
da Silva, C. R., Martins, E., Pereira Silveira, A. C., Simeao, M., Mendes, A. L.,
Perrone, I. T., Schuck, P., and de Carvalho, A. F. 2016. Thermodynamic char-
acterization of single-stage spray dryers: Mass and energy balances for milk
drying. Drying Technology 15:1791–8.
Estevinho, B. N., Rocha, F., Santos, L., and Alves, A. 2013. Microencapsulation
with chitosan by spray drying for industry applications. A review. Trends in
Food Science and Technology 31:138–55.

31
References

Fazaeli, M., Emam-Djomeh, Z., Kalbasi Ashtari, A., and Omid, M. 2012. Effect
of spray drying conditions and feed composition on the physicochemical
properties of black mulberry juice powder. Food and Bioproducts Processing
90:667–75.
Filkova, I., Huang, L. X., and Mujumdar, A. S. 2014. Industrial spray drying sys-
tems. In Handbook of industrial drying, 4th edition, ed. A. S. Mujumdar, 215–57.
Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Goula, A. M., and Adamopoulos, K. G. 2005a. Spray drying of tomato pulp in
dehumidified air. I: The effect on powder recovery. Journal of Food Engineering
66:25–34.
Goula, A. M., and Adamopoulos, K. G. 2005b. Spray drying of tomato pulp in
dehumidified air. II: The effect on the powder properties. Journal of Food
Engineering 66:35–42.
Harun, N. H., Abdul-Aziz, A., Wan-Zamri, W. M., Rahman, R. A., and Aziz,
R. 2015. Optimization of process parameters for spray drying of Tongkat
Ali extract. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, Special issue on
SOMCHE and RSCE 2014 Conference, 31–41.
Hede, P. D., Bach, P., and Jensen, A. D. 2008. Two-fluid spray atomisation and
pneumatic nozzles for fluid bed coating/agglomeration purposes: A review.
Chemical Engineering Science 63:3821–42.
Huang, L. X., Kumar, K., and Mujumdar, A. S. 2006. A comparative study of a
spray dryer with rotary disc atomizer and pressure nozzle using compu-
tational fluid dynamic simulations. Chemical Engineering and Processing:
Process Intensification 45:461–70.
Islam, M. Z., Kitamura, Y., Yamano, Y., and Kitamura, M. 2016. Effect of vacuum
spray drying on the physicochemical properties, water sorption and glass
transition phenomenon of orange juice powder. Journal of Food Engineering
169:131–40.
Jumah, R. Y., Tashtoush, B., Shaker, R. R., and Zraiy, A. F. 2000. Manufacturing
parameters and quality characteristics of spray dried jameed. Drying
Technology 18:967–84.
Karel, M., Fennema, O. R., and Lund, D. B. 1995. Physical principles of food preserva-
tion. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Khanji, A. N., Michaux, F., Petit, J., Salameh, D., Rizk, T., Jasniewski, J., and Banon,
S. (2018). Structure, gelation, and antioxidant properties of curcumin-doped
casein micelle powder produced by spray-drying. Food and Function 9:971–81.
Kingwatee, N., Apichartsrangkoon, A., Chaikham, P., Worametrachanon, S.,
Techarung, J., and Pankasemsuk, T. 2015. Spray drying Lactobacillus casei 01
in lychee juice varied carrier materials. LWT - Food Science and Technology
62:847–53.
Kosasih, E. A., Imansyah, I. H., and Ruhyat, N. 2017. Use of a double condenser
in a dehumidifier with a spray dryer for vitamin A extraction in tomato as
a heat-sensitive material. American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings
1855:1–6.

32
 References

Langrish, U. T. 2009. Applying mass and energy balances to spray drying. Chemical
Engineering Progress 105:30–4.
Lee, E. J., Oh, S. Y., Kim, H. Y., James, S. C., Yoon, S. S. 2010. Measuring air core
characteristics of a pressure-swirl atomizer via a transparent acrylic noz-
zle at various Reynolds numbers. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science
34:1475–83.
Leon-Martinez, F. M., Mendez-Lagunas, L. L., and Rodriguez-Ramirez, J. 2010.
Spray drying of nopal mucilage (Opuntia ficus-indica): Effects on powder
properties and characterization. Carbohydrate Polymers 81:864–70.
Masters, K. 1991. Spray drying handbook, 5th edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Mishra, P., Brahma, A., and Seth, D. 2017. Physicochemical, functionality and stor-
age stability of hog plum (Spondia pinnata) juice powder produced by spray
drying. Journal of Food Science and Technology 54:1052–61.
Movahhed, M. K., and Mohebbi, M. 2016. Spray drying and process optimization
of carrot-celery juice. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 40:212–25.
Mujumdar, A. S. 2014. Principles, classification and selection of dryers. In Handbook of
industrial drying, 4th edition, ed. A. S. Mujumdar, 23–35. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Murali, S., Kar, A., Mohapatra, D., and Kalia, P. 2015. Encapsulation of black carrot
juice using spray and freeze drying. Food Science and Technology International
21:604–12.
Murugesan, R., and Orsat, V. 2012. Spray drying for the production of nutraceuti-
cal ingredients: A review. Food and Bioprocess Technology 5:3–14.
Oberoi, D. P., and Sogi, D. S. 2015. Effect of drying methods and maltodextrin con-
centration on pigment content of watermelon juice powder. Journal of Food
Engineering 165:172–78.
Phisut, N. 2012. Spray drying technique of fruit juice powder: Some factors
influencing the properties of product. International Food Research Journal
19:1297–306.
Razzaq, A., Junaid, M. A., Imtiaz, A., Qureshi, M. M., Ali, A., Malik, A., Qazi, M.
H., and Mahmood, N. 2017. Optimization of spray drying technology to pre-
vent wastage of apricot pulp. Journal of Food, Nutrition and Population Health
1:28–34.
Santhalakshmy, S., Don Bosco, S. J., Sneha, F., and Sabeena, M. 2015. Effect of inlet
temperature on physicochemical properties of spray-dried jamun fruit juice
powder. Powder Technology 274:37–43.
Schmid, K., Arpagaus, C., and Friess, W. 2011. Evaluation of the Nano Spray
Dryer B-90 for pharmaceutical applications. Pharmaceutical Development and
Technology 16:287–94.
Schuck, P., Jeantet, R., Bhandari, B., Chen, X. D., Perrone, I. T., de Carvalho, A. F.,
Fenelon, M., and Kelly, P. 2016. Recent advances in spray drying relevant to
the dairy industry. Drying Technology 15:1773–90.
Shishir, M. R. I., and Chen, W. 2017. Trends in spray drying: A critical review on
drying of fruit and vegetable juices. Trends in Food Science and Technology
65:49–67.

33
References

Sungkhaphaitoon, P., Wisutmethangoon, S., and Plookphol, T. 2017. Influence of

process parameters on zinc powder produced by centrifugal atomization.
Materials Research 20:718–24.
Turan, F. T., Cengiz, A., and Kahyaoglu, T. 2016. Evaluation of ultrasonic nozzle
with spray-drying as a novel method for the microencapsulation of blueber-
ry’s bioactive compounds. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies
32:136–45.
van Deventer, H. C., and Heijmans, R. M. 2001. Drying with superheated steam.
Drying Technology 19:2033–45.
Westergaard, V. 2010. Milk powder technology: Evaporation and spray drying.
Copenhagen: GEA-NIRO.
Wisniewski, R. 2015. Spray drying technology review. Proceedings of the 45th
International Conference on Environmental Systems ICES-2015-094, Bellevue,
Washington:1–46.
Wong, T. W., and John, P. 2016. Advances in spray drying technology for nanopar-
ticle formation. In Handbook of nanoparticles, ed. M. Aliofkhazraei, 329–46.
Cham: Springer.
Woo, M. W., Rogers, S., Selomulya, C., and Chen, X. D. 2012. Particle drying and
crystallization characteristics in a low velocity co-current pilot scale spray
drying tower. Powder Technology 223:39–45.
Zbicinski, I. 2017. Modeling and scaling up of industrial spray dryers: A review.
Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 50:757–67.
Zhao, Y. 2006. Considerations in designing a centrifugal atomizer for metal pow-
der production. Materials and Design 27:745–50.

CHAPTER 2
Adhikari, B. 2003. Drying Kinetics and Stickiness of Single Drop of Sugar and
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Queensland.
Adhikari, B., T. Howes, A.K. Shrestha, and B.R. Bhandari. 2007. Development of
stickiness of whey protein isolate and lactose droplets during convective
drying. Chem. Eng. Process. 46:420–428.
Adhikari, B., T. Howes, B.R. Bhandari, and T.A.G. Langrish. 2009a. Effect of addi-
tion of proteins on the production of amorphous sucrose powder through
spray drying. J. Food Eng. 94:144–153.
Adhikari, B., T. Howes, B.J. Wood, and B.R. Bhandari. 2009b. The effect of low
molecular weight surfactants and proteins on surface stickiness of sucrose
during powder formation through spray drying. J. Food Eng. 94:135–143.
Adhikari, B., T. Howes, B.R. Bhandari, and V. Truong. 2003. Characterization of
the surface stickiness of fructose-maltodextrin solutions during drying.
Drying Technol. 21:17–34.

34
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Abe, F., Miyauchi, H., Uchijima, A., Yaeshima, T., Iwatsuki, K. 2009. Effects of stor-
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CHAPTER 11
Akhavan Mahdavi, S., S.M. Jafari, E. Assadpoor, and D. Dehnad. 2016. Microen­
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